I' 


PRINCETON,  N..J. 


No.  Cas(^,_^  ^J^fe 
No.  Shelf, ^^.: 

No.  Book, v 

W 


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— .   ■-■■J  l*.-«M' 


The  John  M.  Krebs  Donation. 


vafV 


BR  165  .C65  1841   c.l 
Coleman,  Lyman,  1796-1882, 
The  antiquities  of  the 
Christian  church 


THE 


ANTIQUITIES 


THE  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH 


TRANSLATED  AND  COMPILED 


THE  WORKS  OF  ATJQXJSTI,  WITH  NUMEROUS  ADDITIONS  FROM 
RHEINWALD,  SIEGEL,  AND  OTHERS. 


BY 

REV.  LYMAN  COLEMAN. 


ANDOVER: 

GOULD,  NEWMAN   &   SAXTON. 

NEW  YORK : 

CORNER  OF  FULTON  AND  NASSAU  STS. 

BOSTON  :   TAPPAN  &;  DENNETT — GOULD,  KENDALL  &  LINCOLN. 
PHILADELPHIA  :  HENRY  PERKINS. 

1841. 


Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress  in  the  year  1841,  by 

LYMAN  COLEMAN, 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Massachusetts. 


PREFACE. 


In  preparing  the  following  summary  of  the  rites  and  institutions 
of  Ancient  Christianity,  the  author  has  sought  to  make  it  intelligible 
to  the  English  reader ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  present  to  the  theo- 
logical student  a  convenient  book  of  reference,  and  to  the  scholar 
and  antiquary  a  guide  in  his  more  extended  and  original  investigations. 

German  authors,  with  a  provoking  reliance  upon  the  scholarship 
of  those  who  may  consult  their  pages,  are  accustomed  to  overspread 
them  with  original  quotations  from  the  dead  languages,  and  refer- 
ences to  writers  in  every  tongue,  so  that  even  the  practised  scholar 
but  darkly  threads  his  way  through  the  endless  mazes  of  their  works. 
Much  therefore  remains  for  humbler  minds  in  selecting,  arranging, 
translating  and  condensing,  before  the  researches  of  these  great  men 
can  be  made  available  to  the  mass  of  the  reading  public.  This  task,  in 
the  absence  of  a  better  work,  has  been  attempted  in  the  preparation  of 
the  following  pages ;  and  in  the  execution  of  it  the  author  has  endea- 
vored to  perform  the  service  only  of  a  translator  and  compiler. 

In  the  fulfilment  of  this  duty,  the  original  authorities,  when  in- 
troduced into  the  text,  are  followed  by  a  translation  ;  but  more  fre- 
quently they  are  transferred  to  the  margin  in  the  form  of  notes,  or 
dismissed  with  a  reference  to  the  works  from  which  they  were 
taken,  according  as  Iheir  importance  seemed  to  require  ;  and  all  for 
the  purpose  of  presenting  to  the  eye  of  the  reader  a  fair  English  page. 

For  the  same  general  reasons,  the  references  are  all  brought  to- 
gether in  an  index  at  the  end.  These  references,  in  the  original, 
are  accumulated  to  an  excess  even  for  German  scholarship  and 
scholastic  affectation.  Of  these  very  many  have  been  omitted,  but 
enough,  it  is  believed,  are  retained,  not  only  to  direct  to  sufficient 


4  PREFACE. 

original  authorities,  but  to  satisfy  the  largest  desires  even  of  the  an- 
tiquary or  the  scholar. 

From  the  rich  and  abundant  materials  which  August!  has  fur- 
nished, it  has  been  a  difficult  task  to  decide  what  to  select,  and  what 
to  omit ;  and  from  the  parts  selected,  it  has  been  one  of  equal  diffi- 
culty so  to  abridge  as  to  preserve  a  just  medium  between  a  tedious 
detail  and  a  barren  abstract.  In  the  progress  of  this  work,  how- 
ever, other  writers  on  the  same  and  kindred  subjects  have  been 
freely  consulted,  to  supply,  in  some  instances,  the  omissions  and  de- 
ficiencies of  Augusti,  and  in  others,  to  enrich  the  following  pages 
with  the  combined  results  of  diflerent  authors.  Compilations  have 
been  freely  gathered  from  many  sources,  and  incorporated  with  the 
work  in  hand.  The  works  especially  of  Rheinwald,  and  Siegel,  to- 
gether with  those  of  Neander,  Gieseler,  and  others,  have  been  laid 
under  contribution  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  With  the  two  first 
mentioned,  the  several  subjects  in  their  order  have  been  compared 
with  more  or  less  care,  and  numerous  compilations  from  them  are 
embodied  in  the  work. 

In  making  these  compilations,  the  course  pursued  has  been  to  go 
through  with  an  abridgment  of  a  given  article  from  Augusti,  and  then 
to  compare  it  with  these  authorities,  such  additions  and  corrections 
being  made  as  the  subject  seemed  to  require.  These  additions, 
when  of  any  considerable  extent,  are  distinguished  as  quotations  with 
appropriate  references,  or  introduced  with  preliminary  remarks  in- 
dicating the  source  from  whence  they  are  derived.  In  other  in- 
stances, additional  or  qualifying  words  and  sentences  have  been  si- 
lently entered  without  any  formal  acknowledgment.  In  all  this  the 
compiler  has  considerably  increased  the  labor  and  responsibility 
which  devolved  upon  him  ;  but  the  work,  it  is  believed,  has  by  this 
means  been  rendered  more  complete  and  valuable.  It  is  important 
farther  to  remark  that  the  larger  work  of  Augusti  has  been  freely 
consulted,  and  in  several  instances  entire  articles  have  been  trans- 
lated or  abridged  directly  from  it.     At  other  times  the  order  of  the 


PREFACE.  O 

sentences  and  paragraphs  has  been  transposed  as  occasion  required. 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  the  above  explanations  should  be 
borne  in  mind  in  making  a  comparison  of  this  abridgement  and  com- 
pilation with  the  originals. 

The  reader  will  not  expect  in  this  volume  a  close  or  literal  trans- 
lation ;  the  work,  however,  has  been  executed  with  a  constant  en- 
deavor to  give  a  fair  and  faithful  interpretation  of  the  author,  and, 
on  important  or  disputed  points,  to  give  it  in  terms  as  literal  as  the 
idioms  of  our  language  would  admit.  In  other  instances  merely  the 
results  of  the  author  are  given  with  references,  to  the  original 
sources  from  which  he  has  derived  his  authorities.  And  at  other 
times,  the  substance  of  his  researches  and  conclusions  is  presented 
in  language  appropriately  our  own. 

After  having  advanced  far  towards  the  completion  of  his  task,  the 
compiler  obtained  a  copy  of  Riddle's  Manual  of  Christian  Antiqui- 
ties. This  work  is  an  abridged  translation  from  Augusti,  with  occa- 
sional compilations  from  Siegel,  and  copious  extracts  from  Bingham. 
The  work,  though  executed  with  candor  and  ability,  is  unsuited  for 
the  American  public,  and  too  expensive  for  general  circulation. 
The  compiler  however  acknowledges  himself  under  many  obliga- 
tions to  this  author  in  the  revision  and  correction  of  his  own  transla- 
tions. The  translation  from  Siegel  on  the  Agapae,  or  love-feasts  of 
the  primitive  church,  in  the  following  pages,  is  transferred  entire 
from  that  work.  The  article  on  Prayers  for  the  Dead  is  also  from 
his  hand,  together  with  various  extracts,  in  different  parts  of  the  fol- 
lowing work,  of  which  the  most  important  are  acknowledged  in  their 
proper  place. 

Jamieson  on  the  Manners  and  Trials  of  the  primitive  Christians 
came  to  hand  just  as  this  work  was  going  to  the  press.  From  this 
work  various  extracts  have  been  made  by  way  of  recapitulation, 
though  at  the  hazard  of  being  occasionally  repetitious.  These  ex- 
tracts give  a  brief  and  popular  view  of  the  topics  which  have  been 
previously  treated  of  in  a  manner  more  methodical  and  minute. 


b  PBEFACE. 

His  reputation  as  a  distinguished  preacher  in  Edinburgh  entitles  this 
treatise  to  the  confidence  of  the  reader,  especially  when  informed  by 
the  author  himself  that  he  "  has  with  minute  and  patient  industry 
tested  almost  every  statement  contained  in  his  book  with  the  original 
authorities."  The  chapter  on  the  Domestic  and  Social  Character  of 
the  Primitive  Christians  is  compiled  chiefly  from  this  work. 

The  Plan  of  churches  and  the  Chronological  Index  are  from  Ehein- 
trald.  The  reader  will  here  find  a  valuable  compend  of  the  histori- 
cal events  connected  with  the  antiquities  of  the  church,  in  which  the 
successive  stages  of  departure  from  the  simplicity  and  purity  of 
primitive  worship  are  distinctly  stated,  in  connection  with  the  con- 
temporary authors  and  rulers  in  church  and  state,  who  were  instru- 
mental either  in  introducing  or  opposing  these  innovations. 

The  critical  observer  will  notice  some  confusion  in  the  accentua- 
tion of  oxytone  words  in  the  Greek  language.  The  accents  were 
incautiously  copied  as  found  on  the  pages  of  Augusti,  and  the  print- 
ing had  advanced  some  distance  before  the  more  approved  mode  of 
the  accentuation  of  such  individual  words  was  adopted. 

The  chapter  on  the  Sacred  Seasons  of  the  Puritans  supplies  an 
obvious  deficiency  in  the  history  of  our  forefathers,  and  will,  no 
doubt,  be  received  as  a  valuable  addition  to  this  work,  and  an  impor- 
tant contribution  to  our  own  ecclesiastical  history. 

The  account  of  the  religious  rites  of  the  Armenian  church  from 
Eev.  H.  G.  O.  Dwight,  missionaiy  at  Constantinople,  cannot  fail  to 
interest  the  christian  reader,  while  it  reveals  to  him,  through  the 
dimness  of  a  high  antiquity,  the  customs  of  the  primitive  church. 

This  work  v/as  undertaken  with  the  hope  that  it  would,  in  some 
measure,  supply  a  great  deficiency  in  our  ecclesiastical  literature, 
and  serve  to  direct  the  attention  of  the  public  to  this  neglected 
branch  of  study.  Many  topics  of  great  interest  relating  to  the  rites, 
institutions  and  authority  of  the  ancient  church,  are  now  the  subject  of 
earnest  controversy  in  England,  and  of  eager  inquiry  in  this  country. 
Ancient  Christianity  is  destined,  in  both  countries,  to  be  severely 


PREFACE.  7 

scrutinized  anew,  and  its  merits  sharply  contested.  And  this  conside- 
ration presents  one  reason  among  many  for  offering  this  publication, 
at  the  present  time,  to  the  service  of  the  public.  But  the  various 
reasons,  which  recommend  the  study  of  Christian  Antiquities  to  the 
attention  of  the  public,  are  clearly  exhibited  by  the  Rev.  Prof.  Sears, 
in  the  Introduction  which  he  has  very  kindly  prepared  for  this  work. 
The  reader  is  there  presented  with  the  views  of  an  eminent  scholar, 
thoroughly  familiar  with  the  researches  of  German  authors  on  this 
subject,  and  fully  qualified  to  speak  of  their  comparative  merits, 
and  of  the  importance  of  this  department  of  sacred  literature. 

It  only  remains  to  render  my  grateful  acknowledgments  to  this 
gentleman  not  only  for  his  valuable  contributions  to  this  work,  but 
for  his  advice  and  assistance  which  in  the  progress  of  it  have  been 
as  kindly  given  as  it  has  been  freely  sought.  Similar  acknowledg- 
ments are  also  due  to  the  Rev.  Prof.  Edwards,  of  this  place,  for  like 
offices  of  kindness  and  assistance,  in  these  protracted  labors  which 
are  now  drawing  to  a  close. 

Conscious  of  having  labored  diligently  to  prepare  a  compend  of 
this  interesting  branch  of  the  history  of  the  church,  that  shall  be  at 
once  acceptable  and  useful  in  disclosing  the  sources  from  which  the 
venerable  institutions  of  our  religion  are  derived,  and  in  delineating 
the  virtues  of  those  holy  men  from  whom  they  have  been  transmit- 
ted down  to  us,  I  now  commit  it,  with  all  its  deficiencies,  to  the 
charitable  consideration  of  the  public,  and  await  in  submission  the 
result  of  their  decision. 

Andover^  Jlpril,  1841. 


NOTE. 

The  Print  upon  the  back  of  this  volume  is  a  copy  of  an  ancient  christian 
coin.  The  monogram  at  the  top,  is  formed  by  blending  the  Greek  capitals 
X,  P,  the  initial  letters  of  the  word  XQiaro?,  Christ ;  which,  with  the  prim- 
itive Christians,  was  the  most  sacred  name  of  our  Lord.  This  device  is  of 
very  ancient  date.  It  was  their  favorite  emblem  of  our  Saviour's  name, 
which  they  not  only  engraved  upon  their  tombs,  and  upon  the  walls  of  their 
cemeteries,  but  they  caused  it  to  be  impressed  upon  coins  and  medals  which 
they  wore  upon  their  breasts  as  sacred  memorials  of  their  Lord.  Constan- 
tine  adopted  it  as  the  emblem  of  his  victorious  banner  under  which  he  led 
on  the  conquests  of  the  cross. 

This  banner,  called  the  labarum,  is  described  as  a  long  pike  intersected  by 
a  transverse  beam  in  the  form  of  a  cross.  The  silken  veil  which  hung  down 
from  this  beam,  was  curiously  inwrought  with  the  images  of  the  monarch 
and  his  sons.  The  summit  of  the  pike  supported  a  crown  of  gold  which  en- 
closed this  mysterious  monogram.  In  the  print  before  us,  it  rests  upon  a 
cross  from  which  is  suspended  the  veil  of  the  labarum.  At  the  foot  lies  a 
dead  serpent,  emblem  of  the  great  deceiver  crushed  by  the  cross  of  Christ. 
The  whole,  therefore,  combines  the  expressive  emblems  both  of  the  fall  and 
recovery  of  man.  The  motto,  Spes  Pubuca,  points  to  the  cross  as  the  hope 
of  a  lost  world.  Constantine  caused  this  device  to  be  painted  upon  the  ves- 
tibule of  his  palace  and  to  be  imprinted  on  the  coin  of  his  kingdom.  These 
coins  are  now  extremely  rare  ;  but  they  continued  in  common  use  through 
the  reigns  of  several  succeeding  emperors. — .^ringhi,  Roma  Subterranea,  torn, 
ii.  pp.  566,  705^j  Eckhel,  Doctrina  Mtm.  Vet.  4.  torn.  viii.  p.  88. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PLATES. 


J.  Church  of  St.  Sophia,  Constantinople. 

1.  A  Font  of  water,  where  the  worshippers  wash  before ''entering^the 
church. — 2.  The  Great  Porch,  probably  having  a  portico  or  vestibule  in  front. 
— 3.  Entrance  into  the  Narthex. — 4.  The  Narthex. — 5.  Entrance  into  the 
church. — 6.  The  Inner  Porch. — 7.  Entrance  into  the  Nave. — 8.  Entrance  to 
court  surrounding  the  Nave.— 9.  The  Court.— 10.  The  Nave.— 10.  a)  The 
Solea. — 10.  b)  Probable  site  of  the  Ambo. — 11.  Pillars  supporting  the  Galle- 
ry.— 12. — The  Chancel  surrounding  the  Choir,  or  Sanctuary. — 13.  Entrance 
to  the  Sanctuary. — 14.  The  Sanctuary. — 1.5.  The  Altar. — 16.  The  Canopy 
of  the  Altar. — 17.  The  bishop's  Throne. — 18.  The  Seats  of  the  presbyters. — 
19.  The  emperor's  Throne. — 20.  Apartments  for  the  Utensils  of  the  church. 
— 21.  Passage  from  the  church. 

II.    St.  Paul's  Church  at  Rome. 

1,  Entrance  to  the  Porch,  or  the  Vestibule. — 2.  The  Porch. — 3.  The  Nave 
divided  into  five  parts  by  rows  of  pillars. — 4.  The  Choir,  Bema,  or  Sanctua- 
ry.— 5.  The  Altar. — 6.  The  bishop's  Throne. 

III.   Church  at  Tyre. 

1.  Entrance  to  the  Porch,  or  the  Vestibule. — 2.  The  Porch. — 3.  Pillars  of 
the  porch. — 4.  Font  of  water. — 5.  Doors  of  the  church. — 6.  The  Nave. — 
7.  Probable  site  of  the  Ambo. — 8.  Ascent  to  the  sanctuary. — 9.  Chancel  of 

the  sanctuary. — 10.  The   Sanctuary. 11.  The  Altar. 12.  The  bishop's 

Throne, — 13.  Tlie  Seats  of  the  presbyters. — 14  a.  Supposed  to  be  the  Bap- 
tistery.— 14.  The  Oixoi,  or  Ante-chambers. — 15. — The  Exedrae. 

IV.   Church  of  St.  Clement  at  Rome. 

1.  Entrance,  with  four  pillars  supporting  the  piazza. — 2.  The  Portico,  or 
Vestibule. — 3.  The  Porch. — 4.  Entrance  to  the  church. — 5.  The  Nave  in 
three  divisions. — 6,  7.  Two  Ambos  within  one  enclosure,  surrounded  by  the 

nave. — 8.  The  Altar  with  pillars. — 9.  Bishop's  Throne. 10.  Presbyters' 

Seats. 

V.  The  Baptistery  of  St.  Sophia. 

1.  Stairway  leading  to  the  entrance. — 2.  Front  Porch,  or  Vestibule. — 3. 
The  Basement-room  of  the  baptistery. — 4.  The  First  Story. — 5.  Pillars  in 
the  basement. — 6.  Ascent  to  the  font. — 7.  The  baptismal  Font. — 8.  The 
Court  of  the  baptistery. 


11 


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CONTENTS. 


Page. 
Introduction, 17 

CHAPTER  1. 

A  General  View  of  the  Organization  and  Worship  of  the  Primi- 
tive Church. 

Sec.  1.  Accounts  from  Jewish  and  profane  authors,  ...  25 

2.  Origin  of  the  christian  church,       ......  32 

3.  Peculiarities  of  the  christian  system, 34 

4.  Of  the  secret  discipline,  the   disciplina  arcani,  of  the  ancient 

church,  apostolical  constitutions,  etc.         ....  35 

CHAPTER  II. 

Names  and  Classes  of  Christians. 

Sec  1.  Scriptural  appellations  and  names  assumed  by  Christians,   .  39 

2.  Names  of  reproach  and  derision  conferred  on  Christians  by 

their  enemies, 43 

3.  Division  and  classification  of  Christians,       ,         .         .         ,  45 

4.  Of  the  christian  church, 47 

5.  Of  catechumens, 49 

6.  Of  believers,  or  the  faithful, 57 

7.  Of  Penitents, 61 

8.  Of  energumens,  or  demoniacs,       ......  61 

9.  Ascetics,  coenobites,  monks,  and  fraternities,       ...  62 

CHAPTER  in. 
Of  the  Ministers  of  the  Church. 


Sec  1.  Of  the  clergy  and  the  laity, 66 

2.  General  remarks  upon  the  different  orders  and  classes  of  the 

clergy,       ..... 

3.  Of  the  episcopal  form  of  religion, 

4.  Official  duties  of  the  bishop, 

5.  Of  the  insignia  of  the  bishop, 

6.  Of  the  several  orders  of  bishops,   . 

2 


10  CONTENTS. 

I.  Superior  order, 84 

II.  Inferior  order, 90 

7.  Of  presbyters,  their  equality  and  identity  with  bishops,       .  94 

8.  Official  duties  of  presbyters, 103 

9.  Different  orders  or  classes  of  presbyters,     ....  106 

10.  Of  the  rank  and  duties  of  deacons, 107 

11.  Of  the  archdeacons, 113 

12.  Of  deaconesses, 115 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Of  the  Inferior  Officers  of  the  Church. 

Sxc.  1.  Of  subdeacons,    .........  119 

2.  Of  readers, 120 

3.  Of  acolyths, 121 

4.  Of  exorcists, 122 

5.  Of  singers,  or  precentors,             123 

6.  Of  ostiarii,  or  door-keepers, 125 

7.  Of  the  subordinate  officers  of  the  church  and  of  the  clergy,  125 

a)  Copiatae,  sextons,         . 125 

b)  Parabolani, 126 

c)  Sacrista,        .........  126 

d)  The  custos,  or  aedituus, 126 

e)  The  campanarii,  bell-ringers, 126 

f)  The  matricularii,          .......  126 

g)  The  parafrenarii,           .......  126 

8.  Of  the  occasional  officers  of  the  church,  who  ranked  with  the 

clergy, 127 

a)  Catechists, 127 

b)  Cappellani, 127 

c)  Hermaneutae,  interpreters, 128 

9.  Officers  not  belonging  to  the  clergy,           .         .         ...  128 

a)  Mansionarii, 128 

b)  Otxovofiotj  stewards,              128 

c)  Cimeliarchs,  treasurers, 129 

d)  Notarii,  scribes,    ........  129 

e)  Apocrisiarii,  responsales, 130 

g)  Syncelli, .         .         .  130 

h)  Syndici,        .........  130 

i)  Patroni,        . 130 

CHAPTER  V. 

Appointment  to  Ecclesiastical  Offices. 

Skc.  1.  Of  election  by  lot, 131 

2.  Of  election  by  the  church  coUectively,        ....  131 


CONTENTS. 


11 


3.  Of  election  by  representatives,  or  interventors,  .        .  135 

4.  Of  unusual  forms  of  election, 137 

5.  Of  church  patronage, 138 


CHAPTER  VI. 
Of  the  Rank,  Rights,  Privileges,  and  Costume  of  the  Clergy. 

Sec.  1.  Of  the   rank  of  the  clergy, 140 

2.  Of  the  immunities,  rights,  and  privileges  of  the  priesthood,  142 

3.  Of  the  costume  of  the  clergy, 


144 


CHAPTER  Vn. 

Of  the  Revenue  of  the  Church,  and  Maintenance  of  the 
Clergy, 


148 


CHAPTER  Vni. 
Of  Ordination. 

Sec.  1.  Remarks,     .        .        • 

2.  Disqualifications  and  qualifications  for  ordination, 

3.  Administration   of  the  rite, 

4.  Remarks  of  Chrysostorn,  Jerome,  and  Gregory  Nazianzen  rela- 

ting to  the  character  and  duties  of  christian  ministers,      . 

5.  Punishment  of  delinquents, 


152 

153 

158 

161 
173 


CHAPTER  IX. 
Of  Churches  and  Sacred  Places 


Sec  1, 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6, 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12 
13, 

14. 


History  of  Churches, 
Form,  site,  and  position  of  churches, 
Arrangement,  and   constituent  parts. 
Of  the  bema,  or  sanctuary. 

Of  the  nave, 

Of  the  narthex,  or  ante-temple. 
Of  the  outer  buildings,  or  exedrae, 
Of  towers,  bells,  and  organs, 

Of  the  altar, 

Of  the  doors  of  the  church, 

Of  the  pavements  and  walls. 

Of  the  windows  of  the  church, 

Veneration  in  which  churches  were  held,  and  the  privileg( 

tached  to  them,  .... 

Churches  as  a  place  of  refuge,     . 


es  at- 


176 
180 
181 
182 
183 
185 
188 
190 
192 
194 
195 
195 

197 
199 


12 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  X. 

Of  the  Prayers  and  Psalmody  of  the  Church. 


Sec.  1.  Preliminary  remarks,  .         .         .        , 

2.  The  Unity  and  the  Trinity  of  the  Godhead, 

tions  of  the  ancient  church, 

3.  Divine  worship  paid  to  Christ,     . 

4.  Worship  of  martyrs,  saints,  and  angels, 

5.  Filial  spirit  of  the  prayers  of  the  church, 

6.  Simplicity  and  brevity  of  their  devotions, 

7.  Catholic  spirit  of  their   worship, 

8.  Audible  and  silent  prayer,    . 

9.  Of  the  Lord's  prayer, 

10.  Of  the  responses.  Amen,  Hallelujah,  etc. 

11.  Of  the  psalmody  of  the  church, 

12.  Attitude  and  gesture  in  singing,  and  in  prayer, 


mplied  in  the  devo- 


201 

203 
205 
206 
209 
210 
210 
211 
212 
218 
221 
222 


CHAPTER  XI. 
Use  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  in  religious  worship. 

Sec.  1.  Preliminary  remarks, 228 

2.  Of  the  order  in  which  the  Scriptures  were  read,  .         .  230 

3.  Mode  of  designating  the  divisions  and  lessons,    .         .         .  231 

4.  Of  the  manner  in  which  the  Scriptures  were  read,  and  other  ex- 

ercises in  connection, .  232 

5.  Of  the  Psalter, 234 

6.  Of  the  Pericopae, 234 


CHAPTER  Xll. 
Of  Homilies. 

Sec.  1.  General  remarks,  names,  etc 237 

2.  By  whom  the  homilies  were  delivered,  ....  239 

3.  Of  the  frequency  of  sermons, 241 

4.  Time  allotted  for  the  delivery  of  the  sermon,       .         .         .  242 

5.  Of  the  position  of  the  speaker, 242 

6.  Attitude  of  the  speaker,  mode  of  delivery,  deportment  of  the 

audience,  etc. 243 

7.  Of  the  construction  of  the  sermon,       .         ....  244 

8.  Of  the  subjects  of  discourse,        .        .         ....  246 


CHAPTER  Xlll. 
Of  Catechetical  Instructions, 


252 


CONTENTS. 


13 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
Of  Baptism. 

Sec.  1.  Names  by  which  the  ordinance  is  designated, 

2.  Historical  sketch, 

3.  Infant  baptism,     . 

4.  Ministers  of  baptism, 

5.  Times  of  baptism, 

6.  Place  of  baptism, 

7.  Element  for  baptism, 

8.  Mode  and  form  of  baptism, 

9.  Rites  connected  with  baptism, 

a)  Ceremonies  before  baptism, 

b)  Ceremonies  after  baptism. 
Recapitulation, 

10.  Of  sponsors, 

11.  Of  names  given  at  baptism, 


255 
256 
258 
269 
271 
273 
274 
275 
278 
278 
281 
282 
284 
287 


CHAPTER  XV. 
Of  Confirmation. 

Sec  1.  Whether  derived  from  apostolic  usage, 

2.  Confirmation  in  connection  with  baptism, 

3.  Ministers  of  confirmation,    . 

4.  Administration  of  the  rite. 


288 
289 
290 
291 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

Of  the  Lord's  Supper, 

Sec.  1.  Names  or  appellations  of  the  sacrament, 

2.  Scriptural  account  of  the  Lord's  supper, 

3.  Testimony  of  pagan  writers, 

4.  Testimony  of  apostolical  fathers, 

5.  Times  of  celebration, 

6.  Place  of  celebration, 

7.  Ministers  of  the  Lord's  supper, 

8.  Of  the  communicants, 

9.  Of  the  elements, 

10.  Consecration  of  the  elements,     . 

11.  Distribution  of  the  elements, 

12.  Accompanying  rites,  . 

13.  Of  the  agapae,  or  feasts  of  charity, 

14.  Sacramental  utensils, 


292 
298 
300 
300 
304 
306 
307 
308 
314 
317 
317 
323 
325 
329 


14  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XVII. 
Of  the  Discipline  of  the  Ancient  Church. 

Sec.  1.  Preliminary  remarks, 330 

2.  Origin  of  penance,       ........  332 

3.  Subject  of  penance,  or  offences  for  which  it  was  imposed,  337 

4.  Different  classes  of  penitents, 338 

5.  Duties  of  penitents,  and  the  discipline  imposed;  or  the  different 

kinds  and  degrees  of  penance, 340 

6.  Re-admission  of  penitents  into  the  church,         .         .         .  342 

7.  Private  penance, 344 

8.  Recapitulation, 347 

9.  Of  councils, 356 

CHAPTER  XVHI. 
Domestic  and  Social  Character  of  the  Primitive  Christians. 
Sec.  1.  Of  their  mode  of  life, 


367 
369 
371 

375 
378 
379 
382 
384 
386 
394 
397 


2.  Of  their  dress  and  furniture,       ..... 

3.  Of  their  diet  and  mode  of  taking  their  meals,     . 

4.  Of  their  daily  devotions,      ...... 

5.  Religious  education  of  their  children, 

6.  Sign  of  the  cross,         ....... 

7.  Their  deportment  in  the  business  and  recreations  of  life, 

8.  Their  mutual  love  and  concord,  .... 

9.  Their  benevolence, 

10.  Their  hospitality  and  mode  of  salutation, 

11.  Their  patience  under  injuries, 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

Of  Marriage. 
Sec.  1.  Of  christian  marriage, 399 

2.  Of  divorce, 401 

3.  Marriage  rites  and  ceremonies, 4U2 

4.  Remarks  upon  the  marriage  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  ancient 

church, 405 

CHAPTER  XX. 

Funeral  Rites  and  Ceremonies. 

Sec.  1.  Treatment  of  the  dead, 408 

2.  Affection  for  the  dying, 411 

3.  Funeral  solemnities,             412 

4.  Of  mourners, 414 

5.  Prayers  for  the  dead, 417 

6.  Cemeteries  of  the  early  Christians, 421 


CONTENTS. 


15 


CHAPTER  XXI. 
Sacred  Seasons,  Festivals  akd  Fasts. 

Sec.  1.  Preliminary  remarks, 423 

2.  Of  the  sabbath, 428 

3.  General  view  of  the  sacred  seasons,  and  of  the  period  of  the 

three  great  festivals, 432 

4.  Christmas,  the  festival  of  Christ's  nativity,         .         .         .  434 

5.  Easter,  commemorative  of  the  death  and  resurrection  of  our 

Lord, 436 

6.  Pentecost,  or  "Whitsunday, 439 

7.  Festivals  in  honor  of  the  virgin  Mary,        ....  440 

8.  Festivals  in  honor  of  the  martyrs, 441 

9.  St.  John's  day, 442 

10.  Of  the  apostles' days, 442 

11.  OfFasts, 444 

CHAPTER  XXn. 

Sacred  Seasons  of  the  Puritans. 

1.  Preliminary  Remarks, 446 

2.  Reasons  for  such  days, 447 

3.  Continuance, 449 

4.  Mode  of  their  appointment, 452 

5.  Penalties, 457 

6.  Periodical  observance, 459 

7.  Observance  by  other  States, 464 

CHAPTER  XXni. 
Of  the  Armemian  Church. 

1.  Origin  and  progress, 466 

2.  Church  officers  and  government, 468 

3.  ^octrines, 470 

4.  Forms  of  worship,  festivals,  etc. 472 

Index  of  Authorities, .        .        .  475 

Chronological  List  of  Councils,        ......  527 

Chronological  Index,           . 528 

General  Index, 543 


INTRODUCTION.  ^^"^'M-^   ''^      '''^' 


The  subject  of  Christian  Antiquities  will  be  variously  regarded  by 
different  individuals  according  to  their  religious  creeds  and  their  in- 
tellectual habits  and  tastes.  He  who  regards  the  church  as  the 
source  of  religious  knowledge,  and  its  doctrines  and  rites  as  revela- 
tions of  the  will  of  God,  would,  of  course,  study  the  history  of  these 
doctrines  and  of  these  riles  with  as  much  earnestness  and  zeal  as  he 
would  study  the  Scriptures  themselves.  This  will  best  account  for 
the  fondness  which  learned  men  in  the  Catholic  church  have  always 
shown  for  ecclesiastical  antiquities. 

Protestants  have  generally  contemplated  the  subject  under  quite 
a  different  aspect.  With  them  the  voice  of  the  church  has  no  au- 
thority coordinate  with  that  of  the  Bible.  Their  interest  in  the  anti- 
quities of  the  church  arises  from  other  considerations.  For  them 
the  sentiments  and  practices  of  the  early  church  have  a  theological 
importance  only  so  far  as  they  serve  to  illustrate  the  sentiments  and 
practices  of  the  inspired  writers.  Hence  they  have  been  interested 
to  show  the  gradual  departure  of  the  early  church  from  the  purity 
and  simplicity  of  the  apostolic  age,  and  to  point  out  the  late  origin  of 
many  things  which  others  had  regarded  as  descending  from  the 
primitive  apostolical  church. 

The  English  church,  occupying  intermediate  ground  between  the 
Catholics  and  Protestants,  in  this  respect,  have  leaned  quite  as  much 
to  the  former  as  to  the  latter  ;  and  this  is  in  perfect  consistency 
with  the  principles  of  reform  originally  adopted  by  that  church. 

We  have  alluded  to  these  circumstances  for  no  other  purpose  than 
that  of  tracing  out  the  causes  of  the  obvious  diversity  that  exists 
among  the  older  writers  in  their  mode  of  treating  this  subject.  In 
respect  to  the  end  which  they  have  had  in  view,  they  may  be  divi- 
ded into  three  general  classes  according  to  their  ecclesiastical  rela- 
tions. The  different,  and  often  opposite  considerations  which  have  in- 
spired their  zeal,  could  not  fail  to  give  a  peculiar  feature  to  their 
works.  While  the  individual  writers  of  each  of  the  three  classes  men- 
3 


18  INTEODUCTIOIM. 

tioned  above  have  had  their  individual  peculiarities,  with  an  almost 
endless  variety  in  regard  to  ability,  learning,  and  candor,  they  have, 
in  general,  been  either  warm  polemics,  or  laborious  apologists  for 
their  respective  parties.  Even  where  this  feature  is  less  obvious,  there 
is  a  peculiar  spirit  and  manner  manifested  in  the  topics  selected,  and 
in  the  relative  importance  attached  to  each,  betraying  the  author's  ec- 
clesiastical preferences.  Hence  the  solemn  awe  and  tedious  minute- 
ness with  which  the  Catholic  writer  describes  the  veriest  trifles ;  the 
belligerent  manner  in  which  the  Protestant,  whether  Lutheran  or 
Calvinistic,  musters  his  forces,  using  the  weapons  of  the  antiquary 
chiefly,  perhaps,  because  others  have  abused  them  ;  and  the  plea- 
sure with  which  the  English  churchman  approaches  the  subject  of 
the  clerical  orders  and  the  venerable  liturgy. 

Far  be  it  from  us  harshly  to  censure  those  great  men,  and  profound 
scholars,  of  different  parties  who  lived  in  the  age  of  theological  war- 
fare, or  to  cast  reproach  upon  any  one  class  of  them.  Still  we  must 
maintain  that  they  have  all  gone  out  of  the  way,  some  from  the  vio- 
lence of  their  own  passions,  and  more,  we  would  hope,  from  the  agi- 
tations of  the  times  on  which  they  were  cast. 

We  are  happy  in  the  belief  that  we  live  in  an  age  when  it  need 
not  be  argued  that  the  zeal  of  the  partizan  is  worse  than  useless  to 
the  historian.  The  antiquities  of  the  church,  no  less  than  other  sub- 
jects, must  and  will  be  studied  with  the  calm  spirit  of  philosophic  in- 
quiry. The  spirit  of  the  Magdeburg  Centuriators  is  passing  away,  at 
least  in  the  literary  and  scientific  world,  and  a  purer  and  nobler  or- 
der of  historians  is  rising  up  to  adorn  and  bless  the  church.  Impar- 
tialily  is  now  the  watch-word  through  all  the  higher  ranks  of  scien- 
tific historical  inquirers. 

There  is  at  present,  especially  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  a  greater 
interest  in  the  study  of  christian  antiquities  than  ever  existed  before. 
This  is  owing  to  a  variety  of  causes, — to  the  unparalleled  zeal  with 
which  every  branch  of  history  is  cultivated  ;  to  the  increased  and  in- 
creasing attention  bestowed  upon  the  study  of  the  Christian  Fathers  ; 
to  the  critical  taste  of  the  age,  reviewing  with  rigid  scrutiny  all  the 
grounds  of  historical  belief;  and  to  the  attention  given  to  the  philo- 
sophy of  history,  as  illustrative  of  the  nature  of  man.  Nor  is  it 
strange  that  reflecting  men  should  be  attracted  to  this  study  ;  they 
are  influenced  by  important  considerations,  a  few  of  which  will  here 
be  named  with  as  much  brevity  as  possible. 


INTE0DT7CTI0N.  19 

1.  This  branch  of  study  belongs  to  the  history  of  man.  No  indi- 
didual,  who  is  desirous  of  viewing  the  character  and  conduct  of  his 
species  under  all  its  aspects,  and  particularly  of  contemplating  the 
human  mind  under  extraordinary  moral  influences, — of  watching  the 
various  experiments  of  Christianity  when  combined  in  a  social  sys- 
tem with  other  elements,  can  consent  to  be  excluded  from  such  a 
source  of  instruction  as  is  found  in  the  antiquities  of  the  christian 
church. 

2.  It  is  indispensable  as  a  key  to  many  parts  of  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory. The  very  same  circumstance  which  renders  Greek  and  Ro- 
man antiquities  important  to  the  classical  student,  and  Jewish  antiqui- 
ties to  the  biblical  student,  renders  christian  antiquities  important  to 
the  ecclesiastical  historian.  He  who  supposes  that  he  can  find  all 
he  needs  on  this  subject  in  certain  chapters  in  general  works  on 
church  history,  has  only  to  make  the  trial,  and  then  take  up  such 
a  work  as  the  following,  and  compare  the  results,  and  the  difference 
will  be  sufficiently  perceptible.  Church  history  itself  has  gained 
no  less  by  making  this  a  distinct  branch  of  study  than  by  making 
the  history  of  christian  doctrines  a  distinct  branch  ;  both  have  con- 
tributed immeasurably  to  the  advancement  of  the  historical  branch 
of  theology  within  a  few  years  past.  How  much  broader  and  clearer 
the  light  which  now  shines  on  this  whole  department  of  study  than 
at  the  close  of  the  last  century  ! 

3.  A  polemic  use  of  this  branch  of  knowledge  cannot  be  safely  and 
profitably  made  except  by  him  who  has  previously  studied  the  sub- 
ject with  no  other  interest  than  that  of  truth,  aside  from  all  party  aims. 
One  of  the  most  grievous  evils  which  has  afflicted  the  church,  is  that 
men  have  been  driven  into  these  dark  regions  by  the  violence  of  the- 
ological strife.  Facts  have  been  guessed  at,  or  seized,  at  a  venture, 
out  of  their  connections,  and  a  momentary  triumph  has  been  gained 
only  to  be  surrendered  again  on  maturer  investigation.  Thus  with  all 
the  controversies  that  have  agitated  the  church,  there  has  been  but 
little  scientific  progress,  but  little  won  which  could  be  regarded  as  an 
earnest  of  final  union  in  the  truth. 

4.  Few  studies  have  a  more  salutary  influence  in  liberalizing  the 
mind  than  the  philosophic  study  of  the  religious  customs  and  usages 
of  a  christian  people.  When  we  perceive  how  little  the  common 
mind  is  what  it  makes  itself,  and  how  much  it  is  what  descent,  he- 
reditary customs,   political  connections,  popular  literature,  the  pre- 


20  INTRODUCTION. 

vailing  philosophy  and  the  spirit  of  the  age  make  it,  we  find  our- 
selves almost  unconsciously  cherishing  a  feeling  of  humanily  instead 
of  an  odium  theologicum,  towards  those  whose  views  we  regard  as 
erroneous. 

5.  Ecclesiastical  antiquities  have  a  special  value  for  men  of  letters. 
They  stand  intimately  connected  with  modern  European  history, 
and  with  the  fine  arts.  Their  influence  was  inconceivably  great  in 
forming  the  character  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  Middle  Ages 
were  the  nursery  of  modern  civilization.  Who  can  entertain  any 
just  views  of  society  in  the  south  of  Europe,  and  yet  be  ignorant  of 
the  influence  of  those  ecclesiastical  usages  which  have  descended 
from  a  venerable  and  sacred  antiquity  ?  History,  ancient  usages, 
sacred  associations,  poetry,  painting,  sculpture  and  a  thousand  name- 
less things  which  captivate  the  imagination  and  kindle  the  natural 
sensibilities,  hold  the  people  spell-bound  to  a  religious  and  social  sys- 
tem from  which  they  can  be  broken  off"  by  no  mere  power  of  logic. 

It  is  from  these  and  other  similar  views  that  the  German  scholars 
of  the  present  age  have  had  their  attention  more  particularly  direct- 
ed to  the  antiquities  of  the  christian  church.  The  same  causes  have 
also  led  to  great  improvements  in  the  treatment  of  the  subject.  In 
most  of  the  older  works,  an  account  of  the  rise  and  progress  of  ec- 
clesiastical usages  and  a  philosophical  view  of  the  internal  as  well 
as  external  causes  are  almost  entirely  wanting.  Indeed  the  entire 
method  which  characterizes  Neander  and  his  school  was  either  un- 
known to  them,  or  unheeded  by  them.  Though  the  most  important 
changes  were  perpetually  going  on  from  the  time  of  Justin  Martyr 
to  the  timeof  Chrysostom,  even  such  men  as  Bingham  and  Pelliccia 
seem  to  have  written  under  the  impression,  that  what  was  true  in  the 
fifth  century  was  equally  so  in  the  second.  The  sentiments  and  usa- 
ges of  a  later  age  are,  in  numerous  instances,  imposed  upon  a  pre- 
ceding age,  and  witnesses  are  often  brought  forward  to  testify  to 
what  occurred  centuries  before  their  birth.  Thus  the  philosophical 
element  of  history  is  almost  entirely  wanting,  and  with  it  the  great- 
est charm  connected  with  the  study. 

But  a  new  era  has  commenced  in  the  mode  of  treating  history  and 
antiquities.  The  internal  bond  which  holds  all  external  events  to- 
gether in  an  organized  system,  is  now  a  leading  object  of  search  ; 
all  those  phenomena,  which  were  once  supposed  to  be  accidental, 
are  now  regarded  as  springing  from  the  life  and  spirit  of  a  people  as 


INTRODUCTION.  21 

naturally  as  flowers  and  leaves  from  their  stems.  This  tracing  out 
of  the  connections  actually  existing  in  nature,  gives  a  truth  to  the 
representations  of  history  not  otherwise  to  be  obtained. 

It  must  not  hence  be  inferred  that  the  facts  of  history  are  less  val- 
ued, or  less  scrupulously  investigated  ;  directly  the  reverse.  There 
never  was  a  time  when  facts  were  brought  lo  light  in  greater  abun- 
dance. The  sources  of  evidence  are  explored  with  a  most  search- 
ing criticism  ;  the  spurious  writings  on  which  the  older  authors  placed 
so  much  dependence,  are  subjected  to  the  severest  scrutiny,  and  es- 
timated according  to  their  proper  value  ;  ancient  ecclesiastical  wri- 
ters are  more  rigidly,  and  by  consequence,  more  safely  interpreted  ; 
each  point  of  inquiry  is  investigated  in  the  concentrated  light  of  the 
entire  literature  of  that  age ;  numerous  treatises  and  even  large 
works,  on  single  topics,  are  continually  issuing  from  the  press,  so  that 
every  new  writer  has  the  advantage  of  laboring  in  a  highly  cultivated 
field. 

To  Augusti  more  than  to  any  other  one,  belongs  the  honor  of  re- 
viving among  the  learned  a  taste  for  ecclesiastical  antiquities.  His 
great  work  Denkioiirdigkeiten  aus  der  christlichen  Archdologie,  in 
twelve  octavo  volumes,  published  1817 — 1831,  was  the  most  complete 
that  had  appeared  since  the  time  of  Bingham.  However  deficient 
it  was  in  arrangement  and  in  some  of  its  details,  still  by  its  rich  col- 
lection of  materials,  and  by  its  incorporating  for  the  first  time  chris- 
tian art  as  a  branch  of  this  subject,  it  aroused  the  public  mind  and 
gave  a  new  impulse  and  a  new  direction  to  the  study.  The 
Sinnbilder  der  alien  Christen  by  Miinter,  published  with  plates, 
in  1825,  contributed  also  much  to  awaken  an  interest  in  Chris- 
tian art,  and  from  the  time  of  those  publications  to  the  present,  the 
subject  of  ancient  art  has  continued  to  lend  its  charm  to  the  antiqui- 
ties of  the  church.  A  manual  which  should  combine  scientific  ar- 
rangement and  accuracy  with  completeness  and  brevity,  was  still 
wanting.  This  was  admirably  supplied  by  Rheinwald,  a  disciple  of 
Neander,  in  a  single  volume  with  plates,  in  1831.  The  new  edition 
of  Pelliccia's  Politia,  by  RiUer  and  Braun,  Cologne,  1829 — 1838,  in 
two  octavo  volumes,  has,  indeed,  rendered  the  work  very  accessible, 
and  corrected  the  errors  of  the  author  ;  but  it  contains  too  little  that 
is  new.  The  work  of  Binterim,  in  seven  volumes,  of  which  a  second 
edition  was  commenced  in  1838,  is  but  a  German  translation  of  Pel- 
liccia,  with  great  additions,  made  in  the  spirit  of  a  true  son  of  the 
Catholic  church. 


22  INTEODUCTION. 

In  1835,  August!  undertook  the  abridgement  of  his  great  work, 
in  such  a  way  as  to  furnish  what  was  still  a  desideratum,  and  in  the 
two  following  years  appeared  his  Handbuch  der  christUchen  Arclid- 
ologie,  in  three  volumes,  which  forms  the  basis  of  the  present  vol- 
ume. The  text  of  Rheinwald's  Manual  like  that  of  Gieseler's  Church 
History,  was  a  mere  thread  for  the  convenient  arrangement  of  ex- 
tracts from  original  documents  in  the  form  of  notes,  and  is  better 
adapted  to  the  critical  scholar,  than  to  the  common  reader.  The 
author's  Denkwurdigkeiten  were  too  extensive  for  general  use.  He, 
therefore,  aimed  to  unite  copiousness  with  brevity^  and  to  give,  in 
an  improved  form,  the  substance  of  his  larger  work.  By  adopting  a 
plan  directly  the  reverse  of  Rheinwald's, — by  crowding  his  pages 
with  the  facts  of  christian  archaelogy,  and  making  quotations  spar- 
ingly, he  has,  in  reality,  given  a  new  edition  of  his  great  work,  in  a 
compressed  and  more  convenient  form,  with  a  pretty  thorough  re- 
vision of  each  subject ;  thus  presenting  by  far  the  most  complete 
manual  now  before  the  public.  This  work,  in  a  modified  form,  has 
already  been  brought  before  the  English  publicby  the  Rev.  J.  E.  Rid 
die.  Though  tiia  compiler,  or  translator  appears  to  have  perform- 
ed his  task  with  ability,  yet  he  who  is  acquainted  with  the  original, 
could  foresee  that  the  modifications  necessary  to  make  it  acceptable 
to  the  church  of  England,  would  be  an  indifferent  recommendation 
to  the  American  public  in  general.  We  do  not  desire  this  remark 
to  be  understood  as  disparaging  the  labors  of  that  learned  gentleman, 
but  merely  as  explaining  the  reason  why  the  present  undertaking 
was  not  relinquished,  when  that  work  appeared. 

We  have  felt  much  pleasure  in  examining  another  work,  entitled 
Handhiich  der  chrisllich-kirchUclien  Alter' timmer  in  alphabetischer 
Ord/mng,  by  C.  C.  F.  Siegel,  now  lecturer  on  christian  antiquities 
in  the  university  of  Leipsic.  The  first  volume  was  published  about 
the  same  time  wiih  the  first  volume  of  Augusti's  Manual,  and  the 
fourth  and  last,  in  1838.  These  two  works,  though  independent  of 
each  other,  are  very  similar  in  extent  and  in  their  critical  value. 
Siegel's  production,  has,  of  course,  all  the  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages of  an  alphabetical  arrangement.  The  reader  will  have  no  oc- 
casion to  regret  the  free  use  that  has  been  made  of  it  in  the  follow- 
ing pages. 

Of  W.  Bolmier's  CJirisiUch-kirchliche  Alterthumswissenschaft  now 
in  a  course  of  publication  and  of  which  only  two  volumes  have  ap- 


INTRODUCTION.  23 

peared  (1836  and  1839),  we  have  had  no  opportunity  to  form  an  opin- 
ion of  our  own.  From  the  scattered  hints  we  have  seen  in  German 
notices,  we  should  infer  that  it  is  in  Archaeology  what  Olshausen's 
Commentary  is  in  exegesis,  distinguished  for  learning,  piety  and 
genivs. 

Staudenmaier's  Geist  des  Chrisienthunis,  dargesidU  in  den 
heiligen  Zeiten,  in  den  heiligen  Handlungen  und  in  der  heiligen 
Kunst,  second  edition,  1838,  though  the  production  of  a  good  scholar, 
is  addressed  chiefly  to  the  sensibilities  of  the  heart;  and  is  one  of 
those  good  books,  which  lose  their  value  in  crossing  the  Atlantic. 

Of  these  two  last  works  the  former  could  not  be  obtained  in  sea- 
son, and  the  latter,  though  obtained,  could  not  be  used  in  preparing 
the  Manual  here  presented  to  the  public. 

In  regard  to  the  life  and  literary  character  of  the  author'  of  the 
volumes  from  which  this  work  is  chiefly  compiled,  we  must  limit 
ourselves  to  a  few  words.  He  was  bom  in  Eschenberga,  a  small 
town  in  the  Duchy  of  Saxe-Gotha,  in  1772.  After  pursuing  his 
studies  with  success  under  a  learned  minister  by  the  name  of  Moller, 
he  entered  the  university  of  Jena  and  devoted  his  attention  to  theo- 
logy. At  the  age  of  twenty-six  he  became  a  Privaldocent^  or  tutor 
in  the  same  place,  and  rose  rapidly  to  distinction,  being  made  Ex- 
traordinary Professor  of  Philosophy  after  a  period  of  only  two  years, 
and.  Ordinary  Professor  of  Oriental  Languages  in  three  years  from 
that  time.  After  laboring  in  this  latter  department  of  instruction 
nine  years,  he  went  to  Breslau  as  Professor  of  Theology,  and  seven 
years  later  to  Bonn,  where  he  still  remains  as  professor,  though  he 
holds  an  additional  ecclesiastical  office,  as  Oherconsislorialrath  at 
Coblence.  He  is  the  author  of  several  productions  in  various  depart- 
ments of  theological  learning.  Besides  those  already  mentioned,  his 
Translation  of  the  Bible  in  conjunction  with  de  Wette,  his  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Old  Testament,  his  History  of  Christian  Doctrines,  his 
System  of  Theology,  and  his  Symbolical  Books  of  the  Reformed 
Church  are  best  known.  The  order  of  his  talent  and  scholarship  is 
characterized  by  versatility  and  universality  rather  than  by  profound- 
ness of  reflection  or  investigation.  His  reading  is  very  extensive; 
his  acquisitions  are  easily  and  rapidly  made  ;  all  his  ideas  assume  a 
definite  and  tangible  form,  and  the  reader  follows  him  with  ease  and 
pleasure.  He  possesses,  in  short,  all  the  qualities  necessary  to  a 
high  degree  of  success  in  such  a  work  as  his  Manual  of  Antiquities. 


24  INTRODUCTION. 

He  is  a  professed  believer  in  the  orthodox  faith,  and  has  written,  in 
general,  with  an  impartiality  becoming  a  historian.  His  own  coun- 
trymen unite  in  giving  him  this  praise,  and  the  popularity  of  his  Man- 
ual with  them  is  one  of  the  surest  proofs  of  its  deserving,  as  it  un- 
doubtedly will  receive,  a  similar  popularity  among  us. 

The  writer  of  these  introductory  lines  does  not  hold  himself  re- 
sponsible for  the  sentiments  either  of  the  author  or  of  the  translator 
of  the  following  pages.  Indeed,  on  some  points,  he  differs  from 
them  both.  Yet  from  the  means  of  judging  which  have  been  afford- 
ed him,  he  is  fully  convinced  of  the  translator's  ability,  indefatiga- 
ble labor,  and  candor,  and  of  the  general  accuracy  of  the  work.  The 
difficult  task  of  making  a  judicious  selection  of  the  matter,  of  arrang- 
ing it  and  of  adapting  it  to  the  mass  of  American  readers,  appears  to 
have  been  performed  not  only  with  great  care,  but  in  the  exercise  of 
a  sound  discrimination. 

B.  SEARS. 

JVewton  Tlieological  Institution, 
April,  1841. 


CHRISTIAN   ANTIQUITIES. 


CHAPTER  I. 


A  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  ORGANIZATION    AND    WORSHIP  OF 
THE  PRIMITIVE  CHURCH. 

<5i  1.  Accounts  from  Jewish  and  profane  Authors. 

To  one  who  would  inquire  into  the  early  liistory  of  the  primitive 
church,  or  critically  examine  its  policy,  the  testimony  of  contempo- 
rary writers  of  another  faith  must  be  peculiarly  important.  But 
such  writers,  both  Jewish  and  profane,  of  the  first  three  centuries 
of  the  Christian  era,  unfortunately  afTord  us  very  imperfect  informa- 
tion on  these  points.  The  Jews,  from  whom  we  might  expect  the 
fullest  information,  offer  us  none  of  any  value.  The  celebrated 
passage  in  Josephiis  which  has  been  so  often  cited,  even  if  genuine, 
only  proves  that  he  had  knowledge  of  the  author  of  the  christian  re- 
ligion and  some  faint  apprehensions  of  his  divine  character;  but  it 
gives  us  no  knowledge  of  the  religion  which  he  taught.  Nor  does 
Philo,  his  contemporary,  otTer  any  essential  aid  to  our  inquiries. 

Greek  and  Roman  authors,  especially  the  latter,  take  but  little 
notice  of  the  early  Christians.  They  probably  regarded  the  Chris- 
tians as  only  an  heretical  body  of  Jews,  or  as  a  detestable  and  dan- 
gerous sect.  Accordingly  the  passages  in  which  Suetonius,^*  Taci- 
tus,2  Arrian,  Antoninus,  Dio  Cassius,  and  other  writers  speak  of 
Christians,  throw  little  or  no  light  on  their  manners  and  customs.^ 

The  most  important  notices  of  this  kind,  occur  in  the  letters  of 
Pliny  the  younger,  who,  according  to  the  most  approved  chronology, 
was  governor  of  Bithynia  in  the  years  103,  104  ;  and  in  the  writ- 
ings of  Lucian  of  Samosata,  an  opponent  of  Christianity,  who  also 
lived  in  the  second  century.     Pliny  had  been  instructed,  by  the  em- 

*  The  numerical  numbers  refer  to  the  Index  of  Authorities. 

4 


26  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHURCH. 

peror  Trajan,  to  keep  a  strict  guard  against  all  secret  societies,  and 
under  this  commission,  proceeded  to  severe  measures  against  the 
assemblies  of  Christians.  In  reporting  his  proceedings  to  the  em- 
peror, he  takes  occasion  to  explain  the  character  of  these  Christians, 
and  the  nature  of  their  assemblies.  In  this  manner  he  unconscious- 
ly passes  a  high  encomium  upon  these  primitive  Christians.  The 
letter  itself  was  written  but  about  forty  years  after  the  death  of  St. 
Paul,  and,  together  with  Trajan's  reply,  constitutes  the  most  impor- 
tant record  extant  of  the  times  immediately  succeeding  the  apostles. 
They  are  accordingly  given  entire,  with  a  translation  by  Melmoth. 

Plinius  Trajano. 

Solenne  est  milii,  Domine,  omnia,  de  quibus  dubito,ad  Te  referre. 
Quis  enim  potest  melius  vel  cunctationem  meam  regere,  vel  igno- 
rantiam  instruere  ?  Cognitionibus  de  Christianis  interfui  nuiiquam  : 
ideo  nescio,  quid  et  quatenus  aut  puniri  soleat  aut  quaeri.  Nee 
mediocriter  haesitavi,  silne  aliquod  discrimen  aetalum,  an  quamlibet 
teneri  nihil  a  robuslioribus  difierant ;  deturne  poenitentiae  venia,  an 
ei,  qui  omnino  Christianus  fuit,  desisse  non  prosit ;  nomen  ipsum 
etiamsi  flagitiis  careat,  an  flagitia  cohaerentia  nomini  puniantur.  In- 
terim in  iis,  qui  ad  me  tanquam  Chrisiiani  deferebantur,  hunc  sum 
secutus  modum.  Interrogavi  ipsos,  an  essent  Christiani.  Confiten- 
tes  iterum  et  tertio  interrogavi,  supplicium  minatus :  perseverantes 
duci  jussi.  Neque  enim  dubitabam,  qualecunque  esset  quod  fateren- 
tur,  pervicaciam  certe  et  inflexibilem  obstinationem  debere  puniri. 
Fuerunt  alii  similis  amentiae  :  quos,  quia  cives  Romani  erant,  anno- 
tavi  in  urbem  remittendos.  Mox  ipso  tractatu,  ut  fieri  solet,  diffun- 
dente  se  crimine,  plures  species  inciderunt.  Propositus  est  libellus 
sine  autore,  multorum  nomina  continens,  qui  negarent,  se  esse 
Christianos  aut  fuisse.  Cum  praeeunte  me  Deos  appeliarent,  et  im- 
agini  Tuae,  quam  propter  hoc  jusseram  cum  simulacris  numinum 
aiferri,  thure  ac  vino  supplicarent,  praeterea  maledicerent  Christo^ 
quorum  nihil  cogi  posse  dicuntur,  qui  sunt  revera  Christiani ;  ergo 
dimittendoo  putavi.  Alii  ab  indice  nominati,  esse  se  Christianos 
dixerunt,  et  mox  negaverunt :  fuisse  quidem,  sed  desisse,  quidam 
ante  triennium,  quidem  ante  plures  annos,  nonnemo  etiam  ante  vi- 
ginti  quoque.  Omnes  et  imaginem  Tuam,  Deorumque  simulacra 
venerati  sunt,  et  Christo  maledixerunt.     Affirmabant  autem,  hanc 


JEWISH  AND  PROFANE  AUTHORS.  27 

fuisse  summam  vel  culpae  suae  vel  erroris,  quod  essent  soliti  stato 
die  ante  lucem  convenire,  carmenque  Christo  quasi  Deo  dicere  se- 
cum  invicem  ;  seque  Sacramento  non  in  scelus  aliquod  obstringere, 
sed  ne  furta,  ne  latrocinia,  ne  adulteria  committerent,  ne  fidem  fal- 
lerent,  ne  depositum  appeliati  abnegarent ;  quibus  peractis,  inorem 
sibi  discedendi  fuisse  rursusque  coeundi  ad  capiendum  cibum,  pro- 
miscuum  tamen  et  innoxium  :  quod  ipsum  facere  desisse  post  edic- 
tum  nneum,  quo  secundum  mandata  tua  haetarias  esse  vetueram. 
Quo  magis  necessarium  credidi,  ex  duabus  ancillis,  quae  ministrae 
dicebantur,  quid  esset  veri  et  per  tormenta  quaerere.  Sed  nihil 
aliud  inveni,  quam  superstitionem  pravam  et  immodicam.  Ideo  di- 
lata  cognitione  ad  consulendum  Te  decurri.  Visa  est  enim  mihi  res 
digna  consultatione,  maxime  propter  periclitantium  numerum.  Mul- 
ti  enim  omnis  aetatis,  omnis  ordinis,  utriusque  sexus  etiam,  vocantur 
in  periculum  et  vocabuntur  :  neque  enim  civitates  tantum,  sed  vicos 
etiam  atque  agros,  superstiiionis  istus  contagio  pervagata  est.  Quae 
videtur  sisti  et  corrigi  posse.  Certe  satis  constat,  prope  jam  desolata 
templa  coepisse  celebrari,  et  sacra  solennia  diu  intermissa  repeti, 
passimque  venire  victimas,  quarum  adhuc  rarissimus  emtor  invenie- 
batur.  Ex  quo  facile  est  opinari,  quae  turba  hominum  emendari 
possit,  si  sit  poenitentiae  locus. 

Trajanus  Plinio. 
Actum,  quern  debuisti,  mi  Secunde,  in  excutiendis  causis  eorum, 
qui  Christian!  ad  te  delati  fuerant,  secutus  es.  Neque  enim  in  univer- 
sum  aliquid,  quod  quasi  certam  formam  habeat,  constitui  potest. 
Conquaerendi  non  sunt :  si  deferantur  et  arguantur,  puniendi  sunt ; 
ita  tamen,  ut  qui  negaverit  se  Christianum  esse,  idque  re  ipsa  mani- 
festum  fecerit,  i.  e.,  supplicando  Diis  nostris,  quamvis  suspectus  in 
praeteritum  fuerit,  veniara  ex  poenitentia  impetret.  Sine  autore 
vero  propositi  libelli,  nullo  crimine  locum  habere  debent :  nam  et 
pessimi  exempli  nee  nostri  seculi  est. — Ep.  Lib.  X.  p,  96,  97  ;  al 
97,  98.  Edit.  Gierig.  Vol.  IL  1802.  p.  498. 

Pliny  to  the  Emperor  Trajan. 

"  It  is  a  rule.  Sir,  which  I  inviolably  observe,  to  refer  myself  to 
you  in  all  my  doubts ;  for  who  is  more  capable  of  removing  my 
scruples,  or  informing  my  ignorance  ?     Having  never  been  present 


28  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHURCH. 

at  any  trials  concerning  those  who  profess  Christianity,  I  am  unac- 
quainted not  only  with  the  nature  of  their  crimes,  or  the  measure  of 
their  punishment,  but  how  far  it  is  proper  to  enter  into  an  examina- 
tion concerning  them.  Whether,  therefore,  any  difference  is  usually 
made  with  respect  to  the  ages  of  the  guilty,  or  no  distinction  is  to  be 
observed  between  the  young  and  the  adult ;  whether  repentance 
entitles  them  to  a  pardon  ;  or,  if  a  man  has  once  been  a  Christian, 
it  avails  nothing  to  desist  from  his  error ;  whether  the  very  profes- 
sion of  Christianity,  unattended  with  any  criminal  act,  or  only  the 
crimes  themselves  inherent  in  the  profession,  are  punishable  ;  in  all 
these  points  I  am  greatly  doubtful.  In  the  mean  while,  the  method 
I  have  observed  towards  those  who  have  been  brought  before  me  as 
Christians,  is  this  : — 1  interrogated  them  whether  they  were  Chris- 
tians ;  if  they  confessed,  I  repeated  the  question  twice  again,  adding 
threats  at  the  same  time  ;  when,  if  they  still  persevered,  I  ordered 
them  to  be  immediately  punished  ;  for  I  was  persuaded,  whatever 
the  nature  of  their  opinions  might  be,  that  a  contumacious  and  in- 
flexible obstinacy  certainly  deserved  correction.  There  were  others 
also  brought  before  me,  possessed  with  the  same  infatuation,  but 
being  citizens  of  Rome*  I  directed  them  to  be  carried  thither.  But 
this  crime  spreading,  (as  is  usually  the  case,)  while  it  was  actually 
under  prosecution,  several  instances  of  the  same  nature  occurred. 
An  information  was  presented  to  me  without  any  name  prescribed, 
containing  a  charge  against  several  persons,  who  upon  examination 
denied  they  were  Christians,  or  had  ever  been  so.  They  repeated 
after  me  an  invocation  to  the  gods,  and  offered  religious  riles  with 
wine  and  frankincense  before  your  statue,  (which  for  this  purpose  I 
had  ordered  to  be  brought,  together  with  those  of  the  gods,)  and  even 
reviled  the  name  of  Christ:  whereas  there  is  no  forcing,  it  is  said, 
those  who  are  really  Christians  into  a  compliance  with  any  of  these 
articles.  I  thought  proper,  therefore,  to  discharge  them.  Some  of 
those  who  were  accused  by  a  witness  in  person,  at  first  confessed 
themselves  Christians,  but  immediately  after  denied  it ;  while  the 
rest  owned  indeed  that  they  had  been  of  that  number  formerly,  but 
had  now  (some  above  three,  others  more,  and  a  few  above  twenty 

*  It  was  one  of  the  privileges  of  a  Roman  citizen,  secured  by  the  Sem- 
pronian  law,  that  he  could  not  be  capitally  convicted  but  by  the  suffrage  of 
the  people ;  which  seems  to  have  been  still  so  far  in  force,  as  to  make  it 
necessary  to  send  the  persons  here  mentioned  to  Rome. — Melmoth. 


JEWISH  AND  PROFANE  AUTHORS.  29 

years  ago)  forsaken  that  error.  They  all  worshipped  your  statue 
and  the  images  of  the  gods,  throwing  out  imprecations  also  at  the 
same  time  against  the  name  of  Christ.  They  affirmed  that  the  whole  of 
their  guilt  or  error  was,  that  they  met  on  a  certain  stated  day  before 
it  was  light  and  addressed  themselves  in  a  form  of  prayer  to  Christ, 
as  to  some  god,  binding  themselves  by  a  solemn  oath,  not  for  the  pur- 
poses of  any  wicked  design,  but  never  to  commit  any  fraud,  theft, 
or  adultery  ;  never  to  falsify  their  word,  nor  deny  a  trust  when  they 
should  be  called  upon  to  deliver  it  up  ;  after  which  it  was  their  cus- 
tom to  separate,  and  then  re-assemble,  to  eat  in  common  a  harmless 
meal.  From  this  custom,  however,  they  desisted  after  the  publica- 
tion of  my  edict,  by  which,  according  to  your  orders,  I  forbade  the 
meeting  of  any  assemblies.  After  receiving  this  account,  I  judged 
it  so  much  the  more  necessary  to  endeavor  to  extort  the  real  truth, 
by  putting  two  female  slaves  to  the  torture,  who  were  said  to  ad- 
minister in  their  religious  functions  :*  but  I  could  discover  nothing 
more  than  an  absurd  and  excessive  superstition.  I  thought  proper, 
therefore,  to  adjourn  all  further  proceedings  in  this  affair,  in  order 
to  consult  with  you.  For  it  appears  to  be  a  matter  highly  deserv- 
ing your  consideration,  more  especially  as  great  numbers  must  be 
involved  in  the  danger  of  these  persecutions,  this  inquiry  having  al- 
ready extended,  and  being  still  likely  to  extend,  to  persons  of  all 
ranks  and  ages,  and  even  of  both  sexes.  For  this  contagious  super- 
stition is  not  confined  to  the  cities  only,  but  has  spread  its  infection 
among  the  country  villages.  Nevertheless  it  still  seems  possible  to 
remedy  this  evil,  and  restrain  its  progress.  The  temples,  at  least, 
which  were  almost  deserted,  begin  now  to  be  frequented;  and  the 
sacred  solemnities  after  a  long  intermission  are  again  revived  ; 
while  there  is  a  general  demand  for  the  victims,  which  for  some 
time  past  have  met  with  but  few  purchasers.  From  hence  it  is  easy 
to  imagine,  what  numbers  might  be  reclaimed  from  this  error  if  a 
pardon  were  granted  to  those  who  shall  repent." 

Trajan  to  Pliny. 

"  The  method  you  have  pursued,  my  dear  Pliny,  in  the  proceed- 
ings against  those  Christians  which  were  brought  before  you,  is  ex- 
tremely proper  ;  as  it  is  not  possible  to  lay  down  any  fixed  plan,  by 

*  Deaconesses. 


30  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHURCH. 

which  to  act  in  all  cases  of  this  nature.  But  I  would  not  have  you 
officiously  enter  into  any  inquiries  concerning  them.  If  indeed  they 
should  be  brought  before  you,  and  the  crime  is  proved,  they  must  be 
punished  ;  with  this  restriction,  however,  that  when  the  party  denies 
himself  to  be  a  Christian,  and  shall  make  it  evident  that  he  is  not, 
by  invoking  our  gods,  let  him  (notwithstanding  any  former  suspi- 
cion) be  pardoned  upon  his  repentance.  Informations  without  the 
accuser's  name  subscribed  ought  not  to  be  received  in  prosecutions 
of  any  sort ;  as  it  is  introducing  a  very  dangerous  precedent,  and  by 
no  means  agreeable  to  the  equity  of  my  government." 

From  this  record  of  antiquity,  we  learn  several  important  particu- 
lars respecting  the  early  Christians. 

1.  That  they  were  accustomed  to  meet  on  a  certain  stated  day 
for  religious  worship — whether  on  the  first  or  last  day  of  the  week, 
does  not  appear. 

2.  Their  meetings  were  held  in  the  morning  before  day-light — 
doubtless  that  they  might  the  better  avoid  the  notice  of  their  ene- 
mies. 

3.  They  appear  not  to  have  had,  at  this  time,  any  stated  place  of 
worship. 

4.  They  worshipped  Christ  as  God.  The  phrase,  carmen  Chris- 
io  quasi  Deo  dicere  secum  invicem^  may  imply  any  short  ascrip- 
tion of  praise  to  Christ,  a  doxology,  a  prayer,  a  psalm,  or  hymn,  in 
prose  or  verse,  though  the  latter  is  most  probable.  Christ  was  the 
object  of  worship  to  whom  they  offered  this  doxology  or  prayer,  re- 
hearsing it  alternately,  or  in  responses. 

It  appears  from  this  passage  that  these  Christians  were  not  only 
acquainted  with  the  doctrine  of  the  divinity  of  Christ,  but  manifested 
great  boldness  in  asserting  it. 

5.  They  celebrated  the  sacrament  and  their  love-feasts  in  these 
assemblies.  This  is  implied  in  their  binding  themselves  by  a  solemn 
oath  not  to  commit  sin,  and  in  their  coming  together  to  take  bread, 
"  ad  capiendum  cibum  promiscuum  tamen  et  innoxium."  These  re- 
ligious rites  appear  also  to  have  been  accompanied  with  the  reading 
and  exposition  of  the  Scriptures.  It  seems  to  be  included  in  these 
solemnities,  though  it  is  not  distinctly  mentioned. 

6.  This  epistle  bears  honorable  testimony  to  unflinching  steadfast- 


JEWISH  AND  PROFANE  AUTHORS,  31 

ness  of  faith  in  these  Christians,  which  Pliny  styles  an  absurd  and 
excessive  superstition. 

7.  This  epistle  affords  a  striking  proof  of  the  early  and  extensive 
propagation  of  Christianity,  and  of  its  tendency  to  overthrow  idola- 
try. It  also  confirms  the  statements  of  the  early  apologists  respect- 
ing the  same  points,  while  it  establishes  our  confidence  in  their 
statements  where  we  have  not,  as  in  this  case,  the  testimony  of  con- 
temporary writers.4 

Lucian  of  Samosata  travelled  in  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  Italy,  and 
France,  and  had  the  best  means  of  becoming  acquainted  with  the 
Christians  who  had  already  become  numerous  in  those  countries. 
From  his  frequent  and  reproachful  mention  of  the  Christians  of  his 
day,^  we  may  collect  the  following  particulars. 

1.  He  speaks  of  the  followers  of  Christ  by  their  appropriate  name. 
Christians,  though  in  speaking  of  them  he  usually  employs  some 
reproachful  epithet. 

2.  He  speaks  of  the  author  of  this  religion  as  one  who  lived  in 
Palestine  and  was  crucified.  He  styles  him  a  great  man,  and  says 
that  his  followers  reverence  him  as  their  lawgiver. 

3.  He  denominates  their  religious  teachers,  prophets,  masters  of 
the  synagogue,  and  rulers. 

4.  He,  in  common  with  many  of  the  fathers,  calls  their  rites  of 
worship,  new  mysteries. 

5.  He  particularly  mentions  the  fraternity  of  Christians,  their  de- 
nial of  the.^gods  of  the  Greeks,  and  their  worshipping  of  Him  cruci- 
fied. 

6.  He  records  their  readiness  to  relieve  and  to  support  those  who 
were  sick  or  in  prison. 

7.  He  mentions  their  dnTiva  noixlla,  their  manifold  meals,  refer- 
ring obviously  to  their  agapae  and  sacramental  suppers,  possibly  to 
abuses  similar  to  those  which  are  reproved  by  the  apostle  Paul,  1 
Cor.  11:  20—22. 

8.  It  is  observable  also  that  Lucian  makes  mention  of  the  sacred 
books  of  the  Christians  ;  and  also, 

9.  Of  their  community  of  goods,  as  is  described  Acts  4:  32—37  ; 
and, 

Finally,  of  certain  prohibited  articles,  as  by  the  church  at  Jerusa- 
lem they  were  required  to  abstain  from  things  strangled  and  from 
blood  ; — all  which  evinces  their  piety  and  benevolence  and  diligence 
in  the  christian  life. 


32  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  PHIMITIVE  CHURCH. 


§  2.  Origin  of  the  Christian  Church. 

Christianity,  after  the  lapse  of  several  centuries,  assumed  an  in- 
termediate character  between  other  forms  of  religion.  But  it  was 
at  first  a  substitute  for  the  religion  of  the  Jews,  or  rather  it  was  only 
a  modified  and  improved  form  of  the  same.  The  author  of  this 
system  was  himself  obedient  in  all  things  to  the  law  of  Moses,  out 
of  which  he  also  taught  his  disciples,  and,  undeniably,  derived  from 
the  same  source  the  rites  of  initiation  and  fellowship,  baptism  and 
the  Lord's  supper. 

This  affinity  between  the  Jewish  and  christian  religion,  was  well 
understood  by  intelligent  heathen,  and  by  the  ancient  apologists  of 
Christianity  it  was  not  denied.  Chrysostom  complained  that  the 
Christians,  even  of  the  fourth  century,  were  lialf  Jews. 

On  the  contrary,  scarcely  the  remotest  trace  of  paganism  can  be 
found  in  the  christian  church  as  originally  constituted.  Whatever 
has  been  adduced  in  favor  of  such  a  resemblance,  is  only  uncertain 
conjecture,  or  gratuitous  hypothesis.  The  apostle  of  the  gentiles  re- 
monstrates against  the  incorporating  of  any  part  of  their  religion  with 
the  Christian,  Gal.  2:  14,  15 ;  and  the  apostle  Peter  accords  with 
him  on  this  point,  1  Pet.  4:  3.  Neither  can  anything  be  drawn 
from  the  apostolic  fathers  and  early  defenders  of  the  christian  reli- 
gion which,  with  any  appearance  of  truth,  can  be  made  to  harmo- 
nize with  the  religion  of  the  gentiles.  But  they  uniformly  manifest 
the  strongest  aversion  to  any  connection  with  idolaters  and  their  re- 
ligious rites. 

Basil,  of  Seleucia,  has  indeed  affirmed  that  there  is  paganism  dis- 
guised under  the  form  of  Christianity.  But  this  can  be  said  with 
truth  only  after  the  establishment  of  the  system  of  secret  discipline, 
and  when  the  jealousy  of  the  church  for  the  purity  of  her  faith  and 
the  integrity  of  her  discipline  had,  in  a  measure,  abated.  Even  the 
most  celebrated  Roman  Catholic  writers  find  much  difficulty  in  the 
attempt  to  trace  this  blending  of  two  systems  back  to  a  remote  anti- 
quity. Protestant  writers,  on  the  other  hand,  labor  to  show  that  the 
decline  of  the  church  dates  its  origin  from  the  introduction  of  pagan- 
ism into  Christianity  ;  and  that  papacy  is  little  else  than  a  disguised 
system  of  pagan  superstition.^  The  truth  is,  that  the  primitive 
church  was  at  first  established  on  the  p-inciples  and  in  the  spi'nV  of 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  CHKISTIAN  CHURCH.  33 

tlie  Jewish  church  ;^the  domestic  riles  of  the  Jews,  and  their  levili- 
cal  priesthood  being  strictly  excluded.  But  when,  in  process  of  time 
Christianity  became  the  state  religion,  this  alliance  of  church  and 
state,  it  was  thought,  would  acquire  more  honor  and  respect  by 
blending  with  it  a  priesthood  and  a  ritual  like  that  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. This,  therefore,  became  the  basis  of  a  new  church-service  ; 
and  the  same  office  was  transformed  into  a  priesthood  the  elements 
of  which  were  derived  both  from  Jew  and  gentile  systems  of  religion. 

The  rules  and  institutions  of  the  primitive  church  are  chiefly  val- 
uable to  show  what  Christ  and  his  apostles  taught  and  approved. 
They  have  not,  with  us,  the  form  of  a  law  any  further  than  they  are 
founded  on  the  Scriptures.  Accordingly,  different  religious  denom- 
inations have,  from  time  to  time,  varied  at  pleasure  from  their  ori- 
ginal form,  not  only  the  less  important  and  common  institutions  of 
religion,  but  even  the  characteristic  ordinances  of  the  church — bap- 
tism and  the  Lord's  supper — and  that  too,  without  laying  any  sacri- 
legious hand  upon  the  ancient  church  of  Christ. 

The  law  of  the  Christian  church  is  the  law  of  liberty.  The  truth, 
says  Christ,  shall  make  you  free,  with  evident  reference  to  the  free- 
dom of  religious  worship  under  the  Christian  dispensation.  To  this 
the  sacred  writers  frequently  refer,  John  4:  24.  Rom.  6:  18,  22.  1 
Cor.  7:  22.  Gal.  5:  1  seq.  4:  9  seq.  Col.  2:  16—20.  James  1:  25. 
com  p.  2:  12.  Not  only  do  the  several  writers  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment declare  the  unrestrained  freedom  of  christian  worship ;  but 
the  earliest  and  most  venerable  fathers  harmonize  with  this  sentiment, 
which  again  is  confirmed  by  the  symbolical  books,  and  many  other 
writings  of  indisputable  authority. 

Christianity  accordingly  rejected  from  the  religion  of  the  Jews  all 
that  related  to  them  as  a  separate  and  peculiar  people,  and  modified 
that  religious  system,  so  that  it  might  become  the  religion  of  all  na- 
tions. At  the  same  time  it  rejected  with  abhorrence  every  other 
form  of  religion.  In  this  way  it  sought  to  retain  whatever  might 
best  promote  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  the  edification  of  his  people. 
On  the  same  principle  did  the  reformers,  Luther,  Melancthon,  Zuin- 
glius  and  Calvin  proceed.  They  confessedly  retained  much  that 
pertained  to  the  Catholic  religion,  and  yet  theywere  actuated  by  the 
most  enlarged  views  of  religious  freedom  and  independence. 


34  OEGANIZATION  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHURCH. 


§  3,  Peculiarities  of  the  Christian  System, 

1.  This  system  presents  the  only  true  form  of  a  church.  The 
Jews  had  no  distinct  organization  which  could,  with  propriety,  be 
denominated  a  church.  Much  less  is  any  association  under  other 
forms  of  religion,  entitled  to  this  appellation. 

2.  The  christian  church  has  always  been  distinguished  for  its  ven- 
eration for  the  Holy  Scriptures.  The  reading  and  exposition  of 
these  has,  from  the  beginning,  been  an  important  part  of  christian 
worship.  All  the  instructions  and  exhortations  of  the  preacher, 
have  been  drawn  from  this  source.  The  prayers,  the  psalmody,  the 
catechisms  and  confessions  of  faith  of  the  primitive  Christians,  to- 
gether with  their  religious  ordinances,  were  all  based  on  the  Scrip- 
tures. 

3.  The  doctrines  of  the  Trinity  and  of  the  divinity  of  Christ,  are 
the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  christian  system.  The 
church  itself  is  based  especially  on  the  first  mentioned  doctrine  ;  so 
that  there  is  not  an  ancient  symbol,  or  confession,  or  rule  of  faith,  in 
which  it  is  not  either  expressed  or  distinctly  implied,  nor  an  ordi- 
nance which  is  not  commemorative  of  the  belief  in  God,  the  Father, 
Son,  and  Holy  Ghost.  This  is  implied  in  the  consecration  of 
churches  to  God.  Even  the  names  of  God,  Kvgiog,  Dominus,  ac- 
cording to  the  Athanasian  creed,  expresses  the  idea  of  a  triune  God. 
Deus  triunus.  Pater  Dominus,  Filius  Dominus,  Spiritus  Sanctus  Do- 
minus  ;  non  tamen  tres  Domini,  sed  mms  Dominus.  The  same 
sentiment  is  implied  in  the  baptismal  formulary  ;  in  the  three  ele- 
ments of  the  eucharist — the  bread,  the  wine,  and  the  water  ;  and  in 
\he  three  great  festivals  of  the  ancient  church,  which  were  instituted 
about  the  fourth  century.  [The  author  might  have  added,  that  the 
same  is  implied  in  the  form  of  the  ancient  Christian's  oath  which 
was  usually  taken  in  the  name  of  God,  of  Christ,  and  of  the  Holy 
Spirit. — Vegetius,  as  quoted  by  Bingham  and  Cave. — Tr.] 

The  doctrine  of  the  divinity  of  Christ  appears  in  the  sacrament 
which  commemorates  his  death,  and  in  the  religious  services  con- 
nected with  this  ordinance,  as  well  as  in  the  prayers,  doxologies, 
psalms  and  hymns,  which  are  addressed  to  him.  The  same  senti- 
ment is  expressed  in  many  of  the  emblems  and  symbols  of  the  an- 
cient church,  and  in  their  mystical  names,  such  as  ix&i?-,  composed  of 


SECRET  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CHURCH.  35 

the  initials  of  the  following  words  :  ^h](JOvq  Xqiaioq  Oeov  Tlog,  JTwtj/^, 
Jesus  Christ  the  Savior,  the  Son  of  God.  The  mystical  word 
Abraxas,  is  another  instance  of  the  same  kind,  each  letter  repre- 
senting ihe  initials  of  the  following  words  :  :i<  Father,  Z'z  Son,  7-r]~\ 
Spirit,  nnN  one,  i.  e.  one  God,  Xgicnog  Christ,  "Av&Qmnoq  man,  i.  e. 
God-man,  -Twij)^  Savior.^ 

5.  It  is  peculiar  to  the  christian  religion,  that  all  the  people  take 
part  in  their  religious  services.  The  humblest  worshipper,  as  Well 
as  the  highest  functionary,  here  enters  the  temple  of  his  God,  ap- 
proaches the  altar,  and  offers  an  acceptable  sacrifice  to  our  common 
God  and  Father. 

6.  It  is  the  peculiar  privilege  of  the  Christian  that  he  may  wor- 
ship God,  not  at  some  appointed  place,  and  at  stated  seasons  ;  but 
at  all  times  and  in  every  place.  The  reader  is  directed  to  an  ex- 
tended discussion  of  this  subject  in  the  index  of  authorities.^ 

§  4.  Of  the  Secret  Discipline,  the  Disciplina  Arcani,  of  the 
Ancient  Church,  Apostolical  Constitutions,  etc 

As  frequent  references  will  be  made  to  these  in  the  subsequent 
work,  a  brief  explanation  is  given  for  the  information  of  the  common 
reader.  No  intimation  is  given  either  in  the  Scriptures,  or  in  the 
writings  of  the  apostolic  fathers,  or  by  Justin  Martyr,  that  any  rites 
or  ordinances  of  religion  are  to  be  concealed  from  the  people.  Ire- 
naeus,  TertuHian,  and  Clemens  are  the  first  who  make  mention  of 
any  such  custom  of  the  church.  But  it  afterwards  became  custom- 
ary to  celebrate  the  sacrament  with  an  air  of  the  most  profound 
mystery,  and  indeed  to  administer  baptism,  and  to  perform  most  of 
the  appropriate  rites  of  religion  with  cautious  secresy.  Not  only 
were  unbelievers  of  every  description  excluded  from  the  view  of 
these  rites,  but  catechumens  also,  and  all  who  were  not  fully  initia- 
ted into  the  church  and  entitled  to  a  participation  in  its  ordinances. 
From  all  else  the  time,  and  place,  and  manner  of  administering  the 
sacred  rites  were  concealed,  and  the  import  of  each  rite  was  a  pro- 
found mystery  which  none  was  at  liberty  to  divulge  or  explain.  To 
relate  the  manner  in  which  it  was  administered,  to  mention  the  words 
used  in  the  solemnity,  or  to  describe  the  simple  elements  of  which 
it  consisted,  were  themes  upon  which  the  initiated  were  as  strictly 
forbidden  to  touch,  as  if  they  had  been  laid  under  an  oath  of  secresy. 


36  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHURCH. 

Not  a  hint  was  allowed  to  be  given,  nor  a  whisper  breathed  on  the 
subject  to  the  uninitiated.  Even  the  ministers,  when  they  were  led 
in  their  public  discourses  to  speak  of  the  sacraments,  or  the  higher 
doctrines  of  faith,  contented  themselves  with  remote  allusions,  and 
dismissed  the  subject  by  saying:  The  initiated  know  what  is  meant, 
i'lratriv  ol  /Afixinj^tivoi.  They  never  wrote  about  them  except  through 
the  medium  of  figurative  and  enigmatical  expressions,  for  fear  of 
giving  that  which  is  holy  unto  dogs,  or  casting  pearls  before  swine. 

These  mysteries  were  particularly— the  manner  of  administering 
baptism  ;  the  unction  or  chrism  ;  the  ordination  of  priests  ;  the  man- 
ner of  celebrating  the  Lord's  supper;  the  liturgy  or  religious  service 
of  the  church;  the  knowledge  of  the  holy  Trinity,  the  creed,  and 
the  Lord's  prayer.  Such  was  the  secret  discipline  of  the  ancient 
church,  the  disciplina  arcani  above  mentioned. 

The  reason  which  led  to  the  introduction  of  this  discipline  proba- 
bly was,  the  persecution  to  which  the  early  Christians  were  subject. 
Under  these  circumstances  they  very  naturally  would  conceal  their 
worship  as  far  as  practicable  from  the  observation  of  their  enemies 
by  whom  they  were  surrounded.  This  precaution  is  distinctly  indica- 
ted in  the  foregoing  letter  of  Pliny,  p.  26.  Accordingly  this  secret 
discipline  gradually  fell  into  disuse  after  the  time  of  Constantine, 
when  Christianity  had  nothing  to  fear  from  her  enemies.^ 

Apostolical  Constitutions  and  Canons. 

These  two  collections  of  ecclesiastical  rules  and  formularies,  were 
attributed  in  early  ages  of  the  church  to  Clement  of  Rome,  who  was 
supposed  to  have  committed  them  to  writing  from  the  mouths  of  the 
apostles,  whose  words  they  pretend  to  record.  The  authority  thus 
claimed  for  these  writings  has,  however,  been  entirely  disproved  ; 
and  it  is  generally  supposed  by  critics  that  they  were  chiefly  com- 
piled during  the  second  and  third  centuries  ;  or  that  at  least  the 
greater  part  must  be  assigned  to  a  period  before  the  first  Nicene 
council.  We  find  references  to  them  in  the  writings  of  Eusebius, 
Epiphanius,  and  Athanasius,  writers  of  the  third  and  fourth  centu- 
ries. A  modern  critic  supposes  them  not  to  have  attained  their  pre- 
sent form  until  the  fifth  century. 

The  Constitutions  are  comprised  in  eight  books.  In  these  the 
apostles  are  frequently  introduced  as  speakers.  They  contain  rules 
and  regulations  concerning  the  duties  of  Christians  in  general,  the 


APOSTOLICAL  CONSTITUTIONS  AND  CANONS.  87 

constitution  of  tlie  church,  the  offices  and  duties  of  ministers,  and 
the  celebration  of  divine  worship.  The  tone  of  morality  which  runs 
through  them  is  severe  and  ascetic.  They  forbid  the  use  of  all  per- 
sonal decoration  and  attention  to  appearances,  and  prohibit  the  read- 
ing of  the  works  of  heathen  authors.  They  enjoin  Christians  to  as- 
semble twice  every  day  in  the  church  for  prayers  and  psalmody,  to 
observe  various  fasts  and  festivals,  and  to  keep  the  sabbath,  (i.  e.  the 
seventh  day  of  the  week,)  as  well  as  the  Lord's  day.  They  require 
extraordinary  marks  of  respect  and  reverence  towards  the  ministers 
of  religion  ;  commanding  Christians  to  honor  a  bishop  as  a  king  or 
a  prince,  and  even  as  a  kind  of  God  upon  earth, — to  render  to  him 
absolute  obedience, — to  pay  him  tribute, — and  to  approach  him 
through  the  deacons  or  servants  of  the  church,  as  we  come  to  God 
only  through  Christ!  This  latter  kind  of  (profane)  comparison  is 
carried  to  a  still  greater  extent ;  for  the  deaconesses  are  declared  to 
resemble  the  Holy  Spirit,  inasmuch  as  they  are  not  able  to  do  any- 
thing without  the  deacons.  Presbyters  are  said  to  represent  the 
apostles  ;  and  the  rank  of  christian  teachers  is  declared  to  be  higher 
than  that  of  magistrates  and  princes.— We  find  here  also  a  complete 
liturgy  or  form  of  worship  for  christian  churches  ;  containing  not 
only  a  description  of  ecclesiastical  ceremonies,  but  the  prayers  to  be 
used  at  their  celebration. 

This  general  description  of  the  contents  of  the  Books  of  Constitu- 
tions is  alone  enough  to  prove  that  they  are  no  productions  of  the 
apostolic  age.  Mention  also  occurs  of  several  subordinate  ecclesias- 
tical officers,  such  as  readers  and  exorcists,  who  were  not  introduced 
into  the  church  until  the  third  century.  And  there  are  manifest  con- 
tradictions between  several  parts  of  the  work.  The  general  style  in 
which  the  Constitutions  are  written  is  such  as  had  become  prevalent 
during  the  third  century. 

It  is  useless  to  inquire  who  was  the  real  author  of  this  work ;  but 
the  date,  and  probable  design,  of  the  forgery  are  of  more  importance, 
and  may  be  more  easily  ascertained.  Epiphanius,  towards  the  end 
of  the  fourth  century,  appears  to  be  the  first  author  who  speaks  of 
these  books  under  their  present  title.  Apostolical  Constitutions.  But 
he  refers  to  the  work  only  as  one  containing  much  edifying  matter, 
without  including  it  among  the  writings  of  the  apostles;  and  indeed 
he  expressly  says  that  many  persons  had  doubted  of  its  genuineness. 
One  passage,  however,  to  which  Epiphanius  refers,  speaks  a  language 


38  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHURCH. 

directly  the  reverse  of  what  we  find  in  the  corresponding  passage 
of  the  work  now  extant ;  so  that  it  appears  probable  that  the  Apos- 
tolical Constitutions  which  that  author  used  have  been  corrupted  and 
interpolated  since  his  tinac. 

On  the  whole,  it  appears  probable,  from  internal  evidence,  that 
the  Apostolical  Constitutions  were  compiled  during  the  reigns  of  the 
heathen  emperors  towards  the  end  of  the  third  century,  or  at  the 
beginning  of  the  fourth  ;  and  that  the  compilation  was  the  work  of 
some  one  writer  (probably  a  bishop),  of  the  eastern  church.  The 
advancement  of  episcopal  dignity  and  power  appears  to  have  been 
the  chief  design  of  the  forgery. 

If  we  regard  the  Constitutions  as  a  production  of  the  third  century 
(containing  remnants  of  earlier  compositions),  the  work  possesses  a 
certain  kind  of  value.  It  contributes  to  give  us  an  insight  into  the 
slate  of  christian  faith,  the  condition  of  the  clergy  and  inferior  eccle- 
siastical officers,  the  worship  and  discipline  of  the  church,  and  other 
particulars,  at  the  period  to  which  the  composition  is  referred.  The 
growth  of  the  episcopal  power  and  influence,  and  the  pains  and  arti- 
fices employed  in  order  to  derive  it  from  the  apostles,  are  here  par- 
tially developed.  Many  of  the  regulations  prescribed,  and  many  of 
the  moral  and  I'eligious  remarks,  are  good  and  edifying  ;  and  the 
prayers  especially  breathe,  for  the  most  part,  a  spirit  of  simple  and 
primitive  Christianity.  But  the  work  is  by  no  means  free  from  traces 
of  superstition  ;  and  it  is  occasionally  disfigured  by  mystical  inter- 
pretations and  applications  of  Holy  Scripture,  and  by  needless  re- 
finements in  matters  of  ceremony.  We  find  several  allusions  to  the 
events  of  apostolical  times  ;  but  occurrences  related  exclusively  in 
such  a  work  are  altogether  devoid  of  credibility,  especially  as  they 
are  connected  with  the  design  of  the  compiler  to  pass  off  his  book  as 
a  work  of  the  apostles. 

The  Canons  relate  chiefly  to  various  particulars  of  ecclesiastical 
polity  and  christian  worship  ;  the  regulations  which  they  contain  be- 
ing for  the  most  part  sanctioned  with  the  threatening  of  deposition 
and  excommunication  against  offenders.  The  first  allusion  to  this 
work  by  name  is  found  in  the  acts  of  the  Council  which  assembled 
at  Constantinople  in  the  year  394,  under  the  presidency  of  Nectari- 
us,  bishop  of  that  see.  But  there  are  expressions  in  earlier  councils 
and  writers  of  the  same  century  which  appear  to  refer  to  the  canons, 
although  not  named.     In  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century,  fifty  of 


NAMES  ASSUMED  BY  CHRISTIANS.  39 

these  canons  were  translated  from  Greek  into  Latin  by  the  Roman 
abbot  Dionysius  the  younger  ;  and  about  the  same  time  thirty-five 
others  were  appended  to  them  in  a  collection  made  by  John,  patri- 
arch of  Constantinople.  Since  that  time  the  whole  number  (eighty- 
five)  have  been  regarded  as  genuine  in  the  east ;  while  only  the  first 
fifty  have  been  treated  with  equal  respect  in  the  west.  It  appears 
highly  probable  that  the  original  collection  was  made  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  third  century,  or  somewhat  later,  in  one  of  the  Asiatic 
churches.  The  author  may  liave  had  the  same  design  as  that  which 
appears  to  have  influenced  the  compiler  of  the  Apostolical  Constitu- 
tions. The  eighty-fifth  canon  speaks  of  the  Constitutions  as  sacred 
books  ;  and  from  a  comparison  of  the  two  works,  it  is  plain  that  they 
are  either  the  production  of  one  and  the  same  writer,  or  that,  at 
least,  the  two  authors  were  contemporary,  and  had  a  good  under- 
standing with  each  other.  The  rules  and  regulations  contained  in 
the  Canons  are  such  as  were  gradually  introduced  and  established 
during  the  second  and  third  centuries.  In  the  canon  or  list  of  sacred 
books  of  the  New  Testament  given  in  this  work,  the  Revelation  of 
St.  John  is  omitted,  but  the  two  epistles  of  Clement  and  the  Apostol- 
ical Constitutions  are  inserted.^ 


CHAPTER  II. 

NAMES  AND  CLASSES  OF  CHRISTIANS. 

§  1.    Scriptural  Appellations  and  Names  assumed  by 
Christians. 

The  professors  of  the  christian  religion  were  originally  denomi- 
nated saints,  uyioi.  This  is  their  usual  appellation  in  the  sacred 
Scriptures.  This  they  apply,  not  only  to  apostles  and  teachers,  but 
generally  to  the  community  of  Christians.  The  inspired  writers  are 
indeed  particularly  styled,  holy  men  of  God,  2  Pet.  1:21.  Timo- 
thy is  denominated  a  man  of  God,  2  Tim.  3:  17.  But  it  might  also 
be  shown  from  many  passages  that  all  Christians,  without  distinc- 
tion, are  included  in  the  venerable  appellation  of  saints.     The  term 


40  NAMES  AND  CLASSES  OF  CHRISTIANS. 

is  derived  from  the  Hebrew  C^'JJlp ,  by  which  the  Jews  were  deno- 
ted as  God's  chosen  people,  in  distinction  from  all  idolatrous  nations. 
But,  by  the  apostle  Peter,  the  several  prerogatives  and  titles  of  the 
people  of  God  are  ascribed  also  to  all  Christians.  He  denominates 
them  a  chosen  generation,  a  royal  priesthood,  a  peculiar  people,  1 
Pet.  1:  15.  But  he  also  teaches  that  this  sanctity  consists,  not  in 
mere  outward  forms  of  social  worship,  but  in  that  piety  which  their 
holy  calling  requires  them  to  cultivate,  2  Pet.  3:  11.  comp.  Eph.  5: 
3.  Col.  1:  12.  3:  12. 

The  name  was  doubtless  adopted  for  the  sake  of  convenience, 
and  not  as  implying  that  all  were  the  true  worshippers  of  the  holy 
Jesus.  For  among  Christians  wicked  persons  were  also  found. 
Even  a  Judas  Iscariot  was  numbered  with  the  apostles.  But,  to  the 
highest  honor  of  Christianity,  it  should  be  said  that  her  followers, 
generally,  were  men  of  a  pure  spirit,  and  sanctified  the  Lord  God 
in  their  hearts.  Such  is  the  uniform  testimony  of  her  early  histori- 
ans and  apologists.  And  even  her  enemies  acknowledged,  that  the 
spotless  character  of  her  followers  caused  religion  to  be  universally 
respected,  and  led  to  its  introduction  into  every  country. 

The  names  which  Christians  assumed  for  themselves,  such  as, 
saints,  uyiou ;  helievers,  maitvaavxiq ;  elect,  ixltxTol ;  disciples, 
[ua&)]Tal ;  brethren,  uddqiol ;  people  of  God,  Xabg  tov  Osov,  and 
the  like,  were  adopted  from  the  Jews,  and  were  expressive,  several- 
ly, of  some  moral  quality.  But  in  process  of  time,  the  common  ac- 
ceptation of  these  terms  became  so  different  from  their  original  ap- 
plication, that  they  ceased  to  be  used  as  the  distinctive  appellations 
of  their  community,  composed  both  of  Jews  and  Gentiles.  What 
name  they  should  assume,  became  now  a  question  on  which  they 
were  greatly  divided  among  themselves  ;  and  so  much  the  more  so 
because  they  had,  from  the  first,  refused  all  sectarian  names.  They 
would  call  no  man  master  ;  neither  would  they  receive  any  title 
which  should  imply  that  their  religion  was  of  human  origin,  as  the 
writers  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  began  to  assert.  In  this  di- 
lemma a  name  was  providentially  conferred  on  them,  which  soon 
gained  ascendancy  among  friends  and  foes,  and  supplanted  all 
others. 

Of  the  origin  of  this  name  we  have  a  distinct  account  in  the 
eleventh  cliapter  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles ;  where  we  are  inform- 
ed, that  while  Paul  and  Barnabas  were  laboring  together  at  Antioch, 


NAMES  ASSUMED  BY  CHRISTIANS.  41 

the  disciples  of  our  Lord  first  began  to  be  called  Christians.  The 
form  of  tliis  word,  XQiannvol,  clearly  proves  it  to  be  a  Latin  deriva- 
tive from  A'<H(7roc,  Christ.  Nor  is  there  the  remotest  probability 
that  either  the  Christians,  or  the  Jews  would  have  invented  this  name. 
To  the  latter,  this  term  was  peculiarly  offensive,  1  Cor.  1:23.  The 
followers  of  Christ  they  styled  Galileans,  Acts  2:  7.  24:  5,  or  the 
sect  of-  the  Nazarenes,  Acts  26:  28.  1  Pet.  4:  14,  16.  In  the  New 
Testament  the  phrase  occurs  in  only  two  other  passages,  and  jn 
these  in  such  a  connection  as  to  indicate  the  foreign  origin  of  the 
word. 

On  the  supposition  that  the  pagan  inhabitants  of  Antioch,  in  deri- 
sion first  promulgated  the  name  of  Christians  as  a  nickname,  it  is 
easy  to  see  how  it  might  soon  come  into  general  use  among  the  Ro- 
mans. For  that  the  Roman  historians  regarded  Christians  as  an  in- 
significant and  contemptible  faction,  is  evident  from  the  language  of 
Tacitus,  who  says  that  "  Nero  inflicted  the  severest  punishments 
on  those  who  were  commonly  denominated  Christians.,  and  were 
detested  for  their  infamous  crimes.  Their  name  they  derived  from 
one  Chrislus,  who,  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius  suffered  under  Pontius 
Pilate."-  Suetonius,  also,  referring  evidently  to  Christians,  relates, 
that  the  Jews  were  expelled  from  Rome  because  of  their  ceaseless 
tumults,  to  which  they  were  instigated  by  one  named  Chrestus.^ 

It  would  seem  therefore,  that  the  apostles  themselves  adopted  the 
name  which  had  been  imposed  upon  them  in  derision,  and  rejoiced 
to  bear  this  reproach.''  From  the  apostles,  their  followers  adopted  it, 
as  the  exclusive  name  of  their  body.  To  be  denominated  a  Chris- 
tian was,  in  the  estimation  of  the  christian  professors  and  martyrs, 
their  highest  honor.  This  is  forcibly  illustrated  in  the  narrative 
which  Eusebius  has  copied  from  an  ancient  record,  of  one  Sanclus 
in  Vienna,  who  endured  all  the  inhuman  tortures  which  art  could 
inflict.  His  tormentors  hoped,  by  the  continuance  and  severity  of 
his  pains,  to  extort  from  him  some  unfortunate  acknowledgement ; 
but  he  withstood  them  with  unflinching  fortitude,  neither  disclosing 
to  them  his  name,  nor  his  native  land,  nor  his  condition  in  life, 
whether  freeman  or  slave.  To  all  their  interrogations  he  only  re- 
plied, in  the  Latin  tongue,  I  am  a  Christian,  affirming  that  his  name, 
his  country,  and  his  kindred, — all  were  included  in  this.  Of  the 
same  import  also  was  the  deportment  of  the  martyr  Lucian  as  re- 
lated by  Chrysostom.5     To  every  interrogation  he  replied,  I  am  a 

6 


42  NAMES  AND  CLASSES  OF  CHRISTIANS. 

Christian.  Of  what  country  are  you  ?  I  am  a  Christian.  What 
is  your  occupation  ?  I  am  a  Christian.  Who  are  your  parents  ? 
I  am  a  Christian.     And  such  was  his  reply  to  every  question. 

It  was  a  favorite  sentiment  with  the  primitive  Christians,  that  the 
name  of  Christian  would  be  sufficient  to  prevent  all  sectarian  divi- 
sions, and  to  preserve  and  to  perpetuate  among  them  unity  of  faith 
and  doctrine.  I  honor  Peter,  said  Gregory  Nazianzen,^  but  I  am 
not  called  by  his  name.  I  honor  Paul,  but  I  am  not  of  Paul.  The 
name  I  bear  is  derived  from  no  man,  but  I  am  from  God.  No  sect 
or  church  took  their  name  from  the  apostles,  observes  Epiphanius.''' 
For  we  have  never  heard  of  the  followers  of  Peter,  Paul,  Bartholo- 
mew or  Thaddeus  :  But  all  the  apostles,  from  the  beginning,  held 
one  faith,  and  preached,  not  themselves,  but  Jesus  Christ  their  Lord. 
For  this  reason  they  all  gave  the  church  one  name,  derived,  not  from 
themselves,  but  from  their  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  after  they  had  al- 
ready begun  to  be  called  Christians  at  Antioch.  As  they  all  had 
one  Lord,  so  were  they  also  one,  and  bore  the  common  name  of 
Christians,  professing  themselves  to  be  the  followers  of  him,  not  as 
the  head  oj  their  sect  or  party  ^  but  as  the  author  of  their  common  faith. 
They  even  refused  the  name  of  ChrisCs  church,  claiming  to  be  only 
a  christian  church,  i.  e.  a  body  of  Christians.  From  this  primitive 
church,  various  religious  sects  separated  themselves,  who  assumed 
the  names  of  Manichaeans,  Simonians,  Valentinians,  Ebionites,  etc. 

Without  attempting  a  full  definition  of  all  the  names  which  have 
been  ascribed  to  Christians  by  the  fathers,  I  give  a  brief  account  of 
the  princij)al  appellations  by  which  they  were  known. 

1.  Catholics.  While  the  church  remained  one  and  undivided,  it 
was  appropriately  styled  the  Catholic  church.  But  after  the  rise 
of  different  sects,  who,  notwithstanding  their  separation  from  the 
church,  still  claimed  to  be  called  Christians,  then  did  the  true  be- 
lievers assume  the  name  of  Catholics  to  distinguish  themselves  from 
these  heretical  sects.  So  that  the  Catholic  church  is  the  true  church, 
in  distinction  from  all  heretics.  None  were  allowed  to  be  Christians 
who  did  not  belong  to  this  Catholic  church.  I  am  of  the  Catholic 
church,  said  Pionius  the  martyr,  for  Christ  has  no  other. 

2.  Ecclesiastics,  men  of  the  church.  Eusebius,  Origen,  Epipha- 
nius,  and  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  frequently  use  this  term  in  distinc- 
tion from  Jews,  gentiles,  and  heretics  ;  and  in  such  a  connection 
as  not  to  designate  by  it  the  priesthood,  to  whom  the  appellation 
of  ecclesiastics  appropriately  belongs. 


REPROACH  CONFERRED  ON  CHRISTIANS.  13 

3.  Dogmatics,  oi  lov  Joy^irxTos,  men  of  the  true  faith.  This  term 
denotes  those  who  held  fast  the  sound  doctrines  of  the  church.  Pri- 
marily, it  was  applied  only  to  rehgious  teachers  and  rulers  in  the 
church,  but  subsequently,  it  was  so  extended  as  to  include  all  who 
were  sound  in  the  faith. 

4.  Gnostics.  Denoting  such  as  are  truly  learned,  in  opposition 
to  the  pretensions  of  false  teachers.  By  this,  Christians  were  espe- 
cially distinguished  from  an  arrogant  sect  who  claimed  to  be  called 
by  the  same  name.  Clemens  Ale.xandrinus,  Irenaeus,  and  others, 
would  intimate  by  this  term  that  not  merely  the  teachers,  but  all 
members  of  the  catholic  church,  were  in  possession  of  true  wis- 
dom drawn  from  no  corrupt  fountain,  and  mi.xed  with  no  foreign 
ingredient. 

5.  The.ophoroi,  ■&fO(p6Qoi,  Christophoroi,xQt<^^o<f)6Qot.  These  epi- 
thets, originally  applied  as  thles  of  honor,  became,  in  time,  proper 
names.  The  former  was  first  conferred  upon  Ignatius,  who  is 
usually  quoted  as  Ignatius  o  y-ul  Oso(p6i>og.  From  him  or  some  other 
ancient  father,  it  passed  into  a  sur-name,  but  whether  from  his  de- 
claration to  the  emperor  Trajan  that  he  bore  Christ  his  God  in  his 
heart— or  from  the  blessing  of  Christ  bestowed  upon  him  in  his  child- 
hood—or from  the  name  of  Christ  imprinted  on  his  breast— or  for 
some  other  reason,  is  not  knov/n.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  many 
other  eminent  Christians  were  so  named.*^ 

6.  'Ix&ig  Fishes.  An  acrostic  fancifully  derived  from  the  initials 
of  the  several  appellations  of  our  Saviour,  "irjaovg,  Xijktio?,  Osov  Tlog, 
Hmho.     The  first  letters  of  each  are  united  in  the  word  'l/^vc. 

The  names  Christian,  Christiana,  Christopher,  Theophilus,  and 
the  like,  so  common  in  every  age  of  the  church,  though  adopted  for 
convenience,  by  implication  denotes  also,  devotedness  to  the  service 
of  Christ,  and  the  acknowledgement  of  his  name  and  his  divinity. 

§  2.  Names  of  Reproach  and  Derision  conferred  on  Christians 

BY  their  enemies. 

These  are  indeed  without  number.  Such  hatred  and  contempt 
was  felt  for  Christianity  and  its  professors,  both  by  Jews  and  gen- 
tiles, that  they  seized  every  opportunity  to  expose  the  disciples  of 
Christ,  as  dangerous  and  contemptible  men.  The  reproachful  epi- 
thets cast  upon  them,  with  few  exceptions,  relate  only  to  the  first 


44  NAMES  AND  CLASSES  OF  CHRISTIANS. 

centuries  of  the  christian  era,  and  are  chiefly  interesting  to  the  his- 
torian and  antiquarian.  And  yet  they  are  of  importance  as  illustra- 
ting the  condition  of  the  primitive  church. 

1.  Jews.  By  the  Romans,  Christians  were  at  first  regarded  merely 
as  a  Jewish  sect,  like  the  Pharisees,  Sadducees,  and  Essenes.  As  such 
they  were  accordingly  denominated  Jews.,  and  despised  as  a  super- 
stitious and  misanthropic  sect.  After  they  began  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  Jews,  they  were  described  by  Suetonius  as  a  class  of  men 
of  a  new  and  mischievous  superstition.  Genus  hominum  supersti- 
tionis  novae  et  maleficae.^ 

2.  Nazarenes.  Both  Jews  and  gentiles  unitedly  denominated  the 
Christians  Nazarenes.  The  word  is  variously  written  Nazurenes, 
Nazarenes,  Nazorenes,  Nazerenes,  and  Nazirenes.  The  significa- 
tions of  the  term  seem  to  have  been  as  various  as  its  form,  though  it 
is  uniformly  applied  in  a  bad  sense.^  Acts  24:  5. 

3.  Galileans.  The  author  of  the  name  Galileans  as  a  term  of  re- 
proach was,  according  to  Gregory  Nazianzen,^  Julian  the  apostate. 
This  he  constantly  employed,  and  made  a  law  requiring  that  they 
should  not  be  called  by  any  other  nanne.  He  died  with  these  re- 
markable words  on  his  lips :  Ah  !  thou  Galilean !  thou  hast  con- 
quered.'* 

4.  Greeks.  In  direct  opposition  to  Julian,  christian  converts  were 
by  the  ancient  Romans,  styled  Greeks ;  which  with  them  was  a  pro- 
verbial phrase,  expressive  both  of  suspicion  and  contempt,  as  an  im- 
postor. Whenever  they  saw  a  Christian  in  the  high  way,  they  were 
wont  to  exclaim:  Ah!  a  Greek  impostor.^  Christ  himself  was  re- 
garded as  an  impostor.  Matt.  27:  63. 

5.  Magicians.  By  heathen  nations,  the  author  of  the  christian 
religion  was  styled  Magician,  and  his  followers  Magicians.^ 

Of  other  names  which  the  malice  of  their  persecutors  invented 
or  applied  to  them,  the  following  is  a  brief  summary. 

Sihyllists.  From  their  being  charged  with  corrupting  the  Sibyl- 
line books.     A  favorite  insinuation  of  Celsus.'' 

Sarmentitii.  Derived  from  the  faggots  with  which  the  fires  were 
kindled  around  them  at  the  stake.^ 

Semaxii.     From  the  stake  to  which  they  were  bound. 

Paraholani,  naqu^oXoi..  From  their  being  exposed  to  ravenous 
beasts.3 

Bia&dvttiot,  self-murderers.  Alluding  to  their  fearlessness  of 
death. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  CHRISTIANS.  45 

"A&soi,  Atheists?^ 

NsortQoi,^^  Novelli,  7iew  lights. 

~iav()olurQai,^^  worshippers  of  the  cross,  2  Cor.  1:  18. 

Plautinae  prosapiae^^  homines  et  Pistores,  men  of  the  race  of 
Platitus,  bakers.  Plautus  is  said  to  have  hired  himself  lo  a  baker, 
to  grind  in  his  mill. 

Asinarii,'^  loorshippers  of  an  ass.  Creduli,  Simplices,  Stulti,  Lu- 
cifugae,  Stupidi,  Fatui,  Imperiti,  Abjecti,  Hebetes,  Idiotae,  etc. 

§  3.  Division  and  Classification  of  Christians. 

As  in  the  Old  Testament,  two  great  classes  of  persons  are  recog- 
nized and  distinguished,  the  one  from  the  other — the  children  of 
Israel  and  the  gentiles  rNnu;-]  ""rs  and  'z^'m.  So  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament we  observe  a  similar  division,  ol  icroi  and  ol  I'^w,  those  that 
are  within  and  those  that  are  without.  The  former  denotes  Chris- 
tians, not  only  as  united  together  in  the  fellowship  of  the  church, 
but  as  opposed  to  the  latter  class,  which  includes  both  Jews  and  gen- 
tiles. This  classification,  however,  has  no  reference  to  a  division  of 
Christians  among  themselves,  but  simply  to  the  distinction  between 
such  as  are,  and  such  as  are  not,  believers  in  the  Christian  religion. 
A  similar  form  of  expression  is  used  in  various  passages  also  to 
distinguish  the  true  and  the  false  disciples  of  Christ,  Mark  4:  11. 
13:  14.  Luke  6:  13.  2  John  2:  19. 

The  equality  of  all  Christians  is  clearly  asserted  in  the  Scriptures. 
They  are  brethren,  and  as  such  have  equal  rights,  laojifnoi.  Comp. 
2  Pet.  1:  1.  They  are  one  heritage,  2  Pet.  5:  3;  and  all  members 
of  the  same  head.  Col.  1:  18.  Nay,  Christ  himself  asserts  the 
equality  of  all  his  disciples,  Luke  22:  25,  26.  And  yet  a  distinction 
is  made  between  the  master  and  his  disciple — the  teacher  and  the 
taught.  The  one  are  denominated  the  people,  6  Xaog,-  the  flock,  to 
•noijivlov  ;  the  body  of  believers,  to  nlij&og  twv  tikttwv  ;  the  church, 
i\  i>iy.h]ula ;  private  persons,  Idi^xai  ,•  and  laymen,  or  men  devoted 
to  seculiar  pursuits,  SioitdcoI.  The  others  are  styled  teachers,  8i- 
ddaHakot, ;  leaders,  ijyov^svoi ;  shepherds,  notfiivsg ;  overseers,  inia- 
KOTiok;  elders,  iiQosa^vxBQoi ;  rulers,  7iQ0f(jTbJzsg,  etc.  Subordinate  to 
these  were  the  deacons,  didxovot. ;  the  widoivs,  xvQf^h  or  deacon- 
esses, diuKovhauL ;  the  attendants,  vnfjgsTai,  and  the  inferiors,  vmis- 
qai.  So  that  even  the  New  Testament  indicates  an  ecclesiastical 
order,  which  at  a  later  age  became  much  more  prominent. 


46  NAMES  AND  CLASSES  OF   CHRISTIANS. 

The  sacred  persons  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  and  the 
regulations  prescribed  for  the  worship  of  God,  were  undoubtedly- 
derived  from  the  relif^ion  of  the  Jews.  Indeed  this  fact  has  never 
been  called  in  question.  The  only  inquiry  has  been  whether  the  or- 
ganization of  the  christian  church  is  to  be  derived  chiefly  from  the 
forms  of  the  tempJe  service^  or  from  those  of  the  synagogue  worship, 
both  of  which  were  in  use  through  the  period  of  the  second  temple, 
from  the  time  of  the  Babylonish  captivity  to  that  of  the  christian  era. 

This  difference  of  opinion  is  evidently  very  ancient.  Tertullian 
compares  the  office  of  bishop  with  that  of  the  high  priest.^  Cyprian 
and  Jerome  consider  the  Mosaic  economy  as  the  prototype  of  the 
christian  church  ;^  while  Chrysostom,  Basil  the  Great,  Augustine  and 
others,  refer  its  origin  to  the  synagogue.  The  church  of  Rome 
manifestly  has  great  interest  in  establishing  the  first  hypothesis. 
And  yet  there  are  not  wanting  in  that  church  those  who  maintain  the 
contrary  opinion.  The  majority  of  the  learned,  especially  of  the 
evangelical  church,  oppose  the  theory  that  the  constitution  of  the 
church  is  to  be  traced  for  the  most  part  to  the  temple  service  ;  but 
in  every  particular  they  labor  to  show  that  it  is  derived  from  the 
regulations  of  the  Jewish  synagogue. 

The  most  ancient  specific  classification  in  the  church,  of  which  we 
have  any  knowledge,  is  found  in  Eusebius.^  "  In  every  church 
there  are  three  orders  of  men.  One  of  the  i]yov^iivm>,  svperiors,  i.  e. 
rulers,  leaders  or  guides  ;  and  two  of  the  vjio^3s(ii]x6T(ov,  suhjecis,  i.  e. 
the  people,  the  body  of  the  church.  The  latter  class  comprehends 
two  divisions,  the  unbaptized,  and  the  faithful.  The  unbaptized  are 
usually  denominated  xairj;(oi'[Aivoi,  catechumens,  candidates  for  bap- 
tism."    See  §  5- 

The  above  classification  of  Eusebius,  in  reality  recognizes  but 
two  classes  of  men.  Those  that  teach,  and  those  that  are  taught. 
And  this  corresponds  with  the  classification  given  by  Jerome,^  though 
he  specifies  five  classes — bishops,  presbyters,  deacons,  believers, 
and  catechumens.  Here  again,  there  really  are  but  two  divisions  ; 
those  that  teach,  comprising  the  first  three,  and  those  that  are  taught, 
comprising  the  last  two.  The  divisions  of  the  church  which  occur 
in  periods  still  later,  are  substantially  the  same.  They  universally 
recognize  the  distinction  of  the  teacher,  and  the  taught.  These 
are  most  frequently  denominated  the  laity  and  the  clergy,  with  this 
difference,  that  in  the  latter  class,  the  idea  of  ruler  as  well  as  teacher 


OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH.  47 

is  comprehended,  a  distinction,  however,  which  is  rather  implied 
than  expressed. 

§  4.  Of  the  Christian  Church. 

This  term,  iy.xh](Tia,  in  the  New  Testament,  and  by  the  ancient  fa- 
thers, primarily  denoted  an  assembly  of  Christians,  i.  e.  believers  in 
the  christian  religion  in  distinction  from  all  others.  In  this  sense  it 
included  the  officers  and  teachers,  though  these  were  more  frequent- 
ly denominated  ixy.h](nuaTiy.ol,  ecclesiastics.  But  it  has,  from  the 
earliest  ages,  been  used  in  a  more  restricted  sense  to  denote  the 
great  body  of  the  church,  the  laity,  in  distinction  from  her  officers 
and  teachers.  So  it  is  used  by  Eusebius,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  and 
Amalarius. 

That  it  so  seldom  occurs  in  this  signification,  is  to  be  ascribed 
merely  to  the  circumstance  that  the  term  laity  was  the  technical 
name  of  the  body  of  the  church  in  contradistinction  from  the  clergy. 
The  derivation  of  the  word  is  unquestionably  from  the  Greek  kuog, 
people.  In  this  sense  it  is  not  indeed  used  in  the  New  Testament, 
but  it  occurs  in  the  earliest  christian  writers,  and  was  in  familiar  use 
in  the  third  century. 

Tertullian  especially  complains  of  heretics,  that  they  confounded 
the  officers  of  the  church.  One  is  made  bishop  to-day,  another  to- 
morrow. One  is  to-day  a  deacon,  to-morrow  a  reader  ;  to-day  a  pres- 
byter, to-morrow  a  layman  ;  for  they  confer  the  sacerdotal  offices 
even  upon  the  laity.^  Such  was  the  anxiety  of  the  ancient  church 
to  distinguish  between  the  clergy  and  laity,  and  to  guard  them  from 
assuming  any  of  the  official  duties  of  the  priesthood.  Jerome  in- 
deed speaks  of  a  lay  priesthood,  but  by  the  term  he  only  designates 
those  who  have  received  christian  baptism,  in  allusion  to  the  passage  : 
He  hath  made  us  kings  and  priests  unto  God  ! 

The  laity  were  also  divided  into  different  classes,  which  were 
very  distinctly  known  and  cautiously  observed  previous  to  the  gene- 
ral introduction  of  infant  baptism.  The  prevalence  of  this  ordi- 
nance changed,  in  a  great  measure,  the  ancient  classification  of  the 
church,  which  again  was  subject  to  other  modifications  by  the  rise  of 
the  different  classes  of  penitents,  and  of  the  energumens  and  the 
several  orders  of  monastics. 


48  NAMES  AND  CLASSES  OF  CHRISTIANS. 

[The  views  which  the  primitive  Christians  entertained  of  them- 
selves as  the  priests  of  God  are  clearly  exhibited  in  the  following 
extracts  from  Bib.  Repos.  July  1840,  pp.  97 — 99.  "  They  viewed 
themselves  as  the  j^riests  of  God,  placed  in  a  polluted  world  to  sanc- 
tify it,  to  be  purified  temples  in.  which  the  Holy  Spirit  might  dwell, 
safe  from  the  contact  of  surrounding  corruption,  to  be  purified  chan- 
nels in  which  the  sweet  influences  of  heaven,  the  rills  from  the  river 
of  life,  which  surrounds  the  throne  of  God,  might  freely  flow  to  puri- 
fy a  world  which  lay  in  wickedness. 

"  '  We,'  says  Justin  Martyr,  (Dial.  Tryph.  355,)  '  are  the  true 
high  priests  of  God,  as  God  himself  testifies,  when  he  says  that  plea- 
sant incense  and  a  pure  offering  shall  in  every  place  among  the 
heathen  be  offered  to  him.  Mai.  1:  11.  He  receives  offerings  from 
none  but  his  priests.  Prayer  and  thanksgiving  only,  brought  by  the 
worthy,  are  genuine  offerings  well  pleasing  to  God  ;  and  those, 
Christians  alone  are  in  a  condition  to  give.'  Says  Irenaeus  (iv.  20), 
'  All  the  righteous  have  the  sacerdotal  dignity.'  Says  Tertullian 
(de  Orat.  c.  28), '  We  are  the  true  worshippers  and  the  true  priests, 
who,  praying  in  the  Spirit,  in  the  Spirit  offer  to  God  the  prayer 
which  is  his  due,  and  is  well-pleasing  to  him.  Such  prayer,  coming 
from  a  heart  full  of  devotion,  nourished  by  faith,  kept  pure  by  a 
blameless  life,  made  glorious  by  love,  and  accompanied  with  good 
works,  we  must  with  psalms  and  hymns  bring  to  the  altar  of  God  ; 
and  it  is  all  which  God  requires  of  us.' 

"  There  was  then  no  such  distinction  between  clergymen  and  lay- 
men, that  compliances  which  would  be  acknowledged  improper  in 
the  one  would  yet  be  considered  harmless  in  the  other.  They  were 
all  equally  the  priests  of  God,  and  as  such  they  felt  their  responsi- 
bilities, and  as  such  they  endeavored  to  keep  themselves  unspotted 
from  the  world,  and  always  to  maintain  the  grave  and  serious  de- 
meanor becoming  in  a  priest  of  the  Most  High.  Says  Tertullian 
(Monog.  7),  '  We  are  priests,  called  thereto  by  Christ.  The  su- 
preme High  Priest,  the  great  Priest  of  the  Heavenly  Father,  even 
Christ,  when  he  clothed  us  with  that  which  is  his,  for  as  many  of 
you  as  are  baptized  have  put  on  Christ,  Gal.  3:  27,  hath  made  us 
kings  and  priests  to  God  and  his  Father.'  Rev,  1:6.  '  We  are  de- 
luded if  we  imagine  that  that  is  allowed  to  the  layman  which  is  not 
permitted  to  the  priest.  Are  not  we  laymen  also  priests.^'  (Exhort. 
0.7.)" 


CATECHUMENS.  49 

According  to  Rhelnwald,  Arch.  ^  12,  and  Gieseler  Kirchengesch, 
I.  169,  the  distinction  between  laity  and  clergy  was  unknown  until 
the  second  century.  Previous  to  this,  all  performed  the  office  of 
priests  as  they  had  occasion.  The  power  of  speaking  and  exhorta- 
tion was  considered  rather  the  free  gift  of  the  spirit,  and  was  posses- 
sed by  many  of  the  Ciiristians,  though  exercised  in  different  ways — 
prophets,  teachers,  speaking  with  tongues,  1  Cor.  12:28 — 31.  chap. 
14.  There  was  as  yet  no  distinct  order  of  clergy,  for  the  whole  so- 
ciety of  Christians  was  a  royal  priesthood,  1  Pet.  2:  9  ;  the  chosen 
people  of  God,  1  Pet.  5:  3.  comp.  Deut.  4:  20.  9:  29. 

In  support  of  his  opinion,  Gieseler  quotes  the  following  authorities. 
— "  TertuUian  de  exhort,  castit.  c.  7.  Amhrosiaster  (Hilarius  Dla- 
conus.=>),  about  A.  D.  380,  in  comment,  ad  Ephes.  iv.  11 :  Primum 
omncs  docebant  et  omnes  baptizabant,  quibuscunque  diebus  vel  tem- 
poribus  fuisset  occasio  ;  nee  enim  Philippus  tempus  quaesivit  aut 
diem,  quo  eunuchum  baptizaret  neque  jejunium  interposuit.  *  *  * 
Ut  ergo  cresceret  plebs  et  multiplicaretur,  omnibus  inter  inilia  con- 
cessum  est  et  evangelizare  et  baptizare  et  scripturas  in  ecclesia  ex- 
planare.  At  ubi  omnia  loca  complexa  est  ecclesia,  conventicula 
constituta  sunt  et  rcctores,  et  caetera  officia  in  ecclesiis  sunt  ordina- 
ta,  ut  nullus  de  clericis  [ceteris  ?]  auderet,  qui  ordinatus  non  esset, 
praesumere  officium,  quod  sciret  non  sibi  creditum  vel  concessum. 
Et  coepit  alio  ordine  et  providentia  gubernari  ecclesia,  quia  si  omnes 
eadem  possent,  irrationabile  esset,  et  vulgaris  res  et  vilissima  vide- 
retur.  Hinc  ergo  est,  unde  nunc  neque  diaconi  in  populo  praedi- 
cant,  neque  clerici  vel  laici  baptizant,  neque  quocunque  die  creden- 
tes  tinguntur,  nisi  aegri.  Ideo  non  per  oinnia  conveniunt  scripta 
ApostoU  ordinationi,  quae  nunc  in  ecclesia  est,  quia  Iwec  infer  pri- 
mordia  sunt  scripta. — Tr.] 

§  5.  Catechumens. 

These  take  their  name  from  yarrixovusvoi,  learners,  a  word  of  fre- 
quent occurrence  in  the  New  Testament,  Acts  18:  25.  Gal.  6:  6. 
Rom.  2:  19.  1  Cor.  14:  19.  The  catechumens  of  the  ancient  church 
were  candidates  for  baptism  under  instruction  for  admission  into  the 
christian  church.  They  were  styled  candidates,  candidi,  because 
they  were  wont  to  appear  dressed  in  white  on  their  admission  to 
church.     In  the   Latin  church  they  were  sometimes  denominated 

7 


50 


NAMES  AND  CLASSES  OF  CHRISTIANS. 


Novilii,  Tirones,  Audientes,  Rudes,  Ltcipientes,  Pueri,  etc.  equiva- 
lent to  the  terms  pupils,  beginners,  etc. 

The  importance  of  this  order  in  the  opinion  of  the  ancient  cliurch, 
appears  from  the  fact  tliat  schools  were  instituted  especially  for 
their  instruction,  and  caleciiists  appointed  over  them.  One  part  of 
the  church  service  was  also  suited  to  them  especially,  and  another  to 
the  faithful.  The  discipline  and  instruction  which  they  received  in 
this  manner,  was  usually  an  indispensable  preliminary  to  their  ad- 
mission into  the  churcii. 

The  reasons  which  led  to  the  institution  of  tliis  order,  are  well  de- 
scribed by  Jamieson,  in  the  following  extract : 

"  While  those  who  were  entitled  to  partake  of  the  Lord's  supper 
were  exclusively  denominated  the  faithful,  and  considered  as  occu- 
pying the  rank  of  perfect  or  approved  Christians,  there  were  seve- 
ral other  classes  of  persons,  who,  though  connected  with  the  Church, 
and  forming  constituent  parts  of  it,  were  yet  separated  from,  and  in- 
ferior to,  the  former,  being  in  various  stages  of  advancement  towards 
a  qualification  for  the  holy  riles  of  the  Gospel.  These  orders,  known 
by  the  name  of  catechumens,  were  distinguished  from  each  other  by 
lines  of  demarcation,  beyond  which  none  was  allowed  to  pass  with- 
out a  long  and  gradual  preparation  ;  and  between  a  newly  made  cate- 
chumen, and  a  Christian  in  the  rank  of  the  faithful,  there  was  as 
wide  a  difference  in  the  eye  of  the  primitive  Church,  as  between  an 
mfant  of  a  day,  and  one  who  has  attained  the  stature  of  a  full-grown 
man.  In  the  records  of  apostolic  times,  we  shall  in  vain  look  for  any 
traces  of  this  distinction, — for  then  a  heathen  no  sooner  made  an 
avowal  of  his  faith  in  Christ,  than  he  received  the  initiatory  rile  of 
Christianity.  His  conversion  was  immediately  followed  by  his  bap- 
tism, and  whatever  shades  of  difference  there  might  be  in  the  know- 
ledge of  the  new  converts,  all  were  considered  as  equally  entitled  to 
the  outward  sign,  as  they  were  to  the  inward  ari'd  spiritual  benefits 
of  the  ordinance.  But  in  the  process  of  time,  when  the  Church  was 
enlarged  by  a  daily  increasing  influx  of  members  from  heathenism, 
and  when  her  purity  was  no  longer  guarded  by  the  presiding  care  of 
those  who  possessed  the  miraculous  gift  of  discerning  spirits,  the  pi- 
ous solicitude  of  her  rulers  in  after-times,  gave  rise  to  the  custom  of 
deferring  the  admission  of  converts  into  the  fellowship  of  the  Church, 
till  clear  and  satisfactory  evidence  was  obtained  of  their  fitness,  in 
point  of  knowledge  and  sincerity,  to  be  enrolled  in  the  ranl.s  of  the 


CATECIIUMKNS.  51 

disciples.  The  dear-bought  experience  of  the  primitive  Christians 
had  convinced  them  that  the  gross  habits  of  idolaters  were  not  easily 
and  all  at  once,  in  many  instances,  rclinquisiied  for  the  pure  and 
spiritual  principles  of  the  Gospel,  and  tliat  multitudes  of  professed 
believers  held  their  faith  by  so  slender  a  tie,  that  the  slightest  temp- 
tation plunged  them  anew  into  tlicir  former  sensuality,  and  the  first 
alarm  drove  them  back  into  the  enemies'  camp.  To  diminish,  and, 
if  possible,  to  prevent  the  occurrence  of  such  melancholy  apostasies, 
which  interrupted  the  peace  and  prosperity  of  the  christian  society, 
and  brought  a  stain  on  the  christian  name,  was  a  consummation  de- 
voutly wished  for  by  the  pious  fathers  of  the  primitive  age  ;  and  ac- 
cordingly, animated  by  a  spirit  of  holy  jealousy,  they  adopted  the 
rule,  w  iiich  soon  came  into  universal  practice,  of  instituting  a  severe 
and  protracted  inquiry  into  the  character  and  views  of  candidates  for 
admission  to  the  communion  of  the  church, — of  not  suddenly  ad- 
vancing them  to  that  honorable  degree,  but  of  continuing  them  for  a 
limited  period  in  a  state  of  probation.  It  was  thus  that  the  order  of 
the  catechumens  arose,  an  order  which,  though  unknown  to  the  age 
of  Peter  and  Paul,  boasts  of  a  very  early  introduction  into  the  prim- 
itive church  ;  and,  at  whatever  period  its  date  may  be  fixed,  its  ori- 
gin is  to  be  traced  to  the  laudable  desire  of  more  fully  instructing 
young  converts  in  the  doctrines  of  the  christian  faith,  and  at  the  same 
time  affording  them  opportunities  to  give  evidence  of  the  sincerity  of 
their  profession,  by  the  change  of  their  lives  and  the  holiness  of  their 
conversation." — Manners  of  Prim.  Christ,  pp.  130 — 2. 

Alexandrinus  and  Origen  have  much  to  say  in  recommendation 
of  a  certain  secret  doctrine  of  the  church,  /.ivajJiQioaoqiu,  scientia 
arcani.  This  discovers  itself  about  the  same  time  with  the  order  of 
catechumens,  and  appears  to  have  fallen  into  disrepute,  as  the  church 
increased,  and  additions  were  made  to  it  from  baptized  children  of 
christian  families,  rather  than  from  the  candidates  who  had  been  re- 
ceived from  among  Jews  and  Gentiles. 

There  was  no  specific  rule  respecting  the  age  at  which  Jewish 
and  heathen  converts  were  received  as  catechumens.  History  in- 
forms us,  that  the  greater  part  were  persons  of  adult  age.  Even 
Constantine  the  Great  was  reckoned  among  this  class.  The  delay 
of  baptism,  against  which  Gregory  of  Nyssa  and  otliers  inveighed  so 
earnestly  in  the  fourth  century,  seems  to  intimate  that  these  subjects 
of  baptism  were  usually  advanced  beyond  the  legal  age  of  manhood. 


52  NAMES  AND  CLASSES  OF  CHRISTIANS. 

It  must  indeed  be  admitted  as  an  exception  to  this  usage,  that  whole 
families  were  occasionally  baptized,  as  in  the  times  of  the  apostles, 
Acts  16:  15,  31.  18:  8.  1  Cor.  1:  16.  And  as  an  argument  in  favor 
of  infant  baptism,  this  usage  is  the  more  persuasive  from  the  fact 
that  after  the  fourth  century  paedobaptism  was  much  more  gene- 
rally introduced  and  defended.  In  the  meanwhile,  no  rule  is  given 
for  the  children  of  christian  parents,  respecting  their  requisite  age, 
for  becoming  catechumens.  And  it  is  remarkable  that  Tertullian 
and  Cyprian  who,  in  other  respects  are  so  harmonious,  should  so 
disagree  on  this  point.  The  latter  was  an  advocate  for  paedobap- 
tism ;  the  former,  a  zealous  opposer.  "  It  is  better,  he  says,  for  each 
one  to  delay  his  baptism,  according  to  his  condition,  disposition  and 
age — especially  for  the  young.  Let  them  come  when  they  have 
arrived  to  maturity  ;  let  them  come  when  they  have  sufficient  know- 
ledge— when  they  are  taught  why  they  come ;  let  them  become 
Christians  (by  baptism)  when  they  have  a  competent  knowledge  of 
Christ."! 

The  case  of  Augustine  may  with  propriety  be  cited  in  this  place. 
By  his  pious  mother  Monica  he  had,  from  his  infancy,  been  care- 
fully instructed  in  the  christian  religion.  In  consequence  of  a  dan- 
gerous sickness  he  was  about  to  be  baptized  in  early  childhood,  that 
he  might  die  as  a  Christian,  under  the  covenant.  But  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  ordinance  was  deferred  in  consequence  of  his  re- 
covery ;  and  the  delay  he  regarded  as  a  kind  Providence.  From 
this  example  the  inference  is,  that  he  might  have  received  due  pre- 
paration for  the  ordinance  from  his  pious  mother,  but  that  his  bap- 
tism would  have  been  an  exception  to  the  general  rule  on  this  sub- 
ject. He  was  converted  under  Ambrose  of  Milan,  and,  though  at 
this  lime  a  distinguished  writer,  became  a  regular  catechumen.  Af- 
ter due  preparation,  he  was  baptized  in  the  year  387. 

It  is  however  certain  that  children  were,  at  an  early  age,  the  sub- 
jects of  baptism,  and  that  too,  not  merely  in  cases  of  emergency, 
but  by  established  rule  and  usage ;  for  it  was  against  this  usage  that 
Tertullian  felt  himself  constrained  to  write.  But  these  little  children 
■who  were  incapable  of  knowing  Christ,  as  Tertullian  describes  them, 
could  not  of  course  be  subject  to  any  such  preliminary  preparation 
as  the  catechumens  received.  They  could  only  be  subject  to  such 
exercises  subsequent  to  boplism,  jusX  as,  since  the  general  introduc- 
tion of  infant  baptism,  the  subsequent  instructions  preparatory  to 


CATECHUMENS.  53 

confirmation  are  regarded,  which  is  a  religious  ordinance  introduced 
into  the  church  very  unlike  the  original  usage. 

No  general  rule  prevailed  respecting  the  time  which  the  catechu- 
mens should  spend  in  that  relation.  It  varied  at  difTerent  limes,  and 
according  to  the  usages  of  the  several  churches  ;  especially,  ac- 
cording to  the  proficiency  of  each,  individually.  In  the  constitution 
of  the  apostles,^  three  years  are  prescribed.  By  the  council  of  lUi- 
beri,3  A.  D.  673,  two  years.  By  that  of  Agatha,^  A.  D.  506,  eight 
months.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  and  Jerome,  direct  them  to  observe  a 
season  of  fasting  and  prayer  for  forty  days.^  From  all  which,  the 
inference  is,  that  there  was  no  determinate  rule  on  this  subject. 
This  public  preparation  of  the  catechumens  necessarily  implies,  that 
they  were  previously  subject  to  private  instrucLioh.  The  same  is 
inferred  from  the  instructions  which  were  preliminary  to  confirmation. 
The  true  idea  of  which  is,  that  of  completing  and  confirming  the 
discipline  to  which  the  candidate  has  already  been  subjected.  Ex- 
ceptions there  undoubtedly  were.  Instances  may  be  adduced  in 
which  all  the  preparation  which  the  candidate  received  was  limited 
to  a  single  day.*^  And  the  procedure  is  authorized  by  examples  in 
the  Scriptures.  But  the  rules  of  the  church,  have  ever  required  a 
longer  period  of  probation. 

The  catechumens  were  early  divided  into  separate  classes.  But 
their  number,  and  their  names,  were  somewhat  different.  The 
Greek  canonists  specify  two  classes.'^  The  uninitiated,  uisUcthqoi, 
and  the  more  advanced,  jeharfQoi,  perfectiores.  These  are  styled 
by  Suidas,^  the  a>:QO(x\usvoi.,  such  as  are  occupied  in  learning,  and 
Ev/of^svol,  such  as  are  engaged  in  devotional  pursuits.  Maldonatus 
gives  three  classes,^  the  audientes,  the  coinpetenles,  and  the  poenilen- 
tes.  According  to  Bingham, ^'^  there  were  four  classes.  1.  Those 
who  were  subject  to  private  instruction.  2.  Such  as  received  pub- 
lic instruction.  3.  Those  who  were  occupied  with  devotional  ex- 
ercises. 4.  Those  who  were  duly  qualified  for  baptism.  But  this 
classification  is  not  duly  authorized. 

These  distinctions,  however,  are  of  little  importance,  and  have 
never  been  generally  recognized.  They  seem  to  have  been  made 
as  occasion  required,  rather  than  by  any  essential  rule  of  classifica- 
tion. The  churches  at  Rome,  Constantinople,  Antioch,  and  Alex- 
andria, were  at  variance  among  themselves  on  this  point,  and  each 
agreed  with  the  churches  of  its  own  communion  only  in  a  few  lead- 


54  NAMES  AND  CLASSES  OF  CHRISTIANS. 

ing  particulars.  The  gradations  of  improvement  were  particularly 
observed.  The  age,  and  sex,  and  circumstances  of  the  catechu- 
mens, were  also  duly  regarded  ;  men  of  age,  and  rank,  not  being 
classed  with  children  of  twelve  or  thirteen  years  of  age.  At  one 
time  they  may  have  all  been  united  in  one  class,  and  at  another,  may 
have  been  divided  into  two,  three,  or  even  four  several  divisions. 

The  mode  of  their  admittance  was  very  brief,  and  unceremonious. 
But  some  form  of  admission  was  uniformly  required,  a  circumstance 
which  illustrates  the  degree  of  consideration  in  which  the  rile  was 
held,  while  it  indicates  the  existence  both  of  some  determinate  time 
of  admission,  and  of  some  difference  of  opinion  respecting  it.  The 
imposition  of  hands  was  one  of  the  prescribed  ceremonies. ^^  The 
sign  of  the  crosfe  is  also  mentioned.  Augustine  received  the  sign  of 
the  cross,  and  affirms  that  this,  with  the  imposition  of  hands,  was 
the  usual  mode  of  setting  them  apart.  By  Porphyry,  bishop  of  Ga- 
za, converts  from  paganism  were  received,  by  prostrating  them- 
selves at  his  feet,  and  requesting  to  receive  the  sign  of  the  cross. 
After  having  passed  upon  them  this  sign,  and  received  them  as  cate- 
chumens, he  propounded  them  for  admission  to  the  church,  and  dis- 
missed them  with  his  benediction.  Soon  after  this,  he  baptized 
them,  having  previously  given  them  catechetical  instruction.^-  In 
this  instance,  the  term  of  probation  must  have  been  short.  They 
were  also  immediately  recognized  as  candidates  for  baptism,  without 
reference  to  the  distinction  of  classes. 

The  manner  of  receiving  a  catechumen,  therefore,  was  substan- 
tially as  follows  ;  The  bishop  examined  the  candidate,  and,  if  he 
was  found  worthy,  enroled  his  name  in  the  records  of  the  church. 
The  solemnity  was  then  concluded  by  prayer,  imposition  of  hands, 
and  the  signing  of  the  cross. — Siegel,  Catechumenat,  Vol.  I.  p.  367. 

The  exercises  of  the  catechumens  until  their  union  with  believ- 
ers, were  wholly  directed  with  reference  to  their  preparation  for 
baptism.  They  consisted  generally  in  attending  to  various  catecheti- 
cal and  doctrinal  instructions,  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures,  etc. 
The  advanced  class,  before  baptism,  were  subject  to  repeated  exami- 
nations, and  to  a  kind  of  exorcism  accompanied  with  imposition  of 
hands,  the  sign  of  the  cross,  and  insufflation,  the  breathing  of  the 
priest  upon  them.  They  also  passed  many  days  in  fasting  and 
prayer,  and  in  learning  the  words  of  their  creed  and  the  Lord's 
prayer.'*^ 


CATECHUMENS. 


55 


In  case  of  severe  sickness,  baptism  was  administered  to  tlie  pa- 
tient on  his  bed,  ini  xr,q  vllvriq.  This  was  called  clinic  baptism.  In 
such  instances,  it  was  allowable  to  administer  it  by  sprinkling.  Bap- 
tism was  also  administered  to  apostate  catechumens  in  the  near  ap- 
proach of  death,  and  to  such  apostates  as  gave  evidence  of  repent- 
ance it  was  not  denied,  even  though  they  were  not  received  to  the 
class  of  penitents. 

Any  one  devoted  to  martyrdom,  was  reckoned  among  the  cate- 
chumens, martyrdom  being  regarded  as  a  full  substitute,  and  there- 
fore styled  hJood  haplism.^'^ 

This  notion  was  derived  from  various  passages  in  the  Scriptures. 
'  He  that  loseth  his  life,  shall  find  it,'  Matt.  10:  39.  'I  have  a  bap- 
tism to  bo  baptized  with,'  Luke  12:  50.  Baptism  was  accounted 
essential  to  salvation.  Martyrdom  was  also  esteemed  a  passport  to 
heaven.     It  was  therefore  made  a  substitute  for  baptism. 

On  the  contrary,  if  any  catechumen  who  had  caused  the  delay  of 
his  baptism  by  his  crimes,  died  unbaptized,  he  was  not  treated  as  a 
Christian.  His  name  was  not  enrolled  in  the  records  of  the  church 
while  living,  and  after  death,  he  was  denied  the  solemnities  of  chris- 
tian burial,  and  refused  a  place  in  the  catalogue  of  Christians.  He 
was  buried,  Sine  cruce  el  luce. 

Much  controversy  has  arisen  out  of  a  passage  from  Augustine,'^ 
respecting  the  sacrament  of  the  catechumens,  relating  chiefly  to  the 
consecrated  bread  jmnis  henedictus.  But  Bona,  Basnage  and  Bing- 
ham have  sufficiently  shown,  that  it  was  not  the  sacramental  bread, 
but  bread  seasoned  with  salt ;  and  that  this,  at  their  baptism,  was 
administered  with  milk  and  honey,  salt  being  the  emblem  of 
purity  and  incorruption.'*^ 

Tiie  ancient  discipline  of  the  catechumens,  preparatory  to  their 
admission  into  the  communion  of  the  church  as  above  stated,  is 
briefly  summed  up  in  the  following  extract.  It  exhibits  so  clearly 
the  extreme  caution  and  deliberation  of  the  ancient  church,  in  re- 
ceiving candidates  into  their  communion,  that  no  apology  can  be 
necessary  for  inserting  it  as  a  brief  recapitulation. 

"The  moment  that  a  heathen  announced  his  resolution  to  aban- 
don the  religion  of  his  fathers,  and  to  embrace  that  of  Jesus,  he  was 
introduced  to  the  pastor  of  the  place,  who,  having  laid  liis  hand  upon 
his  head,  a  ceremony  of  very  frequent  use  in  all  the  offices  of  the 
ancient  church,  and  prayed  that  he  might  become  a  partaker  of  the 


56  NAMES  AND  CLASSES  OF  CnKISTIANS. 

grace  of  the  gospel,  consigned  him  to  the  care  of  some  missionaries, 
whose  duty  it  was  from  time  to  time  to  wait  upon  him  privately,  and 
in  his  own  house,  to  instruct  him  in  the  elementary  principles  of 
the  christian  faith.  At  an  appointed  time,  and  when  he  had  satis- 
fied his  private  instructors  of  his  capacity  to  profit  by  the  services 
of  the  church,  he  was  permitted  to  come  into  the  congregation, 
where  he  stood  in  a  particular  place  appropriated  to  the  hearers — 
those  who  were  admitted  to  hear  the  Scriptures  read,  and  the  plain 
and  simple  discourses  on  the  fundamental  articles  of  faith  and  points 
of  duty,  which  always  formed  the  subject  of  the  preliminary  exhor- 
tations of  the  church.  If  the  proficiency  and  conduct  of  the  cate- 
chumen during  his  continuance  in  this  lower  rank  were  approved  of, 
he  was,  at  a  certain  period,  advanced  to  a  higher  order,  which  was 
privileged  not  only  to  be  present  at  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures, 
and  the  delivery  of  the  sermons,  but  also  at  the  prayers,  which  we 
described  as  concluding  the  first  service.  After  remaining  the  ap- 
pointed time  in  this  more  advanced  stage  of  his  progress,  he  was 
successively  privileged  to  be  present  at  the  public  prayers  of  the 
church,  to  hear  the  discourses  addressed  to  the  faithful  on  the  higher 
and  more  abstruse  doctrines  of  Christianity,  and  even  to  witness,  at  an 
humble  distance,  the  dispensation  of  the  Lord's  supper.  He  was 
then  considered  ripe  for  baptism,  and  immediately  put  upon  a  new 
course  of  discipline,  preparatory  to  partaking  of  the  holy  mysteries 
at  the  next  celebration  of  the  solemnity.  Hitherto,  he  had  been 
trained,  by  a  regular  course  of  catechetical  instructions  in  private,  to 
a  knowledge  of  the  leading  doctrines  and  duties  of  the  gospel,  and 
now  he  was  subjected  to  frequent  and  minute  examinations  in  public 
on  every  branch  of  his  religious  education.  If  approved,  he  was 
forthwith  instructed  in  some  of  the  sublimer  points  of  Christianity, 
which  had  been  hitherto  withheld  from  him, — such  as  the  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity,  the  union  of  the  divine  and  human  natures  in  Christ, 
the  influences  of  the  Spirit,  and  the  way  in  which  a  participation  of 
the  symbols  of  a  Saviour's  love  gives  spiritual  nourishment  to  the 
soul.  He  was  allowed  to  employ  the  Lord's  prayer, — the  use  of 
which  was  considei'ed  as  the  exclusive  privilege  of  his  adopted  chil- 
dren ;  and  was  enjoined  to  commit  to  memory  the  creed,  as  a 
formula  which  embodied,  in  a  small  compass,  all  the  grand  articles 
of  revealed  truth,  which  it  had  been  the  object  of  his  protracted  dis- 
cipline to  teach  him.     For  twenty  successive  days  he  continued  a 


OF  BELIEVERS.  57 

course  of  partial  fasting,  during  which  he  had  daily  interviews  with 
his  minister,  who,  in  private,  and  secluded  fronn  llie  presence  of 
every  other  observer,  endeavored,  by  serious  discourse,  to  impress 
his  mind  with  a  sense  of  the  important  step  he  was  about  to  take, — 
and  more  especially,  prayed  with  him,  in  the  usual  solemn  form,  by 
imposition  of  hands,  that  he  might  be  delivered  from  any  evil  spirit 
that  had  possession  of  his  heart,  and  be  enabled  to  consecrate  him- 
self a  living  sacrifice  to  God  and  the  Saviour.  Such  was  the  disci- 
pline of  the  catechumens, — a  discipline  to  which  all  ranks  and 
descriptions  of  men,  who  were  desirous  of  being  admitted  into  the 
bosom  of  the  church,  were  in  primitive  times  indiscriminately  sub- 
jected. "  None,"  to  use  the  words  of  Lord  King,  "  were  permitted 
to  enjoy  the  privileges  of  the  faithful,  till  they  had  in  a  manner 
merited  them, — which  was,  when  they  had,  through  a  considerable 
time  of  trial,  manifested  the  sincerity  of  their  hearts  by  the  sanctity 
and  purity  of  their  lives.  When  they  had  changed  their  manners, 
and  rectified  their  former  habits,  then  they  were  washed  with  the 
waters  of  baptism,  and  not  before. 

"  The  period  during  which  they  continued  this  course  of  prepara- 
tion varied  in  different  places,  and  was,  indeed,  often  regulated  by 
no  other  rule  than  the  proficiency  of  the  candidates.  In  general,  it 
lasted  for  two  or  three  years ;  though,  in  cases  of  severe  indisposi- 
tion and  imminent  danger,  the  probation  was  shortened,  and  the  most 
benevolent  and  anxious  provision  made  to  dispense  to  the  sick  or 
dying  catechumens,  whose  life  was  consistent  with  their  views, 
though  they  had  not  completed  their  appointed  time  of  discipline,  all 
the  comforts  which  a  participation  in  the  privileges  of  the  church 
could  give.  But  when  no  such  pressing  emergency  occurred,  the 
young  disciple  was  left  to  accomplish  his  noviciate  in  the  ordinary 
course;  and  it  was  only  by  slow  and  progressive  steps  he  ascended 
to  the  standard  of  knowledge  and  virtue  that  gave  him  a  passport  to 
the  region  of  the  faithful." 

§  6-  Of  Believers — or,  the  Faithful. 

This  term  is  used  to  designate  the  constituents  of  the  christian 
community,  that  body  or  assembly  which  was  appropriately  denom- 
inated the  church,  i\  ixxlrjala,  and  ixxli^aia  iwv  uyibtv.  Persons  of 
this  description  were  distinguished  by  various  names,  designed  in  a 

8 


58  NAMES  AND  CLASSES  OF   CHRISTIANS. 

measure  to  illustrate  the  true  nature  and  peculiar  constitution  of  the 
church. 

1.  They  were  styled  maioi,  the  faithful,  as  has  already  been  men- 
tioned. This  is  the  favorite  and  universal  name  which  has  uniform- 
ly been  used  to  denote  such  as  have  been  duly  instructed  in  the  fun- 
damental principles  of  the  christian  religion  ;  and  received,  by  bap- 
tism, into  the  communion  of  the  church.  By  this  name  they  are 
distinguished  on  the  one  hand  from  the  uTi/o-ioi,  such  as  are  not 
Christians,  and  heretics,  and  on  the  other,  from  the  clergy  and  from 
the  catechumens,  penitents,  energumens,  and  ascetics.  It  is  worthy 
of  remark,  that  the  disciples  of  Christ  use  the  active  form,  oi  tjiutsv- 
ovTiQ,  or  niajfmai'Tfg,  while  the  fathers  uniformly  use  the  j)a-^^i'^^-> 
Oi  niaxol.  The  latter,  however,  occurs  occasionally  in  the  New 
Testament,  Acis  16:  1.  2  Cor.  6:  15.  1  Tim.  4:  12.  5:  16,  but  in  a 
sense  more  unlimited  than  that  in  which  it  is  used  by  the  fathers. 

2.  'l'(uTi'^u[uivoi,  illuminati,  the  enlightened.  This  name  they  re- 
ceived upon  being  baptized,  baptism  being  by  them  denominated 
cpwji(T[xog,  or  q)ania^a,  illumination.  It  is  a  curious  fact,  that  the 
baptized  are  denominated  (ptiniConsvoi,  and  candidates  for  baptism 
qiuTiad&i'Tfg,  while  on  grammatical  principles  precisely  the  reverse 
might  have  been  expected.  The  usage  of  (foma&ivm  is  supposed 
to  be  derived  from  Fleb.  6:  4,  as  the  most  proper  to  denote  such  as 
were  suitably  enlightened  to  be  received  into  the  church. 

3.  MffivTj^ivoi,  the  initialed.  This  appellation  was  most  in  use 
in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  when  so  much  was  said  of  the  ar- 
cani  disciplinn^  the  secret  mysteries  of  the  christian  religion.  It  de- 
notes such  as  have  been  initiated  into  these  mysteries,  a  privilege 
belonging  exclusively  to  members  of  the  church.  The  phrase  the 
initialed  kyiow,  occurs  about  fifty  times  in  Augustine  and  Chrysos- 
tom  alone.  The  terms  fivarai  and  fivaTaymyrjioi  are  also  often  used, 
and,  in  short,  almost  all  the  phraseology  which  profane  writers  use 
respecting  an  initiation  into  their  mysteries.  Indeed  the  rite  of  bap- 
tism itself  has  an  evident  relation,  as  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  represents,' 
to  the  initiatory  rites  of  Eleusis,  Samothrace,  etc. 

4.  Tihiot,  and  jslsiovfisvot,  the  perfect.  This  name,  like  the  fore- 
going, has  a  relation  to  their  sacred  n)ysteries.  It  is  adopted  from 
the  New  Testament,  where  it  is  used,  not  indeed  in  the  same,  but 
in  a  kindred  meaning  in  relation  to  christian  perfection.  To  join  the 
church  was  styled  ^Xduy  iml  to  nhiov,  or  fuiixiiv  tov  ifhiov,  to  at- 


I 


OF  BELIEVERS.  59 

tain  unto  perfection  ;  and  the  participation  of  the  sacrament,  which 
in  the  ancient  church  invariably  followed  baptism,  was  denominated 
ifXtji]  idsT(tJv,~  perfection  of  perfections. 

5.  The  titles,  brethren,  saints,  elect,  leloved,  sons  of  God,  etc. 
have  ever  been  applied  as  the  special  prerogative  of  believers,  or 
professing  CIn'istiaris. 

The  foregoing  titles  also  conveyed  to  those  who  bore  them  exclu- 
sively, certain  rights  and  privileges. 

1.  They  were  permitted  to  be  present  at  all  religious  assemblies 
without  exception, — to  take  part  in  the  7nissa  caleclmmenorum,  the 
first  religious  service  of  public  worship,  designed  especially  for  the 
catechumens,  as  well  as  in  the  missa  fidelium,  the  after-service,  which 
was  particularly  designed  for  them,  and  which  none  but  the  initi- 
ated were  permitted  to  attend.  To  this  service  neither  catechu- 
mens, nor  any  other,  were  permitted  to  be  present,  not  even  as  spec* 
tators. 

2.  It  was  another  special  privilege  of  the  faithful,  that  they 
were  permitted  to  hear  and  join  in  the  rehearsal  of  the  Lord's 
prayer.  None  but  believers  were  permitted,  in  any  case,  audibly  to 
adopt  the  language  of  this  prayer  and  say,  Our  Father  who  art  in 
heaven  ;  though  it  might  be  used  in  silent  prayer.  In  the  worship 
oi  the  faithful,  on  the  contrary,  it  might  be  rehearsed  aloud,  or  sung 
by  them,  or  repeated  in  responses. 

3.  As  another  prerogative,  they  were  allowed  to  seek  an  explana- 
tion of  all  the  mysteries  of  the  christian  religion.  Origen  and  Gre- 
gory of  Nyssa  often  allege,  in  commendation  of  Christianity,  that  it 
has  refined  mysteries,  (ivan'jnca,  uii^rjTu,  and  otTTOQ^Tjia,  which  no  vul- 
gar mind  can  comprehend.  By  which  is  understood,  among  other 
things,  the  rites  and  doctrines  of  the  church,  and  the  subtleties  of 
their  faith.  All  these  were  cautiously  concealed  from  catechumens, 
and  taught  to  believers  only,  because  "  by  God's  gift  they  were  made 
partaker  of  these  mysteries,  and  therefore  qualified  to  judge  of  them." 
To  the  uninitiated,  the  ancient  fathers  discoursed  only  on  obvious 
points  of  morality  ;  and  if,  at  any  time,  they  were  led  to  touch  upon 
their  profound  mysteries,  they  dismissed  them  with  the  expression, 
iffamv  oi  ^u^vrnxit'oi,  To  the  initiated  it  is  given  to  know  these  things.* 

*  De  moralibus  quotidianum  sermonem  habuimus,  cum  vel  Patriarcharura 
gesta,  vel  proverbiorum  legcrentur  praecepta  :  ut  his  informati  atque  insti- 


60  NAMES  AND  CLASSES  OF  CHRISTIANS. 

4.  The  most  important  religious  privilege  of  believers,  is  that  of 
partaking  of  the  eucharist,  which  has  always  comprehended  a  right 
to  participate  in  all  the  sacred  mysteries,  and  hence  has  derived  the 
significant  name  o^  xoivuvla,  communion. 

5.  In  close  connection  with  this  communion  stands  also  that  im- 
portant right  which,  as  a  member  of  the  church,  each  communicant 
had  of  taking  part  in  all  the  transactions  of  that  body,  especially  in 
the  choice  of  thp  clergy  {Wahl  der  Geistlichen) ,  and  iii  the  disci- 
pline of  the  church. 

In  view  of  the  importance  of  this  right,  we  are  surprised  to  observe 
that  it  is  passed  over  in  entire  silence  by  Bingham,  and  but  briefly 
touched  upon  by  other  writers  on  this  subject.  In  treating  of  rules 
for  electing  a  bishop.  Book  IV.  Ch.  2,  Bingham  has  indeed  much  to 
say  respecting  the  rights  of  suffrage  enjoyed  by  the  people,  but  that 
relates  only  to  {\^eform  of  the  election.  This,  however,  is  the  pro- 
per place  distinctly  to  assert  tliis  right  of  suffrage  which  the  faithful 
enjoyed,  although  it  is  of  necessity  implied  and  included  in  the  gen- 
eral privileges  of  church  membership.  That  the  church,  i.  e.  the 
united  body  of  believers  has  had  a  part  in  the  election  of  their  pas- 
tor, from  the  earliest  period  downward,  is  certain,  not  merely  from 
the  testimony  of  Scripture,  but  also  from  the  most  ancient  of  the  fa- 
thers ;  and  has  never  been  denied  even  by  those  who,  in  this  respect, 
have  been  most  anxious  to  abridge  the  privileges  of  the  people.  All 
they  assert  is,  that  the  original  usage  has  been  changed,  because  of 
its  manifold  abuses,  and  of  necessity  abrogated.     Hence  has  arisen 


tuti  assuesceretis  majorum  ingredi  vias  eorumque  iter  carpere,  ac  divinis 
obedire  mandatis,  quo  renovati  per  baptismuin  ejus  vitae  usum  teiieretis, 
quae  ablutos  deceret.  Nunc  dc  mysteriis  dicere  admonet  atque  ipsam  sacra- 
mentorum  rationem  edere  :  quam  ante  baptisinuni  si  putassemus  insinuan- 
dum  nondum  initiatis,  prodidisse  potius,  quain  edidisse,  aeslimaremur.  Am- 
BROS.,  De  Ids  qui  mysteriis  initientur,  c.  1. — Dimissis  jam  catedliumenis,  vos 
tanturn  ad  audiendum  retinuimus  :  quia,praeter  ilia,  quae  onines  Christianos 
convenit  in  commune  servare,  specialiter  de  caelestibus  mysteriis  locuturi 
sumus,  quae  audire  non  possunt,  nisi  qui  ea  donante  jam  Domino  percepe- 
runt.  Tanto  igitur  niajore  reverentia  debetis  audire  quae  dicimus,  quanto 
majore  ista  sunt,  quae  solis  baptizatiset  fidelibus  auditoribus  coramittuntur, 
quam  ilia,  quae  etiam  catechumeni  audire  consueverunt.  August.  Serm.  1 
o,d  JVeoph. — 'u4jt'/fiojg  Sioi  zoig  afivi'irovs  ntQi  twv  &twn>  Sialtyofitd'a  fivarT]- 
Qiwv  TovTvjv  Si  xujQiLo/j-ivojVj  aacpws  xo'  s  fie/xvi^fiivovs  SiSdanofisv.  Theo- 
DORET.  Quaest.  15  in  JVum. 


OF  PENITENTS.  61 

the  question  whether,  in  the  eleclion  of  a  pastor,  the  church  is  enti- 
tled to  a  valid,  elective  vote,  or  whether  their  suffrage  should  be 
testimonial  only,  or  negative.  Then  again  arises  another  question, 
of  equal  importance,  relating  to  the  method  of  voting  by  proxy  and 
by  a  body  of  electors  which,  so  far  as  is  known,  appears  to  have 
been  first  practised  by  the  church  in  Africa.^ 

The  participation  of  the  church  in  church-discipline  discovered 
itself  especially  in  the  excommunication  of  penitents,  and  reception 
of  them  again,  which,  although  administered  by  the  bishop,  could  not 
be  ratified  except  by  the  concurrence  of  the  church.* 


§  7.  Of  Penitents. 

None  but  such  as  had  received  baptism  and  confirmation  could  be 
reckoned  among  the  penitents.  They  consisted  wholly  of  such  lay- 
members  of  the  church  as  had  been  separated  from  it  by  reason  of 
their  unworthy  deportment,  or  for  grosser  offences,  and  who  volun- 
tarily submitted  to  the  penalties  inflicted  upon  them  with  a  view  to 
their  readmission  into  the  church  and  restoration  to  christian  fellow- 
ship, and  the  privileges  of  communion.  See  Chap.  XVII,  on  Penance. 


§  8.  Of  Energumens,  or  Demoniacs. 

Mention  is  often  made  in  the  ancient  church,  of  persons  possessed 
of  an  evil  spirit.  The  regulations  of  the  church  bestow  upon  them 
special  care.  They  constitute  a  distinct  class  of  Christians,  bearing 
some  relation  both  to  the  catechumens  and  the  faithful ;  but  differing 
from  both  in  this,  that  they  were  under  the  special  oversight  and  di- 
rection of  Exorcists,  while  they  took  part  in  some  of  the  religious 
exercises  of  both  classes. 

Catechumens  who,  during  their  probationary  exercises  became  de- 
moniacs, were  never  baptized  until  thoroughly  healed,  except  in  case 
of  extreme  sickness.^  Believers  who  became  demoniacs,  in  the  worst 
stages  of  their  disease,  like  the  weeping  penitents,  were  not  perniit- 

*  In  ordinationibus  clericis,  fratres  carissimi,  solemus  vos  ante  consulere, 
et  mores  ac  merita  singulorum  communi  consilio  ponderare.  Cyprian,  ep. 
23.  ad  der.  et  pleb.  Carth.  Plebs  ipsa  maximam  habet  potestatem  vel  eli- 
gendi  dignos  sacerdotes,  vel  indignos  recusandi.     Cijp.  ep.  68. 


62  NAMES  AND  CLASSES  OF  CHRISTIANS. 

led  to  enter  the  church ;  but  were  retained  under  close  inspection  in 
the  outer  porch.  From  this  circumstance  they  were  denominated, 
/f//<«sO,«6rot,  or  y.fifiu'CovTfg,  hycmanles*  When  partially  recovered 
they  were  permitted,  with  the  audientes,  to  join  in  public  worship, 
but  they  were  not  permitted  to  partake  of  the  sacrament  until  whol- 
ly restored,  except  in  the  immediate  prospect  of  death.  In  general, 
the  energumens  were  subject  to  the  same  rules  as  the  penitents.^ 

§  9.  Ascetics,  Coenobites,  Monks,  Fraternities. 

The  ascetics  of  antiquity,  and  of  the  middle  ages  were  essentially 
different  in  many  respects.  To  the  first  class  belong  all  those  who 
sought  a  life  of  solitude  for  religious  exercises,  and  private  contem- 
plation, and  either  alone,  or  in  company  with  others,  separated  them- 
selves from  christian  society  without  wholly  excluding  themselves 
from  the  communion  of  the  church.  These  constituted,  therefore, 
a  distinct  class  of  the  laity. 

The  origin  of  the  ascetic  manner  of  life  dates  back  far  beyond  the 
christian  era.  In  Egypt,  Assyria,  Persia,  and  India,  there  were  at 
this  early  period  ascetics,  hermits,  and  recluses.  The  Therapeutics, 
of  whom  Philo  and  Josephus  speak,  were  a  religious  fraternity,  who 
in  many  respects  had  a  striking  influence  in  the  subsequent  forma- 
tion of  monastic  establishments.  Many  of  the  Pythagorian  institutes 
also  bore  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  monastic  rules  of  later  date. 
Some  again  have  compared  them  with  those  of  the  Nazarites  and 
Eechabites  of  Scripture,  respecting  whom,  Witsius  and  Less  may  be 
consulted.  The  prophet  Elijah,  the  schools  of  the  prophets,  and 
John  the  Baptist,  have  also  been  considered  as  patterns  of  monastic 
life.     But  its  high  antiquity  is  sufficiently  proved  by  Jerome.' 

As  early  as  the  second  century,  the  foundations  of  monachism  were 
laid  in  a  vain  admiration  of  the  supposed  virtues  of  fasting,  solitude, 
and  celibacy.  Soon  after  the  age  of  the  apostles,  bodily  mortifica- 
tion, and  a  contemplative  life,  began  to  be  regarded  by  many  Chris- 
tians as  indications  and  means  of  extraordinary  piety.  In  the  time 
of  Cyprian  and  Tertullian,  the  "  sacred  virgins  of  the  church,"  or  the 
"  canonical  virgins,"  were  recognized  as  a  distinct  class,  and  celiba- 


(*  Suicer,  Bingham  and  Du  Fresne  derive  it  from  the  agitations  to  which 
they  were  subject,  like  a  ship  in  a  storm. — Tr.) 


ASCETICS. 


63 


cy  was  extolled  as  a  species  of  super-eminent  sanctity.  Cyp.  Ep. 
62.  al.  4,  ad  Pompon.  Such  superstition  with  its  pernicious  adjuncts 
and  consequences  made  rapid  progress  in  the  church. 

But  many  Greek  and  Latin  writers  concur  in  ascribing  the  origin 
of  christian  Anchorets  and  Monks  to  the  third  century.  They  are 
beheved  to  have  arisen  first  in  Egypt.  Among  the  founders  of  this 
sect,  some  of  the  most  celebrated  were  Paulus,  Antonius,  Pachomi- 
us,  Fliiarion,  and  Athanasius.  To  these  may  be  added  Basil  the 
Great,  Ephraim  the  Syrian,  the  two  Gregories,  Epiphanius,  Cliry- 
soslom,  Ambrose,  Augustine,  Jerome,  Cassian,  and  many  others. 

In  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  the  monastic  life  had  become 
common  to  all  orders  of  men,  not  only  in  the  eastern,  but  also  in  the 
western  church  ;  but  it  had  not  attained  the  celebrity  which  it  after- 
wards acquired.  Men  of  the  highest  distinction  obtained  indeed  great 
renown  from  this  manner  of  life  ;  but  as  yet,  they  were  far  from  en- 
joying equal  privileges  with  the  clergy.  Neither  were  they  reckoned 
among  the  laity.  But  they  were  accounted  a  distinct  religious  order, 
denominated  Religiosi,  or  Canonici,  by  which,  until  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, they  were  distinguished,  both  from  the  clergy  and  laity.  From 
that  period  they  began  to  be  reckoned  with  the  clergy.  About  the 
same  time  arose  the  distinction  between  the  Clerici  seculares,  and 
Clerici  regulares.  The  former  denoted  such  as  had  a  regular  pa- 
rochial charge  and  cure  of  souls  ;  the  latter,  the  clergy  belonging  to 
some  religious  order.  The  Clerici  seculares,  however,  uniformly 
refused  to  own  the  monastics  as  fellow  laborers  in  the  ministerial  of- 
fice. Indeed  the  monks  have  never  been  fully  blended  with  the  cler- 
gy. On  the  contrary,  in  all  cloisters,  there  have  ever  been  a  certain 
class  of  lay-brethren,  or  lay-monks,  monachi  laid,  who,  without 
discharging  any  of  the  appropriate  functions  of  the  ministry,  have, 
as  in  the  ancient  church,  occupied  an  intermediate  station  between 
the  clergy  and  the  laity. 

The  following  are  the  principal  orders  of  the  monks  and  the  names 
by  which  they  are  distinguished. 

1.  Ascetics,  'Aaxrjial.  Originally  the  term  was  used  by  profane 
writers  to  denote  the  gladiators  and  athletae  of  the  ancients.  But  in 
the  fathers  it  denotes  all  those,  of  every  age  and  condition,  who  de- 
vote themselves  peculiarly  to  acts  of  piety,  such  as  fasting,  prayer, 
watchings,  and  the  denial  of  sensual  desires.  They  are  sometimes 
styled  ciya^uoi,  unmarried,  and  fyxQaulg,  conlinentes.     There  were 


64  NAMES  AND  CLASSES  OF  CHRISTIANS. 

also  female  ascetics.     The  places  appropriated  for  these  exercises 
were  styled  SaxrjTQia. 

2.  Monks,  appropriately  so  called.  Movuxoi,  sometimes  Movu- 
i,ovTiq,  ol  ^lovoi  ^(ovTtg  i?f&>.  Such  as  lived  a  sequestered  life,  taking 
no  part  in  the  ordinary  pursuits  of  men,  and  retiring  alone  into  de- 
sert places,  and  solitary  cells  ;  or,  in  company,  frequenting  the  wil- 
derness and  distant  mountains.  These  belonged  exclusively  to  the 
laity,  and  were  characterized  chiefly  by  their  deep  seclusion  from 
society,  while  the  ascetics  belonged  either  to  the  clergy  or  laity,  and 
were  distinguished  particularly  for  their  austerities.  These  monks 
were  sometimes  denominated  Coenobites,  Solitarii,  Solitares,  etc.^ 

3.  Anchorets,  'Ava^MQijrttl,  Hermits.  A  distinction  however  is 
sometimes  made  between  the  two— anchorets  denoting  those  who 
led  a  solitary  life  without  establishing  their  residence  in  solitude, 
while  hermits  are  those  who  inhabit  the  most  desolate  and  inhospita- 
ble places,  in  solitary  cells  and  caves.^ 

4.  Coenobites,  from  xoirog  ^log,  communis  vita.  So  called  from 
their  inhabiting  one  place  in  common,  styled  coenobium,  and  having 
all  things  common.  They  are  also  called  avyoSliai'^  and  from  avv- 
oSoig,^  conventuales.^ 

5.  Grovagi.  Strolling  vagrants,  whose  lives  were  dishonored  by 
the  lowest  sensuality,  and  the  most  shameless  vices.^ 

6.  -ivlaai,  PiUarists.  So  called  from  their  living  continually 
upon  a  pillar,  a  manner  of  life  so  austere  and  forbidding,  that  few 
were  induced  to  adopt  it.^ 

There  are  a  multitude  of  names  denoting  different  classes  of  monks 
and  ascetics,  the  mention  of  which  may  serve  to  show  how  numer- 
ous were  these  religious  orders  in  the  ancient  church,  and  the  esti- 
mation in  which  they  were  held.     Such  as  the  following  : 

—  TTovSaloi,,  studiosi^  ^ExXstcrol,  electi,^^  'Ay.oi^i]Toi,  insomnes^^  Boa- 
xol,  pascetites,^^  who  lived  by  themselves  in  perpetual  silence  ;  'Jlav- 
/«o-T«t,  quiescentes  ;^^  ^Anota^u^^voi,  renuntianles  ;^^  Culdei,  Keldei, 
Keledei,  etc.,  certain  monks  in  Scotland  and  the  Hebrides  ;  Aposlo- 
lici,  monks  in  Britain  and  Ireland. 

8.  Canonici  regulares,  clerical  monks.  These  were  the  priests 
who  were  addicted  to  a  monastic  life  in  distinction  from  the  secular 
or  parochial  clergy,  canonici  seculares. 

9.  Secular  Monks,  Monachi  Seculares  ;  a  class  distinct  from  the 
lay  brethren.     These  without  renouncing  marriages  and  the  social 


ASCETICS-  65 

relations,  under  the  guidance  of  overseers  of  their  choice,  devoted 
themselves  to  various  offices  of  piety.  Thus  constituted,  tliey  served 
as  patterns  for  those  religious  fraternities  or  brotherhoods  which  first 
appeared  in  France,  Italy  and  Germany  in  the  ninth  century,  and 
in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  became  exceedingly  nume- 
rous and  powerful,  and  widely  dispersed.  All  these  fraternities  oc- 
cupied an  intermediate  rank  between  the  laity,  the  monks,  and  the 
clergy.'^ 

Monastics  of  the  female  sex  were  not,  at  first,  accounted  a  distinct 
religious  order.  Nor  is  there  mention  of  them  as  such  so  long  as 
the  ancient  rule  of  the  church  remained  in  force,  which  positively 
debarred  women  from  ever  conducting  religious  worship,  or  assum- 
ing any  of  the  offices  of  the  priesthood. 

Monasteries  and  nunneries  probably  arose  simultaneously.  The 
first  traces  of  the  associations  of  women  in  a  monastic  life  discover 
themselves  in  the  fourth  century.  In  this  period  they  begin  to  be 
denominated  Mova/^al,  but  more  frequently  Movul^  mo7iae,  salae,  vi- 
duae.  Jerome  was  the  first  to  call  them  Nonnae,  Nuns.  By  some, 
this  is  understood  to  be  the  same  as  matron,  or  venerable  widow. 
Others  derive  it  from  Novlg,  a  virgin.  They  are  also  called  by 
many  other  names,  such  as  Sanctinioniales,  Virgines  Dei,  s.  C/irisli, 
AnciUae  Dei,  Sorores  ecchsiae,  etc.  But  by  whatever  name  they 
are  known  they  are  carefully  to  be  distinguished  from  the  ancient 
order  of  deaconesses  in  the  church.  As  early  as  the  fifth  and  sixth 
centuries,  the  office  of  deaconess  ceased  in  the  Western  church. 
After  this,  many  offices  of  charity  which  they  were  wont  to  perform 
to  the  poor  and  the  sick,  were  discharged  by  the  sisters  of  the  church. 
For  this  purpose  they  formed  themselves  into  various  associations 
and  corporations.  Their  influence  was,  in  general,  very  happy,  and 
so  powerful  that  they  outlived  the  storms  of  political  revolutions ; 
and,  to  a  great  extent,  still  survive  under  various  names  and  in  dif- 
ferent establishments. 


66  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

CHAPTER  III. 

OF  THE  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

§  1.  Of  the  Clergy  and  the  Laity. 

Such  as  bore  the  office  of  the  priesthood  were  denominated,  in 
distinction  from  the  laity,  the  clergy,  cleri  and  clcrici.  Respecting 
the  derivation  of  this  term  the  learned  are  much  divided  in  opinion. 
All  agree  indeed  that  it  is  derived  from  xAJj^o?,  a  Jot,  but  allege  very 
different  reasons  for  using  it  to  denote  the  priesthood.  Some  affirm, 
that  men  at  first  were  elected  to  this  office  by  Jot,  and  were  there- 
fore called  cleri,  from  xlSiqai;.  In  confirmation  of  this  theory, 
they  allege  that  this  mode  of  election  was  common.,  both  among 
pagans  and  Jews,  and  not  unknown  in  the  primitive  church,  as  ap- 
pears from  the  choice  of  Matthias,  ly  lot,  Acts  1:  17,  25.  But  this 
method  of  electing  persons  to  the  sacred  office,  has  never  been  al- 
lowed in  the  church,  except  in  some  extraordinary  cases.  Jerome 
says,  they  were  called  clergy,  either  because  they  are  chosen  by 
lot  to  be  the  Lord's,  or  because  the  Lord  is  their  lot,  or  heritage. 
The  Jews  were  of  old  God's  peculiar  people,  the  heritage  of  the 
Lord.  Such,  especially,  were  the  Levites  who  ministered  at  the 
altar.  And,  after  the  cessation  of  the  Levitical  office,  the  name  was 
transferred  to  the  ministers  of  the  christian  church.  Hence  the 
name  vliiqog,  clergy,  which  primarily  signifies  a  lot,  or  Jieritage. 
Such  is  the  approved  derivation  of  this  word.  But  many  learned 
men  derive  it  from  the  mode  of  election,  by  lot.^ 

Many  allege  that  this  term  came  into  general  use  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  third  century,  as  the  name  of  the  religious  teachers  of 
the  church.  But  this  cannot  be  accurately  determined.  The  formal 
distinction  between  the  clergy  and  laity,  was  evidently  introduced 
at  a  period  still  later.  Previous  to  this,  the  whole  church  were 
styled  God's  heritage,  1  Pet.  5:  3  ;  and  every  Christian,  a  priest  of 
God.2  And  yet,  the  epithet  might  with  peculiar  propriety  be  ap- 
plied to  those,  who  devoted  themselves  to  the  ministerial  office  ;  and 
the  more  naturally,  inasmuch  as  this  phraseology  is  common  in 
the  Old  Testament.     With  this  usage,  several  passages  in  the  New 


CLERGY  AND  LAITY. 


67 


Testament  very  well  accord,  Acts  IG:  18.  Col.  1:  12.  Eph.  1:  11. 
The  unlearned  again,  ISimtch,  in  1  Cor.  14  :  16,  23,  24,  nfiay,  for 
aught  that  appears,  be  laymen  or  catechumens,  as  Chrysoslom  and 
Theodoret  affirm.  Different  officers  there  certainly  were  in  the 
time  of  the  apostles,  such  as  rulers,  bishops,  elders,  deacons, 
etc.,  derived  immediately  from  the  .Jewish  synagogue^  though  they 
may  with  propriety  be  compared  also  with  the  Levitical  priesthood, 
as  the  author  of  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  has  done. 

Much  importance  is  attached  to  the  authority  of  Clemens  Roma- 
nus  on  this  subject,  who,  in  the  first  century  speaks  of  the  laity,  and 
the  several  officers  of  the  church  and  orders  of  the  priesthood,  as 
though  they  were  then  the  same  that  they  are  known  to  have  been  in 
the  second  and  third  centuries  ;•"'  that  passage,  however,  relates  to 
the  Levitical  priesthood.  Ignatius  is  also  quoted  to  the  same  effect, 
but  the  genuineness  of  the  passage  is  disputed.^ 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  advocates  of  the  Episcopal  form 
of  church  government,  labor  much  to  prove  tliat  the  distinction  be- 
tween the  clergy  and  the  laity,  was  as  ancient  as  the  time  of  the 
apostles,  while  the  Roman  Catholic  writers,  Rigaltius,  Salmasius, 
and  others,  deny  this  early  distinction.  The  dispute,  however,  is  of 
little  importance  ;  for  the  distinction  can,  in  no  case,  be  proved  to 
be  of  apostolic  authority.  It  can,  therefore,  be  of  little  consequence 
to  show,  that  it  was  introduced  a  few  years  earlier  or  later.  Boeh- 
mer,  and  Rigaltius,  have  shown  that  TertuUian  may  be  regarded  as 
the  author  of  the  distinction  in  question, — but  in  this  general  sense 
only,  that  he  distinctly  pointed  out  the  difference  between  the  laity 
and  clergy,  and  clearly  defined  the  limits  of  the  several  offices  of 
the  church  ;  the  confounding  of  which  he  complained  of,  as  the 
leading  fault  of  heretics.  And  yet,  who  will  venture  to  affirm,  that 
these  distinctions  and  offices  were  wholly  unknown  before  Tertul- 
lian  lived  ?  It  may  at  least  be  said  with  truth,  that  at  some  time  in 
the  first  tv/o  centuries,  the  three  higher  orders,  bishops,  presbyters, 
and  deacons,  were  denominated  clergy ;  so  that  a  higher  antiquity 
may  be  claimed  for  this  name,  than  for  some  subordinate  classes 
which  had  their  origin  in  the  third  and  fourth  centuries.-^ 

The  clergy  were  also  known  by  the  name  of  canonici,  xavovixol, 
oi  Tov  xavovog.  Two  reasons  are  assigned  fur  this  appellation.  One, 
that  they  were  subject  to  the  canons,  or  general  rules  of  the 
church.     The  other,  that  they  were  wont  to  be  registered  in  a  cata- 


68  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

logue  of  the  church,  as  the  authorized  officers  of  the  same.  This 
catalogue  was  also  called  a  canon^xavMv,  uyiog  xavoiv^xaidkoyog  U§a- 
11x6?,  album,  malricula,  and  tabula  clericorumfi 

They  were  also  called  Ecclesiastics,  Doginatisis,  and  Gnostics, 
names  applicable  to  all  Christians,  but  especially  to  their  officers 
and  teachers.  In  the  middle  ages,  it  was  customary  to  denominate 
the  subordinate  officers  of  the  church  ecclesiastics. 

Another  name  by  which  they  were  less  frequently  known,  is  zd- 
^ig  ivv  (j)]fiaToc,  order  of  the  altar,  or  shrine^  from  their  being 
permitted  to  enter  within  the  sacred  enclosure  which  surrounded 
the  altar. 

The  word  order,  ordo,  xd^tg  UgaTixri,  as  applied  to  the  priesthood, 
like  that  oC  xki'jQog,  has  also  been  the  subject  of  more  critical  discus- 
sion than  its  importance  demands.  Many  contend,  that  it  is  adopted 
from  the  Roman  language,  and  used  by  TertuUian  and  others  in  the 
classic  sense,  to  exhibit  the  patrician  rank  of  the  clergy  like  the  ordo 
senatorius  of  the  Romans.  The  result,  however,  of  the  discussion 
is,  that  the  word  is  derived  from  the  Roman  language  as  a  technical 
phrase,  but  applied  not  accoi-ding  to  the  usus  loquendi  of  the  Ro- 
mans,  but,  of  the  church,  and  of  the  Scriptures,  to  denote  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  priesthood  and  the  people, — the  ordo  ecclesias- 
ticus  and  the  laily ;  and  that,  in  this  sense  it  has  been  used  since 
the  close  of  the  second  century.  Jerome  uses  it  as  synonymous 
with  gradus,  ojicium,  potestas,  dignilas,  etc.;  Basil,  as  the  same  as 
TK^ic,  Toiyfxu,  Bad^oQ,  y(i'iQU,  «?('«,  oiJ/cDji/a,  etc' 

The  precise  time,  when  this  distinction  between  the  superior  and 
inferior  clergy  was  introduced,  is  unknown.  It  must,  however, 
have  been  very  early,  for  the  several  offices  and  officers  of  the  church 
were  clearly  defined,  towards  the  close  of  the  second,  and  beginning 
of  the  third  century.  To  say  nothing  of  the  authority  of  Ignatius 
which  is  justly  suspected,  there  are  authorities  sufficient  to  show 
that,  at  this  early  period,  the  officers  of  the  church  were,  substantially, 
the  same  as  in  later  centuries.^  On  this  subject,  the  remark  of  Ama- 
larius  is  worthy  of  special  notice  :  "  that  the  offices  of  the  priesthood 
and  deacons  were  instituted  by  the  apostle  Paul,  because  they  were 
indispensable  in  the  church,  and  that  as  the  church  increased,  other 
offices  were  created,  and  inferior  officers  appointed  in  aid  of  the 
superiors.  9" 

The  Roman  Catholics  divide  the  officers  of  the   church  into  two 


CLASSES  OF  CLEBGY.  69 

classes,  ministers,  and  magistrates.  In  the  former,  are  included 
bishops  and  presbyters  ;  in  the  latter,  the  other  officers  of  the 
church. ^"^ 

According  to  the  authority  of  Cave,  "  the  whole  y.ctTutloyog  UQaxixog, 
as  it  is  often  called  in  the  Apostle's  Canons, — the  roll  of  the  clergy  of 
the  ancient  church,  taking  it  within  the  compass  of  its  first  four  hun- 
dred years,  consisted  of  two  sorts  of  persons, — the  itQovfuvoi,  who 
were  peculiarly  consecrated  to  the  more  proper  and  immediate  acts 
of  the  worship  of  God  ;  and  the  vntjoiTui,  such  as  were  set  apart 
for  the  lower  and  common  services  of  the  church.  Of  the  first  sort 
were  these  three,  bishops,  presbyters,  and  deacons."^' 

The  distinction  of  ordinary  and  extraordinary  officers  of  the 
church,  is  given  on  the  best  authority,  based  on  many  passages  of 
Scripture,  Eph.  4:  11,  12.  1  Cor.  12:  28.  Rom.  12:  7,  8.  1  Tim.  3: 
5.  etc.  The  shepherds  and  teachers  were  the  same  as  bishops  and 
elders,  ministers  of  particular  congregations,  who  were  equally 
necessary  at  all  times.  But  there  were  others,  who  were  known  in 
the  church  only  while  the  miraculous  gifts  of  the  Spirit  were  con- 
tinued, and  of  whom  mention  is  very  seldom  made  in  later  times. 
Among  these  may  be  reckoned,  1.  Apostles,  including  the  imme- 
diate disciples  of  Christ,  and  several  others,  Acts  14:4.  2  Cor.  8:  23. 
Phil.  2:  25.  In  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  centuries,  missiona- 
ries to  foreign  lands  bore  this  title.  2.  Evangelists.  This  term  is 
used  sometimes  in  a  restricted,  and  sometimes  in  a  wider  sense. 
Eph.  4:  11.  Acts  21:  8.  2  Tim.  4:  5.  In  later  ages,  the  officer  who 
read,  or  chanted  the  gospel,  was  called  Evangelist.  3.  Prophets.  In- 
spired writers  and  teachers  of  the  christian  religion — such  as  fore- 
told future  events,  and  also  a  particular  class  of  teachers  in  the 
primitive  church,  whose  business  it  was  to  act  as  expounders  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  interpreters  of  the  divine  will. 

§  2.  General  remarks  upon  the  different  Orders  and  Clas- 
ses OF  the  Clergy. 

The  pastors  and  teachers  noi^iveg  and  diSuaxalot,  of  whom  men- 
tion is  made  in  Eph.  4:  11,  and  1  Cor.  12:  28 — 30,  are  usually  reck- 
oned among  the  permanent  and  ordinary  teachers  and  rulers  of  the 
church.  The  extraordinary  teachers  might  also  bear  the  same 
names,  inasmuch  as  they  are  represented  as  overseers  of  the  church. 


70  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

and  promulgators  and  defenders  of  the  gospel  of  Christ.  An  apos- 
tle or  evangelist  might  with  propriety  be  styled  noi^uiv  v.al  didaaxaXog, 
a  pastor  and  teacher.  Bat  after  the  cessation  of  the  extraordinary 
teachers,  the  ordinary,  with  great  propriety  assumed  their  names  as 
venerated  and  significant  titles,  derived  from  the  writings  of  the  Old 
Testament. 

The  term  pastor  or  shepherd,  71011-11)1',  without  regard  either  to  sa- 
cred or  profane  writers,  is  particularly  recommended  by  the  circum- 
stance, that  our  Lord  styled  himself  a  shepherd,  and  the  church  his 
flock,  John  10:  12.  The  apostle  Peter  also  denominated  him  the 
chief  Shepherd,  1  Pet.  5:  4. 

The  word  master,  teacher,  diduay.cdoi;,  was  the  honorary  title  of  a 
.Jewish  teacher.  It  is  the  Greek  interpretation  of  the  Hebrew  "isn  , 
rahbi,  John  1:  38.  These  terms,  pastor,  and  teacher,  have  ever 
been  approved  in  the  church,  to  designate  one  who  is  entitled  to  in- 
struct, to  administer  the  sacrament,  and  to  discharge  all  the  func- 
tions of  the  ministerial  office. 

The  appropriate  officers  of  the  church  which  are  specified  in  the 
New  Testament,  are  these  three.  1.  Imidy.onoi,  overseers,  siiperin- 
tendants  ;  2.  II§i(T(jinfgoi,  presbyters,  elders ;  3.  Jiay.ovoi,  deacons. 
These  together  constitute  the  ordo  ecclesiasticus,  the  ecclesiastical 
order,  and  require  a  more  extended  examination.  Some  derive 
these  several  orders  from  the  institutions  of  the  Romans  ;  but  they 
bear  a  closer,  and  a  more  natural  comparison,  with  the  orders  be- 
longing to  the  temple  and  synagogue  of  the  Jews,  and  from  them, 
they  were  doubtless  derived  ;  as  the  following  remarks  may  suffi- 
ciently show. 

1.  The^Eniffy.onoi  in  the  church  correspond  to  the  rulers  of  the 
synagogue,  as  their  name  overseers  implies.  The  ruler  of  the  syna- 
gogue, who  in  Hebrew  was  styled  head  of  the  assembly,  np:2ri  uiNl, 
had  the  oversight  both  of  the  discipline  and  instructions  of  the  syna- 
gogue. He  is  also  styled  'SniAJ,  our  master,  or  teacher,  and  rT'Vip 
"nis^r:  ,  legatus  congregationis. 

2.  The  7r() f (7(5 1'rfjpoi  correspond  to  the  n"':j:.T ,  elders,  which,  among 
the  Jews,  designated,  not  so  much  the  age  of  these  officers,  as 
the  rank  and  authority  of  their  office.  In  the  latter  ages  of  the  He- 
brew commonwealth,  the  members  of  the  Sanhedrim  were  styled 
by  preference,  j)resbyters,  or  elders.  They  are  classed  in  the  New 
Testament  with  the  rulers,  the  chief  priests,  and  the  scribes. 


CLASSES  OF  CLERGY.  71 

The  connection  of  nqtiT-iiTfQoi,  elders,  with  Bnlaxonoi,  bishops,  is 
in  like  manner  indicated  in  the  following  passages.  Acts  11:  30. 
14:  23.  15.  2,  4,  6,22,23.  16:  4.  20:  17.  21:  18.  1  Tim.  5:  17,  19. 
Tit.  1:  5.  James  5:  14.  1  Pet.  5:  1.  2  John  1:  3.  3  John  1.  But  in 
all  these  passages,  these  elders  of  the  church  compare,  not  with  the 
fspT  ,  the  elders  of  the  Jews ;  but  with  the  officers  of  the  syna- 
gogue, who  were  styled  a"'w5n-: — a  word  which,  both  in  Chaldee 
and  Syriac,  denotes  pastors,  rulers,  etc. 

3.  The  office  of  deacon  was  similar  to  that  of  ]Tr:  ,  inspector, 
overseer.  But  the  official  duties  of  the  deacon,  in  the  second,  third, 
and  fourth  centuries,  better  compare  with  this  Jewish  officer,  than 
those  which  were  at  first  prescribed,  such  as  the  care  of  the  sick, 
and  of  the  charities  of  the  church,  Phil.  1:  1.  1  Tim.  3:8,  12.  Rom. 
16:  1.  The  principal  duties  of  the  ]Tn  was  to  preserve  order  and 
decorum,  to  assist  in  the  reading  of  the  law,  and  to  lead  the 
singing.  But  the  silence  of  Scripture,  on  this  subject,  is  no  evidence 
that  the  deacons  might  not  also  have  the  same  offices  to  perform. 
And  these  Jewish  officers  might  also  have  been  charged  with  the 
care  of  the  sick,  and  the  contributions  of  the  people.  At  least,  it  is 
certain  that  the  usage  in  regard  to  these  points  has  not  been  uniform. 
The  vnr}osTi]g,  servant,  corresponds  to  the  Hebrew  nD;i;y  ,  which 
is  rendered  dovkog,  nulg,  a  servant.  In  Luke  4:  20  he  is  styled  the 
waiter  in  the  synagogue.  At  other  times  he  is  a  waiter  or  attendant 
upon  the  assembly  of  the  Sanhedrim,  Acts  13:  5.  26:  16.  1  Cor. 
4:  1.  He  acts,  not  with  freedom  and  independence  in  the  discharge 
of  his  duties,  but  is  subject  to  the  direction  of  another.  These  ser- 
vants are  analogous  to  the  sub-deacons,  acolyths,  and  subordinate 
officers  of  the  church  who  have  the  general  title  oi  inferiors. 

The  distinction  of  inferior  and  superior  orders,  though  not  of  apos- 
tolic origin  was  very  early  made,  as  has  been  already  observed. 
Jerom.e  and  many  others  assert  that  in  the  first  two  centuries 
bishops  and  presbyters  constituted  the  superior  order,  and  dea- 
cons with  their  assistants  and  subordinate  officers,  the  inferior  or- 
der.- At  times,  however,  Jerome  classes  them  with  bishops  and 
presbyters,  styling  them  co-presbyters  and  associate  priests — Au- 
gustine, and  Optatus  also,  do  the  same.  They  were,  undeniably, 
reckoned  as  a  third  class  in  the  superior  order,  except  when  the  of- 
fices of  bishops  and  presbyters  were  regarded  as  the  same  ;  in  which 
case  deacons  constituted  the  second  class  in  the  same  order. 


72  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

The  ordo  sacerdotalis,  and  ordo  ecclesiasUcus  of  Tertullian^  is  the 
same  as  the  senatus  ecclesiasticiis  of  Jerome.^  It  is  an  ecclesiastical 
court,  a  presbytery  ;  and  even  if  laymen  were  received  as  members, 
it  consisted  chiefly  of  clergymen,  and  was  controlled  by  them.  In 
the  absence  of  the  bishop,  or  when  his  office  was  vacant,  it  was  con- 
ducted by  presbyters  and  deacons.^  From  which  we  infer  that  dea- 
cons were  considered  as  belonging  to  the  superior  order. 

In  the  division  of  the  priesthood  it  is  a  great  mistake  to  seek  for 
any  general  and  fixed  rules  at  a  time  when  circumstances  would  not 
admit  of  them,  and  without  regard  to  the  exigencies  of  different  com- 
munities and  countries.  In  a  populous  city,  and  among  a  numerous 
body  of  clergymen,  a  more  careful  distinction  of  office  and  of  rank 
might  naturally  be  expected,  than  in  smaller  states  and  dioceses.  This 
remark  is  too  obvious  to  require  any  illustration,  but  is  fully  con- 
firmed by  a  letter  to  Fabius,  bishop  of  Antioch,  from  Cornelius  bish- 
op of  Rome,  who  died  in  the  year  252.''  From  this  epistle  several 
important  facts  and  inferences  are  derived.  1.  That  Cliristians  at 
Rome  had,  at  this  early  period,  become  so  numerous  as  to  have 
more  than  forty  churches.  2.  That  there  were  more  than  1500  wi- 
dows and  paupers  who  were  supported  by  charity.  In  this  connec- 
tion it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  according  to  Chrysostom,  more  than 
three  thousand  widows  and  virgins  were  daily  fed  by  the  church  of 
Antioch,  with  only  moderate  revenues,  besides  the  contributions  in 
food  and  clothing  made  for  the  maintenance  of  clergymen,  prisoners, 
leprous  persons,  and  strangers.  So  that  even  Julian  recommended  the 
heathen  to  imitate  the  Galileans,  in  the  care  which  they  took  of  the 
poor.'''  3.  It  appears  that  at  Rome  the  members  of  the  church  consti- 
tuted three  classes — the  clergy  and  paupers,  who  were  supported  by 
the  church — the  rich,  who  paid  for  their  support  by  contributions  and 
taxes — and  the  great  body  of  the  people,  who  paid  little  or  nothing. 
4.  It  is  particularly  worthy  of  notice  that  Cornelius  recognizes  the 
order  of  the  clergy,  and  declares  the  inferior  order  to  comprehend 
five  distinct  classes.  Sub-deacons,  vnodiaxovovg;  acolyths,  uxoXov- 
■&ovg  ;  exorcists,  i^ooy.iaTag ;  readers,  avayvwaiag,  and  door-keepers, 
nvXcoQovg.  5.  It  is  also  worthy  of  remark,  that  there  were  only  seven 
deacons.  It  is  also  observable  that  the  usages  in  the  neighboring 
churches  such  as  Milan,  Naples,  Syracuse,  and  Ravenna,  did  not,  at 
the  same  time,  correspond  with  those  of  Rome. 

For  the  vast  church  at  Constantinople,  Justinian  prescribed  the 


CLASSES  OF  CLERGY.  73 

following  officers— sixty  presbyters,  one  hundred  deacons,  forty  dea- 
conesses, ninety  sub-deacons,  one  hundred  and  ten  readers,  and  twen- 
ty-five singers  ;  in  all,  four  hundred  and  twenty-five,  besides  one 
hundred  door  keepers,  osllarii. 

Fronn  all  these  authorities  the  inference  clearly  is,  that  the  dis- 
tinction of  superior  and  inferior  clergy  was  recognized  in  all  the 
churches,  though  there  was  no  uniform  rule  of  division. 

In  this  connection  it  is  important  also  to  take  notice  of  the  differ- 
ent classifications  which  prevail  in  the  several  great  divisions  of  the 
church. 

In  the  Greek  church,  the  officers  were  as  follows  :  1.  Bishops  ; 
2.  Priests ;  3.  Deacons  ;  4.  Sub-deacons  ;  and  5.  Readers,  to  which 
class  the  singers  and  acolyths  also  belonged. 

Their  ecclesiastical  judicatories  consisted  of  three  orders — arch- 
bishops, metropolitans,  and  patriarchs.  To  these  another  officer 
still  higher  was  sometimes  added,  styled  ea:arc/t.  The  ecclesiastical 
court  of  Russia  is  styled  the  Holy  Synod.  Its  organization  corres- 
ponds with  that  of  the  Greek  church.^ 

The  Syriac  and  Nestorian  churches  affect  to  copy  after  the  hea- 
venly hierarchy,  and  to  compare  their  officers  with  those  of  the  court 
of  heaven.  The  Nestorians  compare  their  patriarchs,  metropolitans, 
and  bishops  with  the  orders  of  Cherubim,  Seraphim,  and  Thrones, — 
their  arch-deacons,  pastoral  priests,  and  preachers,  with  angels  of  the 
second  rank,  styled  Virtues,  Powers,  and  Dominations— their  dea- 
cons, sub-deacons  and  readers  with  those  of  the  third  raiik^  viz. 
Princedoms,  Archangels,  and  Angels."^ 

The  Roman  Catholics  of  the  Western  church,  in  general  abide 
firmly  by  the  principle  established  by  the  schoolmen,  that  the  priest- 
hood is  to  consist  of  seven  classes  corresponding  to  the  seven  spirits 
of  God.  Of  these,  the  three  who  are  chiefly  employed  in  the  duties 
of  the  ministerial  office,  compose  the  superior  order,  and  the  four, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  wait  upon  the  clergy  in  their  ministrations,  and  to 
assist  in  conducting  public  worship,  belong  to  the  inferior  order. 

The  canonists  divide  the  priesthood  into  nine  classes,  of  which 
four  belong  to  the  higher  order,  and  five  to  the  lower.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  catalogue  of  the  several  classes  as  given  by  them,  proceed- 
ing from  the  lowest  to  the  highest.  Of  the  inferior  order — 1.  Sing- 
ers ;    2.  Door-keepers  ;    3,  Readers ;    4.  Exorcists ;    5.  Acolyths. 

10 


74  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

Of  the  superior  order — 6.  Sub-deacons  ;  7.  Deacons  ;  8.  Presbyters  ; 
9.  Bishops.ii 

The  classification  according  to  the  scholastics  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic church,  is  as  follows  :  Of  the  superior  order,  three — 1.  Presby- 
ters or  priests  ;  2.  Deacons  ;  3.  Sub-deacons.  Of  the  inferior  order, 
four — 1.  Acolyths  ;  2.  Exorcists;  3.  Readers  ;  4.  Door-keepers. 
This  classification  of  the  inferior  order  was  established  by  the 
council  of  Trent,  but  another  of  a  subordinate  rank  is  sometimes 
added.i2 

§  3.  Of  the  Episcopal  form  of  Religion. 

1.  The  official  and  honorary  titles  of  the  clergy. 

The  term  bisJiop,  is  the  same  as  the  Latin  episcopvs,  and  the 
Greek  iTnaxonog.  In  the  Latin  it  is  sometimes  rendered  inspector, 
sujKr  inspect  or  ;  superinten  dens  ^o\  super  attendens.  Augustine  more 
properly  renders  it  speculator,  and  prepositus.^  Jerome  derives  it 
from  sTiL(T>ionoiri(c,  i.  e.  superintendentes,  superintendants.-  The 
Hellenists  translate  the  Hebrew  T^pa  and  T'^S,  inlaHonog.  The 
word  nlip  C  of  very  common  occurrence  is  accordingly  rendered 
iniaxoni'i,  hishoprick.  The  apostle  Peter,  also,  in  saying,  ye  have 
returned  to  the  shepherd,  and  hishop  of  your  souls,  uses  the  phrase, 
not  to  denote  any  official  rank  in  the  church,  but  to  designate  the 
o£ice  rather  of  an  overseer,  guardian,  or  protector.  The  Greek  wri- 
ters, as  appears  from  Athenaeus,  Demosthenes,  and  the  scholiasts 
of  Aristophanes,^  sometimes  use  the  term  i.TliTxoTiog  to  denote  a  spe- 
cific civil  office, — that  of  revising  the  judicial  and  municipal  admin- 
istration of  the  government.  According  to  this  analogy  the  inlirxo- 
nog,  praeses,  praejectiis,  maybe  compared  with  the  bishop  under 
the  Carlovingian  dynasty,  as  the  framer  of  the  synodical  court  of 
judicature. 

By  the  term  bishop  the  Hellenists  also  translate  the  Hebrew 
ni2::3n  ujnt  ,  who  is  ruler  of  the  synagogue,  and  the  ^112:4^7  h''r"*p, 
i,  e.  ujiodjolog  sy.y.Xrjaiag.  The  office  of  bishop  they  compare  with 
that  of  ruler  of  the  synagogue.  According  to  this  comparison,  the 
bishops  are  the  same  as  presbyters,  T'^p."  ,  or  elders.  The  apostle 
Peter,  in  exhorting  the  elders,  nqm^vitooi,  to  feed  the  flock  of  Christ, 
taking  the  oversight  of  them,  inicrxonovvTig,  evidently  uses  the  term 
TiqsalivjfQoi  as  an  honorary,  and  iniaxoixovvisg  or  iniaxonoi  as  an  of- 


EPISCOPAL  FORM  OF  RELIGION.  75 

Jicial  title  of  the  same  persons.  This  usage  is  also  very  frequent 
with  the  ancient  fathers,  and  in  oiTicial  documents  even  down  to  the 
third  century. 

[Rheinwald,  Gieseler  and  Siegel  concur  also  in  opinion  with  our 
autl)or,  that  originally  the  term  bishnp  denoted  merely  the  official 
title  of  a  presbyter  who  had  been  constituted  a  moderator,  ruler,  or 
overseer  of  the  church.''  For  a  fuller  explanation  of  the  name  see 
references. — Tr.]^ 

The  following  are  the  most  important  names  which  were  ancient- 
ly applied  to  the  bishops. 

1.  IlQtajSvTSQoi,  nQOfCTTOJTfg,  1  Tim.  5:  17;  TiQoitiTnfiSvot,,  1  Thess. 
5:  12 — rendered  in  Latin  preposili,  and  used  to  designate  them  as 
the  presiding  officers  in  christian  assemblies.  The  Greek  fathers 
are  careful  to  add  the  phrase  spiritual,  TTViVfiarixol  or  nvivijtxTixvv 
Xo^oii,  to  distinguish  them  from  secular  rulers.'^ 

2.  JTqosSqoi,  praesides,  praeside7iies, — used  in  close  connection 
with  the  foregoing,  and  derived  from  the  ngosd^ia,  the  elevated  seat 
which  the  bishop  occupied  in  the  synod,  and  in  the  religious  assem- 
blies of  the  people.''' 

3.  "£(poQoi,  inspectors.  Not  often  used  because  it  is  liable  to  be 
confounded  with  the  tqioQoi  of  the  Greeks.  Both  the  Greek  and 
Latin  term  is  much  in  use  among  protestants  to  designate  the  prin- 
cipal of  a  school,  or  corporation,  or  church,  and  is  synonymous  with 
church  or  school  inspector,  or  master  of  a  gymnasium. 

4.  "AncaToXoi,  apostles.  So  called  by  Theodoret  to  distinguish 
thein  from  presbyters  who  were  also  called  inlaxonoi.^ — Also,  Jid- 
8oxoi  rwv  anoaxolMv ,  vicarii,  or  successors  of  the  ajwstles.^  On  this 
title  now  depends  the  important  dogma  concerning  the  perpetual 
and  uninterrupted  succession  of  bishops  which,  not  only  the  Greek 
and  Romish  churches,  but  a  portion  also  of  the  church  of  England 
maintain  with  singular  pertinacity. 

5.  Angeli  ecclesiae,  angels  of  the  church.  An  epithet  derived 
from  the  angel  of  the  church  in  the  Apocalypse.  It  was  a  doctrine 
of  great  antiquity  that  some  angel  in  heaven  acted  as  the  represen- 
tative of  every  nation  and  kingdom  and  province,  and  that  some 
guardian  angel  was  intrusted  with  the  care  of  each  individual,  Heb. 
1:  14.  The  bishops,  therefore,  who  were  appointed  by  Christ  and 
his  apostles  to  the  ministry  of  the  gospel,  and  the  service  of  the 
saints,  were  supposed  to  bear  the  same  relations  in  the  hierarchy  of 


76  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

the  church  that  these  tutelary  angels  bore  in  the  court  of  heaven. 
On  the  subject  of  guardian  angels,  see  references. ^"^ 

6.  Summi  sacerdoles,  poiilijices  tnaximi,  chief  priests,  etc.  These 
titles  were  conferred  by  those  writers  who  derived  the  organization 
of  the  church  from  the  regulations  of  the  temple  service,  rather  than 
from  those  of  the  synagogue.  They  afterwards  became  the  titles  of 
the  patriarchs  and  bishops  of  the  Roman  Catholics. 

7.  Paires,  patres  ecclesiae,  pa/res  clericorum,  and  palres  palrum, 
'  fathers,  fathers  of  the  church,  fathers  of  the  clergy,  fathers  of  fa- 
thers ;'  according  to  the  oriental  custom  of  calling  a  teacher  or  su- 
perior, :3N,  M/5/5(J(  and  a^^a?,  father. 

The  title  of  a  presbyter  is  usually  that  of  pater  laicorum,  father 
of  the  laity,  or  simply  j^a/er,  father.  The  presiding  officer  of  these 
was  accordingly  called  pater  patrum. 

Abba  and  abbas  was  originally  the  common  appellation  of  a  monk. 
Modern  usage  also  confers  upon  him  the  name  of  father. 

Papa,  pope,  corresponds  in  signification  with  «/5/5a,  ndnn a,  father, 
honored  father,  and  is  a  familiar  and  affectionale  form  of  expression. 
The  most  probable  opinion  is,  that  it  was  first  applied  to  the  bishop 
of  Alexandria.  Siricius  was  probably  the  first  Roman  bishop  wlio, 
about  the  year  384,  assumed  the  name  as  an  official  thle  in  a  public 
document.i^  It  was  not,  however,  employed  officially  until  the  time 
of  Leo  the  Great ;  and  it  was  afterwards  applied  exclusively  to  the 
bishop  of  Rome  according  to  an  order  of  Gregory  the  Great,  who 
declares  this  to  be  the  only  appropriate  title,  belonging  to  the  office. 

8.  Patriarchs.  At  first  all  bishops  were  called  by  this  name,  as 
being  superior  to  the  presbyters,  who  were  merely  denominated  pa- 
tres. It  was  afterwards  only  applied  to  the  archbishop  and  metro- 
politan, or  to  the  bishop  of  some  large  and  influential  diocese.  Be- 
tween the  fourth  and  sixth  centuries,  five  large  churches  arose  whose 
highest  ecclesiastical  officer  bore  the  title  of  patriarch.  These  were 
the  churches  of  Rome,  Constantinople,  Alexandria,  Theopolis  or 
Antioch,  and  Jerusalem. 

9.  Stadtholders  and  vicegerents  of  Christ  and  of  God.  From  the 
time  of  Ignatius  and  the  date  of  the  apostolic  constitutions,  the  bish- 
ops were  represented  to  have  received  their  commissions  from 
Christ  himself,  and,  in  his  name,  to  administer  the  affairs  of  the 
church.  Cyprian  speaks  of  the  bishop  as  acting  "  vice  Christi,''"'  in 
the  place  of  Christ.     Basil  represents  him  as  occupying  the  place  of 


DUTIES  OF  THE  BISHOP.  77 

the  Saviour  ;'~  and  Augustine  and  Ambrose  employ  much  the  same 
language.  So  early  did  the  church  forget  the  Saviour's  injunction, 
"  Call  no  man  master." 

10;  "AQxovTfg  ixxlrjaiwv,  rulers  of  the  church.  So  Origen,  Euse- 
bius,  Chrysostom,  Jerome  and  others.  They  were  rulers,  however, 
not  in  a  political,  but  merely  in  a  religious  sense. 

11.  Princeps  sacerdotum,  and  Episcopus  episcoporum,  are  synony- 
mous with  archbishop,  patriarch,  etc. 

12.  Various  other  epithets  are  applied  to  them,  such  as  Messed, 
most  blessed — holy,  most  holy— most  beloved  of  God,  etc.  The  usual 
salutation  of  a  letter  was  as  follows :  Tw  aytonaToj  xul  fiaxaQoxajci 
aQ/UTiKTicono)  xttl  olxovi^svixo)  naiQiuQ/j]. 

§  4.  Official  duties  of  the  Bishop. 

The  office  of  bishop  comprehended  in  general  two  different  clas- 
ses of  duties. 

I.  All  those  that  relate  to  the  worship  of  God.  This  division 
comprises  all  the  offices  of  religious  worship  without  exception, 
whether  performed  by  the  bishop  in  person,  or  by  others  acting  un- 
der his  commission. 

II.  Duties  relating  to  the  government,  and  discipline  of  the  church. 
Under  this  class,  is  comprised  the  oversight  in  all  the  churches  of 
his  diocese,  both  of  the  laity  and  the  priesthood ;  and  the  manage- 
ment of  the  affairs  of  the  several  churches  which  were  submitted  to 
his  care. 

These  separate  divisions  require,  each,  a  careful  examination. 

I.  In  regard  to  duties  pertaining  to  religious  worship,  we  are  to 
distinguish  carefully,  between  the  right  or  vocation,  and  the  actual 
exercise  of  the  duties  consequent  upon  this  vocation.  In  the  earliest 
period  of  the  church,  while  yet  the  greatest  simplicity  of  form  pre- 
vailed, and  before  any  determinate  distinction  was  known  between 
bishop  and  presbyter,  iniaxonog  and  uQfa^vrfQog,  many  services  re* 
lating  to  the  worship  of  God  were  prescribed  to  the  deacons  and 
ministers,  Siaxovoig  and  vnTjghaig,  who  were  already  known  in  the 
New  Testament.  According  to  Justin  Martyr,^  it  was  the  duty  of 
the  minister,  6  TiQoscrxag  tdjj'  udfXifwv,  synonymous  with  iniaxonog, 
aQ/uQilg,  liQugx^g,  to  consecrate  the  elements.  To  the  deacons  be- 
longed the  duty  of  distributing  them.     The  same  distribution  of  the 


78  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

services  is  also  prescribed  in  the  Apostolical  Constitutions.^  Other 
duties  are  also  assigned  to  the  deacons  and  subordinate  officers  of 
the  church,  to  be  performed  however  by  the  direction,  or  under 
the  immediate  oversight  of  the  bishop,  whose  representatives  they 
all  are. 

It  is  made  especially  the  duty  of  the  bishop  to  perform  the  servi- 
ces of  cate.cliist  and  preacher.  Ambrose  expressly  declares  that  it 
was  the  duty  of  the  bishop  to  instruct  the  people?  This  duty  was 
distinctly  acknowledged,  and  actually  performed  by  Chrysoslom, 
Gregory  Nazianzen,  Cyprian,  Augustine,  Leo  the  Great,  Gregory 
the  Great,  and  others.  Such  was  not  only  the  sentiment  of  the 
church  generally,  but  Charlemagne  and  Louis  I.,  expressly  en- 
join the  bishops  not  to  neglect  this  important  part  of  their  official 
duties  on  any  plea  of  ignorance  or  indolence.^  The  same  duty  is 
explicitly  taught  by  the  council  of  Trent  in  the  following  terms,  and 
in  perfect  accordance  with  the  views  of  the  primitive  church. 
"  Whereas  the  preaching  of  the  gospel,  which  is  the  peculiar  office 
of  bishops,  is  as  essential  to  every  christian  community  as  the  read- 
ing of  the  word,  therefore,  this  sacred  synod  has  determined  and  de- 
creed that  all  bishops,  archbishops  and  primates,  and  all  other  pre- 
lates of  the  churches,  are  themselves  required,  and  personally  bound, 
to  preach  the  blessed  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ  unless  specially  pre- 
vented, legitime  prohibiti.''''^ 

Such,  beyond  all  controversy  is  the  duty  of  those  who  sustain  the 
office  of  bishop,  though  Xha'u  practice  has  at  times  been  altogether 
the  reverse  of  this,  and  still  is  in  part.  Occasionally,  even  in  the 
ancient  church,  the  bishops,  through  the  pressure  of  secular  cares, 
neglected  entirely  their  ministerial  duties.  At  other  times  they  re- 
fused in  the  pride  of  office  their  duties  as  preachers  and  catechists  ; 
and  the  more  humble  duties  of  the  sacred  office,  as  derogatory  to 
their  character.  But  at  no  time  has  the  right  and  the  duly  of  the 
bishop,  to  discharge  all  the  offices  of  the  ministry  been  called  in 
question.  The  act  of  ordination,  of  itself,  and  according  to  the  ca- 
nons of  the  church,  exclusively  invests  them  with  all  the  offices  and 
prerogatives  of  the  priesthood. 

It  only  remains  to  specify  certain  other  offices  which  belong  ex- 
clusively to  them. 

L  The  conjirjnation  of  hapiized  persons,  by  which  they  are  re- 
ceived as  regular  members  of  the  church.    This,  which  is  styled  tiie 


DUTIES  OF  THE  BISHOP.  79 

sealing  of  the  covenant,  was  the  prerogative  of  the  bishop.  This 
rite  is  still  performed  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church  by  the  bishop 
himself,  or  his  substitute.  In  the  orthodox  churches,  as  the  act  of 
confirmation  follows  immediately  upon  baptism,  and  no  rule  is  given 
respecting  it,  the  priest  is  permitted  to  administer  the  ordinance. 

2.  Tlie  ordination  of  the  clergij,  and  consecration  of  other  officers 
of  the  church.  It  has  been  a  uniform  rule  of  the  church,  both  in  an- 
cient and  modern  times,  to  which  there  have  been  only  occasional 
exceptions  that  the  right  of  ordaining  belongs  to  the  bishop.  The 
substitute  was  regarded  as  acting  strictly  in  the  place  of  the  bishop, 
and  in  this  way  the  bishop  gained  peculiar  influence  and  considera- 
tion in  the  view  of  pagan  observers.  The  archdeacon  is  sometimes 
represented  as  officiating  in  the  ancient  church  in  the  ordination  of 
inferior  officers  ;  but  he  is  to  be  regarded  as  acting  in  such  cases  in 
the  place  of  the  bishop,  so  that  what  he  does  by  another  he  does  of 
himself.  Instances  of  this  kind  are  also  to  be  found  in  the  ancient 
church.  Three  bishops  were  required  to  assist  in  the  ordination  of 
one  to  that  office ;  but  some  of  the  higher  officers  in  other  orders  of 
the  clergy  were  subsequently  permitted  to  assist  in  this  service. 

3.  The  reconciling  of  penitents.,  or  the  restoration  of  o fending 
members  of  the  church.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  bishop  to  announce 
those  who  make  profession  of  penitence — to  receive  them  on  pro- 
bation— to  prescribe  the  time  and  form  of  their  penance,  and  to  ex- 
ercise a  watch  over  them  ;  though  in  all  this  the  presbyter  often  co- 
operates with  him.  But  to  remove  the  sentence  of  excommunica- 
tion was  in  the  ancient  church  the  especial  prerogative  of  the  bishop 
which  was  very  seldom  delegated  to  a  presbyter  or  any  other.  On 
the  introduction  of  the  forms  of  confession  and  private  absolution, 
the  whole  system  of  penance  previously  in  use  was  changed,  but 
there  still  remained  much  to  be  administered  publicly  by  the  bishop. 

4.  It  was  especiall}^  the  duty  of  the  bishop  to  perform  the  several 
acts  of  consecration,  and  to  pronounce  the  benediction. 

II.  Of  the  power  of  the  bishop  in  the  government  arid  discipline 
oj  the  church,  after  the  establishment  of  the  hierarchy. 

It  was  a  favorite  sentiment  in  the  church  after  the  establishment 
of  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy,  that  all  power  centered  in  the  bishop 
as  an  universal  hierarch — that  all  the  clergy  were  subject  to  his  au- 
thority— that  all  spiritual  benefices  and  preferments  proceeded  from 
him,  and  that  all  the  sacraments  were  to  be  administered  in  his  name, 


80  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

and  by  a  commission  from  him.  Both  the  Apostolical  Constitutions 
and  the  liturgy  of  the  pseudo  Dionysius  the  Areopogite,  represent 
that  everything  relating  to  the  worship  of  God  in  all  its  parts,  is  the 
collective  work  of  the  bishop.  But  restrictions  were  early  laid  up- 
on the  authority  of  the  bishop  by  regulations  of  the  church,  by 
synodical  divisions,  and  by  metropolitan,  patriarchal,  and  papal  de- 
crees. By  these  regulations  and  decrees,  the  power  of  the  bishop 
was  at  times  greatly  reduced.  But  however  limited  his  prerogatives, 
the  bishop  uniformly  remained  the  source  and  centre  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal authority  within  his  own  diocese.  The  diocesan  clergy  of 
every  rank  were  dependent  upon  him,  and  by  him  were  the  regu- 
lations of  the  churches  directed.  His  influence  was  especially 
manifested  in  the  following  particulars. 

1.  In  tlie  superintendence  of  religious  worship.  All  the  forms  of 
public  worship  were  subject  to  his  direction.  This  direction  he  gave 
at  pleasure,  either  in  accordance  with  his  own  will,  or  in  conformity 
with  usage,  or  by  rules  more  or  less  specific.  It  was  his  business  to 
see  that  everything  was  done  according  to  the  established  order. 
Over  occasional  and  peculiar  religious  acts,  such  as  processions,  pil- 
grimages, fasts,  and  vows,  he  had  a  special  control. 

2.  The  oversight  of  all  the  members  of  his  diocese  in  regard  to 
spiritual  and  ecclesiastical  matters.  This  oversight  he  exercised  by 
adjudicating,  excommunicating,  prescribing  penance,  and  regulating 
the  laws  of  the  marriage  institution.  The  doings  of  the  priest  were 
especially  open  to  an  appeal  to  him  and  subject  to  his  revision.  In 
a  word,  all  that  related  to  the  discipline  of  the  church,  was  subject 
to  his  control. 

3.  All  the  suhordiiiate  memhers  of  the  priesthood,  and  the  servants 
in  the  church  were  subject  to  the  superintendence  of  the  bishops,  both 
as  to  the  discharge  of  their  offices,  and  the  conduct  of  their  lives. 
It  was  an  ancient  rule  in  the  church  that  the  clergy  are  under  the 
same  subjection  to  the  bishop  as  the  soldier  to  his  commander.  His- 
tory indeed  abounds  with  examples  of  severe  punishment  inflicted 
upon  a  refractory  and  disobedient  priesthood.  At  first,  no  exemp- 
tion was  made  in  favor  even  of  the  monks;  but  in  the  middle  ages 
they  threw  off"  their  subjection  to  the  bishops  to  the  great  dishonor 
of  that  office — to  the  injury  of  the  parochial  clergy  and  of  the  wel- 
fare of  the  church. 

4.  It  was  the  specific  duty  of  the  bishop  to  visit  curates,  churches. 


DUTIES  OF  THE  BISHOP.  81 

schools,  cloisters,  and  religious  estdblishments.  Many  rules  of  the 
church  enforce  this  duty  upon  the  bishops  personally,  and  it  was 
with  reluctance  allowed  to  the  bishop  to  appoint  to  this  service  ru- 
ral bishops,  chorepiscopi,  exarchs,  and  itinerantor  visiting  presbyters, 
TifQtodhvtaL  The  council  of  Laodicea  in  the  nniddle  of  the  fourth 
century,  decreed  that  bishops  should  not  reside  in  the  country  or 
smaller  villages  ;  but  itinerant  presbyters  only,  and  that  these  should 
do  nothing  without  the  knowledge  of  the  bishop  residing  in  the  city, 
just  as  presbyters  acted  in  subordination  to  his  will.  Under  the  Car- 
lovingian  dynasty,  bishops  and  counts  of  the  realm  were  placed  on 
equal  footing,  and  exercised  a  joint  jurisdiction. 

5.  The  bishop  acted  as  moderator  of  all  synods  within  his  diocese, 
and  gave  direction  to  their  doings.  This  was  formerly  a  privilege  of 
great  importance.  The  disrespect  into  which  synodical  councils  and 
decrees  have  fallen  in  modern  times,  has  greatly  reduced  the  au- 
thority and  influence  of  the  bishops.  Ecclesiastical  councils  are 
supposed  to  have  been  first  held  in  the  Greek  church  towards  the 
close  of  the  second  century. 

6.  The  bishop  controlled  and  disbursed  at  pleasure,  both  the  occa- 
sional contributions  and  the  stated  revenues  of  the  church.  The  dea- 
cons at  first,  acted  as  his  assistants  in  the  business,  but  as  the  man- 
agement of  the  revenue  became  more  intricate  and  responsible,  it 
was  intrusted  to  stewards  subject  to  the  direction  of  the  archdeacons, 
over  whom  the  bishop  retained  a  general  superintendence. 

7.  The  bishop  exercised  in  part  a  civil  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  ju- 
risdiction, especially  in  cases  relating  to  marriages  and  divorces, 
and  to  the  person  or  goods  of  ecclesiastics  ;  and  in  what  are  called 
mixed  cases  in  civil  and  penal  actions  which  are  to  be  adjudged,  both 
by  statute  and  by  common  law.  At  first  there  were  certain  justices, 
ty.dixoi,  and  avvdiy.oi,  advocati,  and  consul.es,  who  acted  as  his  substi- 
tutes and  in  his  name.  Special  tribunals  were  established  here  as 
occasion  required  for  the  management  of  his  various  judicial  con- 
cerns. Such  was  the  origin  of  the  office  of  deputies,  officials  and 
chancellor,  and  of  the  courts  of  the  archdeacons  and  consistories. 
But  these  all  acted  in  the  name,  and  by  the  authority  of  the  bishop, 
and  were  accountable  to  him. 

Chapters  of  clergy  and  collegiate  establishments  were  entirely  un- 
known in  the  ancient  church.     The  first  traces  of  them  appear  in  the 
ninth  century.     In  the  twelfth  they  obtained  a  constitution  through 
11 


82  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

the  influence  of  the  court  of  Rome  and  the  favor  of  iheir  sovereigns, 
which  laid,  indeed,  salutary  restraints  upon  the  arhitrary  will  of  the 
bishop  ;  but,  at  the  same  lime,  it  laid  the  foundation  for  a  most  per- 
nicious aristocracy  in  the  church.  The  bishop  continued  indeed 
o  be  nominally  at  the  head  of  these  bodies,  but  his  best  intentions 
and  efforts  were  baffled  by  their  detraction  and  intrigue. 

§  5.  Insignia  of  the  Bishof. 

No  badge  of  office  or  clerical  dress  was  worn  by  the  clergy  until 
the  fourth  century.  The  various  insignia  or  emblems  of  office  which 
have  from  time  to  time  been  appropriated  to  the  bishop  are  as  fol- 
lows : 

1.  A  ring,  emblematical  of  his  espousals  to  the  church  in  imita- 
tion of  the  ancient  ceremony  of  presenting  a  ring  on  the  espousal  of 
the  parties  in  marriage.  It  was  called  the  ring  of  his  espousals,  an- 
nuJus  sponsalitius,  annulus  ]]ro7iubus,  and  sometimes,  aiinulus  pa- 
lata. 

2.  A  shepherd's  staff  or  crook,  dixdvlxiov.  Sometimes  a  straight 
staff  was  presented  instead  of  the  crook.  That  of  the  archbishop 
had  usually  a  single,  and  that  of  the  patriarch  a  double  cross  piece. 
According  to  Montfaucon  the  staff  of  the  Greek  archbishop  had  a 
head-piece  resembling  the  letter  T.^  According  to  Goari,  it  was 
curved  upward,  thus,  Y  for  which  he  offers  the  following  whimsical 
reason:  Ansas  retortas  habet  baculus  hamorum  instai,  ut  efferatos 
fuget  et  perniciosos  el  ultimo  Christi  crucem  manifestet.^ 

3.  A  7}iilre  or  Jillet.  It  is  usually  stated  that  only  bishops  and  ab- 
bots of  the  Western  church  have  worn  the  mitre  since  the  tenth  cen- 
tury.    But  the  usage  was  not  unknown  in  the  Eastern  church  also.^ 

4.  A  jiciir  of  gloves,  chirothecae.  These  the  bishop  always  wore 
when  engaged  in  any  religious  offices.'* 

5.  Sandals.  Without  these,  no  priest  was  permitted  to  celebrate 
mass.  They  consisted  of  a  sole  so  attached  to  the  foot  as  to  leave 
the  upper  part  bare.  They  were  called  sandals  from  the  vegetable 
color  in  which  they  were  dyed.  From  the  seventh  and  eighth  cen- 
turies they  are  mentioned  as  one  of  the  badges  of  the  episcopal  of- 
fice, in  distinction  from  that  of  the  priests.^ 

6.  Caligae  or  boots.     These,  in  ancient  warfare,  were  a  part  of 


INSIGNIA  OF  THE  BISHO?.  83 

the  military  equipments  of  the  soldier.     To  tiie  bishop  they  were 
emblematical  of  that  spiritual  warfare  upon  which  he  entered. 

7.  The  robe,  wuocfOQiov,  hnc(  uToXlj, pallium  superhiuncrale^peclo- 
rale;  ephod.  This  badge  was  so  essential,  that  writers  often  use  the 
robe  to  denote  both  the  person  and  the  oflice  of  the  bishop.  It  was 
at  first  worn  by  all  bishops,  but  afterwards  became  the  distinctive 
badge  of  archbishops,  metropolitans,  and  patriarchs.^  Gregory  Na- 
zianzen  affirms,'^  that  it  was  the  insignia  of  the  Roman  emperor  as 
ponlifex  maximus ;  and  that  Constantino  the  great,  first  granted  it  to 
the  bishop  of  Jerusalem.  But  this  is  in  direct  opposition  to  tradition, 
which  reports  that  Mark  the  Evangelist  as  bishop  of  Alexandria  first 
assumed  the  robe,  and  left  it  for  his  followers. 

Nothing  is  known  of  the  form  and  quality  of  the  robe  in  the  first 
centuries,  save  that  it  was  a  seamless  garment,  nullis  acubus  'perfo- 
rata, made  of  white  linen,  and  hung  loosely  from  the  shoulders.*^ 
It  was  afterwards  made  of  woollen.  In  the  twelfth  century,  it  was 
made  of  white  woollen,  having  a  circular  gathering  on  the  shoulders, 
and  two  scarfs  hanging  over  it  behind  and  before.  On  the  left  side 
it  was  double,  and  single  on  the  right.  Previous  to  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, it  had  also  four  purple  crosses  upon  it, — before  and  behind, 
one  ;  and  one  on  either  side.  It  was  fastened  by  three  golden  pins.9 
The  Greek  bishops,  according  to  the  patriarch  Germanus,  assumed 
the  purple  crosses  as  early  as  the  eighth  centur}^  The  robe  itself 
was  styled  iiolvaTavQiov. 

The  rationale,  10  luyiov,  of  the  robe  has  been  the  subject  of  dis- 
pute among  the  learned.  It  appears,  however,  to  relate  to  the  prop- 
er form  of  it  when  the  bishops  of  Rome  assumed  it  as  they  did  the 
name  of  pontifices  maximi,  high  priests,  and  all  the  prerogatives  of 
the  Jewish  high  priest. 

8.  The  cross.  This  was  both  worn  on  the  neck  or  breast,  and 
carried  in  public  processions,  and  thus  became  a  twofold  badge  of  the 
bishop's  office.  He  was  accustomed  to  wear  upon  the  neck  or  breast, 
a  cross  made  of  wood,  or  gold,  or  some  sacred  relic,  whicli  by  the 
Greeks  was  called  10  niQiafiuu,  and  was  regarded  as  an  amulet,  or 
phylactery.  It  was  also  sometimes  called  to  syx6lniov,h'om  xolnog, 
the  bosom.^^  The  cross  was  used  in  like  manner,  in  the  Latin  church. 
Binterim  is  of  opinion  that  it  was  at  first  worn  by  Christians  indis- 
criminately, and  not  as  an  official  badge. '^ 

The  cross  which  was  carried  before  the  bishops  in  processions 


84  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHUECH. 

and  festive  parades,  was  called  crux  gestatoria.  For  a  long  time 
the  bishops  of  Rome  claimed  the  right  of  carrying  the  cross  as  ex- 
clusively their  own.  In  the  twelfth  century  it  was  granted  to  me- 
tropolitans and  patriarchs,  and  to  archbishops  in  the  time  of  Grego- 
ry IX.  The  patriarchs  of  the  Greek  church  did  not  so  frequently 
carry  the  cross,  but  in  the  place  of  it,  they  carried  lamps  and  burn- 
ing candles. 

§  6.  Of  the  several  orders  of  Bishops. 

The  names  of  several  orders  of  bishops  appear  early  in  the  histo- 
ry of  the  church,  such  as  archbishops,  metropolitans,  patriarchs,  etc. 
But  their  office  was  very  unlike  those  of  the  same  name  under  the 
established  hierarchy  of  the  church,  just  as  in  civil  governments,  the 
same  name  may,  at  different  times,  denote  offices  widely  different. 

In  this  place  it  is  proper  to  remark,  that  a  long,  intricate,  and  an- 
gry strife  existed  between  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches,  as 
well  as  between  particular  and  provincial  churches.  But  it  would 
be  foreign  to  my  purpose  to  speak  of  these,  and  I  dismiss  them  with 
this  brief  notice. 

The  Episcopal  form  of  government  recognizes  in  general  two  or- 
ders of  bishops — superior  and  inferior. 

I.   Of  the  superior  order  of  BisJwps. 

These  are  archbishops,  metropolitans,  primates,  exarchs,  inde- 
pendent bishops,  patriarchs,  cardinals,  and  high  priests. 

1.  Of  Archhishups,  "AQxnniijy.onov,  They  are  not  the  same  as 
metropolitans,  as  has  frequently  been  supposed.  The  two  have 
ever  been  distinct  in  the  Eastern  church,  and  usually  in  the  West- 
ern. The  archbishop  is  the  highest  functionary,  and  as  such  presides 
over  both  metropolitans  and  bishops.^  The  theory  of  Bingham  is 
not  altogether  correct,  who  supposes  that  the  bishops  of  larger  cities, 
such  as  Alexandria,  Rome,  Constantinople,  Antioch,  etc.  may  have 
gained  an  ascendancy  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  over  the  bish- 
ops and  metropolitans  of  smaller  towns,  and  assumed  the  name  of 
archbishops  to  denote  this  superiority.  The  title  however  is  known 
to  have  been  first  given  to  the  bishop  of  Alexandria,  and  to  have 
been  adopted  as  an  official  title  in  the  year  431.-  But  it  prevailed 
only  until  the  introduction  of  the  Jewish  title,  patriarchy  to  which  the 


SUPERIOR  ORDER  OF  BISHOPS.  85 

name  of  archbishop  gave  place,  and  yet  it  was  very  seldom  used  as 
exactly  synonymous  with  it. 

The  first  bishop  of  any  diocese  was  sometimes  styled  archbishop. 
The  policy  of  the  church  of  Rome  in  giving  the  occupants  of  such 
a  place,  the  title  of  archbishop  was  to  prevent  them  from  exercising 
the  rights  of  metropolitans.  That  church  even  bestowed  the  title 
upon  such  as  had  no  diocese  under  their  jurisdiction.  In  the  Greek 
church  the  office  was  held  in  more  respect. 

2.  Melropolita7is.  These  were  so  called  because  they  presided 
over  the  principal  town  of  the  district  or  province,^'  but  the  limits  of 
their  authority  were  not  necessarily  the  same  as  those  of  the  slate  ; 
for  there  are  many  examples  both  in  ancient  and  modern  history  of 
inconsiderable  towns  which  yet  were  metropolitan  sees.  The  title 
was  not  in  use  previous  to  the  council  of  Nice."*  But  instead  of  it, 
other  titles  were  employed,  such  as  u()Xicni(Ty.onoc,  nQanog,  y.iffuXv, 
ticiQxo?  T/Jc  i.T:aQXi()tg,  etc.  The  third  council  of  Carthage  decreed 
that  the  chief  bishop  should  neither  be  called  princeps  sacerdotum, 
nor  siimmus  sacerdos ;  but  merely  primae  sedis  episcopus,  senior 
bishop.  In  Africa,  and  especially  in  Nicomedia  and  Mauritania,  his 
title  continued  for  a  long  time  to  be  senex  and  senior,  while  the  sen- 
iority of  office  continued  to  be  carefully  maintained  and  observed. 

3.  Primates,  nQwroi,  jQcoTsvovisg,  iniaxonoiv.  This  title  is  not,  as 
many  suppose,  derived  from  an  ancient  civil  office  in  Rome.  The 
term  primas  urhis,  casteUi,  palatii,  etc.  primate  of  the  city,  palace, 
etc.  is  of  much  later  origin,  and  probably  was  itself  derived  at  first 
from  the  church.  Bishops,  venerable  for  their  age  or  personal  dior. 
nity,  and  those  who  held  offices  over  other  dignitaries  of  the  church, 
were  called  primates.  The  distinction,  however,  between  titular  or 
honorary  primates,  and  primates  in  power,  was  very  early  made. 
In  Africa,  the  senior  bishop,  and  the  bishop  of  Carthage,  were  each 
respectively  styled  primate  of  all  Africa.  The  term  pri?iiate  was 
often  the  same  in  signification  as  archbishop,  metropolitan,  and  pa- 
triarch. In  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  it  was  common  to  style 
the  chief  dignitaries  of  the  whole  province,  or  empire,  primates — 
such  as  primate  of  the  kingdom,  primate  of  Gaul,  Germany,  etc. 
But  it  has  ever  been  the  policy  of  the  Roman  church  to  take  care 
that  these  splendid  titles  should  not  express  any  high  prerogative. 

4.  Exarchs.  These  were  in  the  Eastern  church  the  same  as  the 
primates  of  the  Western  church.     Morini  affirms  it  to  be  an  ecclesi- 


86  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHUECII. 

astical  office  inferior  in  c]ic:;nity  to  that  of  patriarch,  but  superior  to 
that  of  metropolitan.'^  Evagrius  asserts  that  the  bishops  of  Antioch, 
Ephesus,  Caesarea,  and  Heraclea  were  distinguished  by  tlie  title  of 
exarch,  and  that  they  exercised  the  right  of  the  patriarch  in  conse- 
crating the  metropolitans  of  their  diocese. ^  It  is  a  disputed  point 
whether  the  word  originally  denoted  an  ecclesiastical,  or  civil  office. 
But  the  title  of  exarch  of  Italy,  Ravenna,  Africa,  etc.  of  later  times 
assuredly  denoted  a  secular  office. 

5.  Absolute  or  independent  bishops,  uy.i(prdoi  and  avTorJcpcdoi,  not 
subject  to  the  authority  of  a  superior.  Such  were  all  bishops  and 
metropolitans  who  had  the  independent  control  of  their  dioceses. 
It  was  not  in  frequent  use  because  the  Monophysites  claimed  the 
same  title  in  another,  but  kindred  sense.  According  to  Bingham 
the  four  following  classes  received  this  title.  1.  All  metropoli- 
tans anciently.  2.  Some  metropolitans  who  remained  independent 
after  the  establishment  of  the  patriarchal  power,  such  as  those  of 
Cyprus,  Iberia,  Armenia,  and  Britain.  3.  Such  bishops  as  acknow- 
ledged no  subjection  to  metropolitans,  but  only  to  the  patriarch  of 
the  diocese.  4.  Such  as  were  wholly  independent  of  all  others,  and 
acknowledged  no  superior  whatever."^  In  reality,  however,  none 
but  the  pope,  in  the  height  of  his  supremacy,  can  with  propriety  be 
said  to  be  uy.icpnXog  or  amoyJqxdog.  The  independent  bishops  of  the 
Western  church  were  so  only  in  regard  to  their  archbishops  and  pri- 
mates, and  even  the  church  of  Ravenna,  which  for  a  long  time  re- 
fused to  surrender  her  independence,  submitted  at  last  to  the  apos- 
tolic see.^ 

6.  PalriarcJis.  Few  topics  of  antiquity  have  been  so  much  the 
subject  of  strife  among  the  learned,  as  this  relating  to  the  patriarchs 
of  the  ancient  church.^  But  it  will  be  sufficient  for  our  purpose,  to 
take  only  a  brief  view  of  the  points  in  question. 

This  term  originally  applied  to  the  archbishop,  first  occurs  in  the 
year  451,  and  was  synonymous  with  i^aqxag  ttJ?  fnag/iug.'^^  It  was 
borrowed  from  the  Jews  who  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
styled  the  primates  of  their  church  patriarchs,  and  when  this  office 
became  extinct,  the  name  was  conferred  upon  the  dignitaries  of  the 
christian  church.  According  to  Jerome,  the  Monanists  and  Cata- 
phryians  had  already  appropriated  this  title  previous  to  that  event. '^ 

The  bishops  of  Rome,  Constantinople,  Alexandria,  Antioch  and 
Jerusalem   particularly  were  called   patriarchs.     Several  councils 


SUPERIOR  ORDER  OF  BISHOPS.  '87 

had  bestowed  upon  these  bishops  pccuhar  marks  of  distinction, '- 
which  encoin-agod  them  proudly  to  assume  this  title.  Agreeably  to 
the  designs  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  Constantinople  maintained  her 
proud  prerogative,  and  became  a  second  Rome  in  ecclesiastical 
power  and  dignity.  These  high  pretensions  of  her  rival,  Rome  her- 
self reluctantly  saw ;  Alexandria  and  Antioch  uniformly  protested 
against  them ;  Jerusalem,  retained  indeed  her  empty  honors,  but  not 
her  patriarchal  rights  and  privileges.  The  Romanists  are  careful  to 
say  that  there  were  at  first  five  patriarchs  in  the  church,  that  those 
of  Rome,  Alexandria,  and  Antioch  were  deservedly  so  called,  per 
se  et  exnatura;  but  that  those  of  Constantinople  and  Jerusalem 
were  by  mere  accident,  per  accidens,  graced  with  this  title. 

In  the  sixth  century  Rome  and  Constantinople  engaged  in  a  bitter 
strife  for  the  title  of  imperial  patriarch,  naToiaQ/rig  T)jg  oiy.ov/.av7}c, 
universalis  ecclesiae  papa.  But  the  primate  of  Rome  finally  ended 
the  controversy  by  resigning  the  title  of  patriarch,  and  assuming  only 
tliat  of  pope,  or  pontifex  Maximus. 

The  following  summary  of  the  prerogatives  of  the  patriarch  is 
given  by  Bingham,  Book  II.  chap.  17.  1.  "  They  were  to  ordain 
all  the  metropolitans  of  their  own  diocese,  and  to  receive  their  own 
ordination  from  a  diocesan  synod.  2.  To  call  diocesan  synods  and 
and  to  preside  over  them.  3.  To  receive  appeals  from  metropoli- 
tans and  provincial  synods.  4,  To  censure  metropolitans  and  their 
suffragan  bishops  if  metropolitans  were  remiss  in  censuring  them. 
5.  They  might  delegate  metropolitans  as  their  commissioners  to 
hear  ecclesiastical  causes  in  any  part  of  the  diocese.  6.  They 
were  to  be  consulted  by  metropolitans  in  all  matters  of  moment. 
7.  To  communicate  to  their  metropolitans  such  imperial  laws  as 
concerned  the  church,  as  the  metropolitans  were  to  notify  the  pro- 
vincial bishops.  8.  Absolution  of  great  criminals  was  reserved  to 
them.'3     9,  They  were  absolute  and  independent  one  of  another. 

7.  Cardinals.^'^  The  order  of  cardinals  really  belongs  to  the 
Western  church.  The  corresponding  court  in  the  church  of  Con- 
stantinople is  the  college  of  the  Exocatacoeli.*  To  the  Russian 
church  Peter  the  Great  gave,  after  the  resignation  of  the  patriarchal 

*  Critics  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  origin  of  this  name.  The  most  proba- 
ble is  that  of  Du  Cange  who  derives  it  from  the  fact  that,  those  who  were 
high  in  ofRce  ■Were  seated  in  public  assemblies  in  high  and  more  h(jnorable 
seats  erected  for  the  purpose  on  either  side  of  the  patriarchal  throne. 


88  MINISTEKS  OF  THE  CHURCH, 

power,  the  court  of  the  holy  synod,  corresponding  to  the  college  of 
cardinals  at  Rome,  and  with  that  of  the  electors  in  the  Roman  catho- 
lic States  of  Germany. 

The  term  has  long  been  in  use,  and  originally  either  signified  the 
same  as  praecipuus,  principalis,  id  quod  rei  cardo  est,  synonymous 
with  praelatus  ;  or  else  it  was  derived  from  cardinare  or  incardinare, 
to  hinge  or  join  together  ;  and  was  applied  to  the  regular  clergy  of 
the  metropolitan  church.  In  Italy,  Gaul,  etc.,  such  churches  early 
received  the  title  of  cardinal  churches,  the  ministers  of  these 
churches  were  also  called  cardinals. 

The  following  statements  comprise  the  important  historical  facts 
relative  to  the  office  of  Cardinal. 

1.  The  institution  of  the  office  has  been  ascribed  by  respectable 
Roman  catholic  writers  to  Christ  himself, — to  the  apostle  of  their 
faith, — to  the  Roman  bishop  Evaristus,  to  Heginus,  Marcellus, 
Boniface,  III,  and  others.  But  we  only  know  that  cardinals,  pres- 
byters, and  deacons  occur  in  history  about  the  sixth  and  seventh 
centuries,  who  were  however  not  itinerant,  but  stationary  church 
officers  for  conducting  religious  worship.  The  deacons  and  pres- 
byters of  Rome  especially  bore  this  name,  who  composed  the  pres- 
bytery of  the  bishop  of  the  place.  The  title  was  also  conferred  up- 
on the  suffragan  bishops  of  Ostia,  Albanum,  and  others  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity,  but  without  any  other  rights,  than  those  which 
were  connected  appropriately  with  the  ministerial  office. 

2.  The  import  of  the  term  was  varied  still  more  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, and  especially  in  the  eleventh,  by  Nicolaus  II.,  who,  in  his  con- 
stitution for  the  election  of  the  Roman  pontiff",  not  only  appointed 
his  seven  suffi*agan  bishops  as  members  of  the  pope's  ecclesiastical 
council,  but  also  constituted  them  the  only  legitimate  body  for  the 
election  of  the  pope.^^  To  these  he  gave  the  name  of  cardinal 
bishops  of  the  church  of  Rome,  or  cardinals  of  the  Lateran  church. 

This  is  the  important  period  in  history  when  the  first  founda- 
tion was  laid  for  rendering  the  hierarchy  of  the  church  independent 
both  of  the  clergy  and  of  the  secular  power.  This  period  has  not 
been  noticed  so  particularly  by  historians  as  its  importance  requires. 
They  seem  especially  to  have  overlooked  the  fact  that  the  famous 
Hildebrand,  Gregory  VII,  in  the  year  1073,  concerted  these  meas- 
ures for  the  independence  of  the  church,  as  the  following  extract 
will  show.     "  It  was  the  deep  design  of  Hildebrand,  which  he  for  a 


SUPERIOR  ORDER  OF  BISHOPS.  89 

long  time  prosecuted  with  unwearied  zeal  to  bring  the  pope  wholly 
within  the  pale  of  tlie  church,  and  to  prevent  the  interference,  in  his 
election,  of  all  secular  inflLjence  and  arbitrary  power.  And  that 
measure  of  the  council  which  wrested  from  the  emperor  a  right  of 
so  long  standing,  and  which  had  never  been  called  in  question,  may 
deservedly  be  regarded  as  the  master-piece  of  popish  intrigue,  or 
rather  of  Hildebrand's  cunning.  The  concession  which  disguised 
this  crafty  design  of  his,  was  expressed  as  follows— /Aa/  the  emperor 
should  ever  hold  from  the  pope  ^  the  right  of  appointing  the  pope.''''^^ 

3.  As  might  have  been  expected,  this  privilege  was  afterwards 
contested  by  the  princes  of  the  German  States,  especially  by  those 
of  Saxony,  and  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen.  But  these  conflicts  uni- 
formly resulted  in  favor  of  the  ambitious  designs  of  the  pope.  A 
momentary  concession,  granted  under  the  pressure  of  circumstances, 
became  reason  sufficient  for  demanding  the  same  ever  afterwards 
as  an  established  right.  In  the  year  A.  D.  1179,  Alexander  III, 
through  the  canons  of  the  Lateran,  confirmed  yet  more  the  inde- 
pendent election  of  the  pope,  so  that  after  this  the  ratification  of  the 
emperor  was  no  longer  of  any  importance.  Something  similar  was 
also  repeated  by  Innocent  III,  A.  D.  1215,  and  Innocent  IV,  A.  D. 
1254.  The  former  had  already,  in  the  year  A.  D.  1198,  renounced 
the  civil  authority  of  Rome,  and  ascended  the  papal  throne.  In  the 
year  1274,  the  conclave  of  cardinals  for  the  election  of  the  pope  was 
fully  established  by  Gregory  X,  and  remains  the  same  to  this  day. 

4.  The  college  of  cardinals,  which,  until  the  twelfth  century,  had 
been  restricted  to  Rome  and  its  vicinity,  has  since  been  greatly  en- 
larged, so  as  to  become  the  supreme  court  of  the  church  universal. 
Priests  of  illustrious  name  in  other  provinces  and  countries,  have 
been  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  cardinals.  Of  this  Alexander  III 
gave  the  first  example  in  the  year  1165,  by  conferring  the  honor 
upon  Galdinus  Sala,  archbishop  of  Milan,  and  upon  Conrad,  arch- 
bisho[)  of  Mentz.  But  to  the  injury  of  the  church,  the  greater  part 
have  ever  been  restricted  to  the  limits  of  Rome  and  Italy. 

5.  The  formal  classification  of  the  cardinals  into  three  distinct 
orders,  1.  Cardinal  bishops;  2.  Cardinal  presbyters;  3.  Cardinal 
deacons,  was  made  by  Paul  II,  in  the  fifteenth  century.  He  also 
gave  them,  instead  of  the  scarlet  robe  which  they  had  worn  since 
the  year  1244,  a  purple  role,  from  whence  they  derived  the  name 
of  the  purple,  a  title  indicative  not  merely  of  their  superiority  to 

12 


90  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHTJRCH. 

bishops  and  archbishops,  but  of  their  regal  honors  and  rights.  Boni- 
face VIII,  gave  them  the  title  of  eminent issimi,  most  eminent ;  and 
Pius  V,  in  the  year  1567,  decreed  that  no  other  should  have  the 
name  of  cardinal. 

6.  The  number  of  cardinals  was  at  first  not  less  than  seven,  and.  af- 
ter having  ranged  from  seven  to  fifty-three,  it  was  reduced  again  in 
the  year  1277,  to  the  minimum  above  mentioned.  The  General  As- 
sembly of  the  church  of  Basil  limited  the  number  to  twenty-four  ; 
but  the  popes  from  this  time  increased  them  at  their  pleasure.  Un- 
der Leo  X,  there  were  sixty-five  cardinals ;  Paul  IV,  and  Pius  V, 
decreed  that  the  maximum  should  be  seventy — equal  in  number  to 
the  disciples  of  Jesus.  These  were  arranged  under  the  following 
grades.  1.  Six  cardinal  bishops  with  the  following  titles  —  the 
bishops  of  Ostia,  Porta,  Alhano,  Frescati,  Sasina,  and  Palaestrina. 
2.  Fifty  cardinal  priests,  who  were  named  after  the  parochial  and 
cathedral  churches  of  Rome.  3.  Fourteen  cardinal  deacons,  who 
were  named  after  the  chapels.  This  number  was  seldom  full,  but 
since  1814,  they  have  again  become  quite  numerous. 

Lastly.  Among  the  superior  officers  of  the  church  may  be  men- 
tioned the  Pope,  papa  Romanus,pontifex  Maximus.  Upon  this  offi- 
cer, elevated  to  the  summit  of  ecclesiastical  dominion,  we  can  only 
bestow  a  complimentary  notice.  An  entire  volume  would  be  re- 
quired merely  for  an  enumeration  of  the  most  important  transactions 
of  the  pope,  and  they  are  recorded  by  innumerable  authors  both  an- 
cient and  modern. 

II.  Of  the  inferior  order  of  Bishops. 
1.  'Eniaxonoi  axoXa^ovifc,  vacui,  vacantes,  cessantes,  quiescentes, 
iishops  without  cures.  To  this  class  belong  those  who,  for  any  cause, 
declined  the  duties  oftheiroff.ee.  In  times  of  persecution  and  reli- 
gious commotion,  especially  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  many 
men  of  distinction  refused  to  be  considered  candidates  for  the  office 
of  bishop,  and  even  when  elected,  declined  the  duties  of  the  office. 
Others  resigned  who  had  been  fully  inducted  into  office  ;  and  others 
again,  not  being  acknowledged  by  their  colleagues  and  dioceses, 
were  subject  to  a  compulsory  resignation.  Under  this  head  may  al- 
so be  ranked  those  bishops  who,  though  they  did  not  resign,  absent- 
ed themselves  from  their  diocese  for  a  length  of  time,  and  resided, 
without  good  reason,  in  other  places.     In  the  fourth  and  fifth  centu- 


INFERIOR  ORDER  OF  BISHOPS.  91 

ries  it  was  not  uncommon  for  ten  or  twelve  bishops  to  relinquish  the 
duties  of  their  office,  and  resort  to  the  court  at  Constantinople. 
These  were  deservedly  accounted  subordinate  to  their  colleagues 
who  continued  in  the  faithful  discharge  of  their  duties. 

2.  Titular  bishops,  Episcopi  inpartibus  infideUutn,  Episcopi  gen- 
tium, regionarii.  Bishops  of  this  class  were  invested  with  their  of- 
fice, but  had  no  stated  charge  or  diocese.  This  title  was  first  given 
in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  to  the  bishcpsof  those  provin- 
ces which  had  been  gained  by  the  conquests  of  the  cross,  and  which 
had  long  been  held  under  the  dominion  of  the  Saracens  and  Tartars. 
They  may  be  compared  with  various  juridical  and  political  pretend- 
ers, and  with  the  kings  of  .Jerusalem,  who  retained  their  title  after 
the  overthrow  of  the  kingdom.  The  patriarchs  of  Constantinople 
made  the  same  claim,  and  resigned  it  with  extreme  reluctance. 

Since  the  reformation,  the  Romish  church  has  manifested  the  same 
deportment  towards  those  bishoprics  which  they  have  lost.  That 
church  expressly  decreed  that  no  one  should  be  ordained  at  large, 
anokslvfiBvmg,  without  a  specific  charge.^  And  yet  their  titular  dig- 
nitaries receive  the  unmeaning  titles  of  bishops  of  Tarsus,  Ephesus, 
Samaria,  Aleppo,  etc.  Under  a  change  of  circumstances,  a  bishop 
so  ordained,  might  enter  immediately  upon  the  discharge  of  the  of- 
ficial duties  of  his  office.  Even  Bingham,  though  zealously  opposed 
to  these  nugatory  and  titular  bishops,  admits  that  instances  of  this 
kind  sometimes,  though  seldom,  occurred   in  the  ancient  churcL 

3.  Suffragan  bishojis.  These  were  originally  the  same  as  dioces- 
an bishops,  who  acted  as  the  representatives  and  substitutes  of  their 
metropolitans.  They  were  called  suflVagan,  either  because  they 
could  not  be  consecrated  without  the  suffrage  of  the  metropolitan,  or 
because  they  had  the  right  of  suffrage  in  the  synod,  whilst  yet  dis- 
tinct from  other  members  of  that  body.  The  latter  is  the  most  prob- 
able explanation  of  the  term. 

These  suffragan  bishops  are  not  the  same  as  the  chorepiscopi.^ 
But  after  the  cessation  of  these,  the  necessity  of  suffragans  became 
much  greater  ;  and  they  were  accordingly  increased.  Bishops  who 
had  no  metropolitan  power,  first  began  in  the  tenth  century  to  have 
suffragans  under  them.  These  were  also  styled  vicar  generals,  vice- 
gerents, bishops  in  pontificalibus,  vice  Episcopi,  e\.c?  The  suffra- 
gan bishops  of  Germany  were  appointed  for  the  ordination  of  infe- 
rior officers,  and  the  consecration  and  benediction  of  churches,  al- 
tars, baptismal  waters,  etc. 


92  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

4.  Country  bishops.  XagsTrlaxonoi,  Episcopi  rurales,  s.  villani. 
These,  though  of  ancient  origin,  have  been  the  subject  of  much  dis- 
pute among  the  learned,  and  called  forth  a  multitude  of  treatises  and 
authors,  ancient  and  modern. 

These  authorities  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  etymology  of  the  word. 
Some  derive  it  from  chorus,  a  choir  of  singers.'*  Others  from  the  ap- 
pellation, occulus  or  cor  episcopi,  eye  or  heart  of  the  bishop,  as  his 
archdeacon  was  sometimes  called  ;^  and  others  again  from  the  Syri- 
ac  word,  TD  which  in  connection  with  the  word  bishop,  denotes  a 
vicar  of  the  bishop.^  But  it  was  doubtless  derived  from  x(''9^  ^'^ 
XfaQiov,  cowitry,  and  denotes  a  country  bishop. 

The  most  important  points  in  explanation  of  this  ofRce,  may  be 
comprised  under  the  following  remarks. 

a)  There  is  not  indeed  satisfactory  evidence  that  this  office  is  autho- 
rized in  Titus  1:  5,  but  there  is  very  early  notice  of  its  institution  from 
Clemens  Romanus,  who  says  that  "  as  they,  the  apostles,  preached 
in  the  cities  and  country  places,  /.Moag,  they  appointed  their  first  con- 
verts as  bishops  and  deacons  over  them  that  should  believe,  having 
first  proved  them  by  the  spirit.""  Eusebius  speaks  both  of  presbyters 
and  bishops  over  the  neighboring  countries  and  cities,  tuv  ofjioqav 
a/Qoiv  T£  xai  nohwv  ngsa^visQoi,  distinguishing  thus  these  chorepisco- 
pi  from  the  bishops  of  the  cities.^  Some  affirm  that  no  churches 
were  established  in  the  country  in  the  first  three  centuries,  and 
accordingly,  that  this  office  was  not  instituted  until  a  later  period.^ 
But  the  inlcTxoTioi  xwv  a'/QoJv  of  Eusebius  are  the  chorepiscopi  in  ques- 
tion, nor  is  it  fair  to  infer  that  they  were  first  created  in  the  fourth 
century,  because  the  synods  of  that  period  more  definitely  prescribe 
the  duties  of  their  office,  for  they  speak  of  the  office  itself  as  already 
well  known. 

b)  Those  that  sustained  this  office  are  expressly  distinguished  from 
presbyters  both  of  the  city  and  country,  but  are  described  as  officia- 
ting bishops,  subordinate  in  rank  and  restricted  in  many  respects. ^^ 
They  are  styled  (xvUsizovgyoi,  fellow  laborers  with  the  bishop,  and, 
like  the  cardinals  of  later  times,  were  reckoned  seventy  in  number, 
which  shows  again  that  they,  as  well  as  the  bishops,  were  compared 
with  the  apostles  in  office. ^^  The  council  of  Nice  also,  c.  8,  so  speaks 
of  them  as  to  show  that  they  held  an  intermediate  grade  between 
presbyters  and  bishops.  Their  duties  were,  to  give  letters  of  re- 
commendation and  the  testimonials  of  the  church,  to  lake  the  over- 


INFEKIOR  ORDER  OF  BISHOPS.  93 

sight  of  the  church  in  the  section  of  country  allotted  to  them,  to  ap- 
point the  readers,  sub-deacons,  and  exorcists  ;  and  they  might  ordain 
presbyters  and  deacons,  but  not  without  the  consent  and  cooperation 
of  the  city  bishop. ^^  In  the  year  451,  they  voted,  for  the  first  time, 
as  the  substitutes  or  representatives  of  their  bisliops.'^  Previous  to 
this  lime,  they  had  an  independent  vote  in  general  council,  as  in  the 
council  of  Nice,  and  in  the  presence  of  the  city  bishops.^'* 

c)  These  officers  were  at  first  confined  to  the  Eastern  church. 
In  ihe  Western  church,  and  especially  in  France,  they  began  to  be' 
known  about  the  fifth  century.  They  have  never  been  numerous 
in  Spain  and  Italy.  In  Africa,  on  the  contrary,  they  constitute  a  nu- 
merous body  under  the  name  of  Donatists.  In  Germany  they  must 
have  been  frequent  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries.'^  And  in 
the  twelfth  century  the  arrogance,  insubordination  and  injurious  con- 
duct of  this  class  of  ecclesiastics  became  a  subject  of  general  com- 
plaint in  the  Western  church  ;  but  more  especially  in  France.  In 
the  East  the  order  was  abolished  for  the  same  reasons  by  the  coun- 
cil of  Laodicea,  A.  D.  361.  But  so  little  respect  was  entertained  for 
this  decree  that  the  order  continued  until  the  tenth  century.  They 
were  first  prohibited  in  the  Western  church  in  the  ninth  century ,!'• 
but  according  to  some  writers  they  continued  in  France  until  the 
twell'th  century,  and  until  the  thirteenth  in  Ireland.  About  this  time 
they  disappeared  from  the  page  of  history,  and  were  succeeded  by 
archdeacons,  rural-deans,  and  vicar-generals. 

5.  Visitors,  niQiodfviul,  itinerant  presbyters.  They  were,  at 
first,  appointed  by  the  council  of  Laodicea  in  the  room  of  the  chore- 
piscopi.  Their  business  was,  to  go  about  continually  to  guard  the 
wavering,  and  to  confirm  the  faithful.  But  it  was  their  peculiar 
characteristic  that  they  had  no  fixed  abode.  They  had  not  the  inde- 
pendent prerogatives  of  the  country  bishops,  but  were  merely  vica- 
rious assistants  of  the  bishop,  like  a  visiting  committee  of  the  church, 
or  the  visitores  ecdesiarum  o(  the  Latin  church.'^ 

6.  Intercessors,  intercessores  and  interventores.  Officers  peculiar 
to  the  African  church,  who  are  first  mentioned  in  the  fifth  council  of 
Carthage.  They  were  temporary  incumbents  of  a  vacant  bishopric, 
and,  for  the  time  being  performed  the  several  offices  of  bishop.  It 
was  their  duty  to  take  measures  for  the  regular  appointment  of  a 
bishop  as  speedily  as  possible.  To  prevent  abuse  no  one  was  allow- 
ed to  continue  in  office  more  than  one  year. 


94  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 


§  7.  Of  Presbyters — their  equality  and  identity  with 
Bishops. 

Bishops  and  presbyters  are  regarded  by  some  as  having  been, 
from  the  beginning,  distinct  orders  of  the  clergy.  Others  maintain 
that  they  were  originally  the  same  ;  and  that  the  bishop  was  only 
the  foreman  or  chairman  of  a  body  of  presbyters  or  clergymen.  Of 
these  conflicting  views,  the  former  is  entertained  by  those  who  con- 
tend that  the  bishops  were  constituted  hy  the  apostles  themselues  a 
distinct  and  superior  order  of  the  clergy.  The  latter,  by  those  who 
deny  the  divine  origin  of  episcopacy. 

The  controversy  on  this  subject  has  arisen  chiefly  from  tlie  equi- 
vocal import  of  the  term  nQiai°vT^Qog  which,  in  the  peculiar  |)hrase- 
ology  of  the  church,  denotes  both  a  superior  and  a  teacher.  The 
first  mentioned  signification  earliest  prevailed.  The  nQia^vifooi, 
presbyters  or  elders  of  the  christian  church  correspond  to  the  Cij^.f , 
elders  of  the  Jews.  Both  denote  pjrecedence  in  ojice,  not  seniority  in 
age.  But  as  seniority  of  age  and  precedence  in  office  are  very  natu- 
rally united  in  the  same  person,  and  in  the  christian  church  ever 
have  been  united,  so  also  in  the  New  Testament  there  are  examples 
of  the  union  of  both  in  the  same  person.  The  apostles  style  them- 
selves elders  and  fellow  laborers,  nQia-jvngovg  and  ai\un(jiai3LrsQov?, 
with  evident  reference  to  this  twofold  relation.  The  passage  in  1 
Tim.  5:  17,  is  peculiarly  pertinent  in  this  connection.  Let  the  el- 
ders that  r«/e  zre// be  counted  worthy  of  double  honor;  especially 
they  lolio  labor  in  the  icord  and  doctrine.  In  other  passages  these 
elders  are  styled  sheplierds  and  teachers. 

It  is  equally  evident  also  that  both  bishops,  inlay.onoi,  and  elders, 
7iQS(r(SvT(Q0i,  are  of  similar  import  both  in  the  Scriptures  and  ecclesi- 
astical writings  of  the  first  centuries  of  the  christian  era.  In  the 
Scriptures  in  the  following  passages  :  Acts  17:  28.  Phil.  1:  1.  1  Tim. 
3:1.  Tit.  1:5,  7.  comp.  Acts  15:  2,  4,  6,  22,23.  1  Cor.  12:28— 
30.  Eph.  4:  11,  etc.*  The  following  passages  are  sufficient  to  illus- 
trate the  usage  of  early  ecclesiastical  writers.  Chrysostom  says 
that  the  elders  or  presbyters  were  formerly  called  bishops  and  dea- 
cons of  Christ,  and  that  the  bishops  were  called  elders.  Ol  nQioftv- 
tSQOt  TO  naXaiov  ixaXovpro  iniaxonoi  y.ul  diuxoroi  lov  Xgiaxov,  xal  ol 
iniaxonoi  (ixakovvzo)  ngts^vtiQoi.^     Theodoret  styles  both  the  elders 


OF  PRESBYTERS.  95 

and  the  bishops,  watchmen,  alleging  that,  at  that  time,  they  were 
called  by  both  names,  ujJcpoTfQa  yuQ  sl/ov  y.ai  fy.urov  jov  aaiQov  t« 
ovofiiaa.^  Ill  another  passage  lie  also  says,  that  those  who  were 
called  bishops  evidently  held  the  rank  of  presbyter's,  elders,  tog  Hfui, 
d^jkov  on  vno  joviov  itiXovv  ol  iv  to)  nQooi^m  y.irj&iviig  inia/.onoi,  lov 
nQfa<3vtiQov  driloyoTi  i}]v  id'^iv  nlrjoovvxig.  The  famous  Irenaeus, 
bishop  of  Lyons,  in  his  official  letter  to  the  Roman  bishop  Victor, 
enumerates  all  the  bishops  who  preceded  Victor  at  Rome,  and  styles 
them  presbyters  who  formerly  presided  over  that  apostolic  church 
at  Rome. 

"  Jerome,  one  of  the  most  learned  of  the  Latin  fathers,  who  had 
before  him  all  the  testimonies  and  arguments  of  earlier  writers,  has 
placed  this  matter  in  its  true  light  witli  peculiar  distinctness.  In  his 
annotation  on  the  first  chapter  of  the  Epistle  to  Titus,  he  gives  the 
following  account  of  the  nature  and  origin  of  the  episcopal  office: — 
'A  presbyter  is  the  same  as  a  bishop.  And  until,  by  the  instigation 
of  the  devil,  there  arose  divisions  in  religion,  and  it  was  said  among 
the  people,  "  I  am  of  Paul,  and  I  of  Apollos,  and  I  of  Cephas," 
churches  were  governed  by  a  common  council  of  the  presbyters. 
But  afterwards,  when  every  one  regarded  those  whom  he  baptized 
as  belonging  to  himself  rather  than  to  Christ,  it  was  everywhere  de- 
creed that  one  person,  elected  from  the  presbyters,  should  be  placed 
over  the  others  ;  to  whom  the  care  of  the  whole  church  might  be- 
long, and  thus  the  seeds  of  division  might  be  taken  away.  Should 
any  one  suppose  that  this  opinion, — that  a  bishop  and  presbyter  is 
the  same,  and  that  one  is  the  denomination  of  age,  and  the  other  of 
office,— is  not  sanctioned  by  the  Scriptures,  but  is  only  a  private  fan- 
cy of  my  own,  let  him  read  over  again  the  apostle's  words  to  the 
Philippians,  "Paul  and  Timotheus,  the  servants  of  Jesus  Christ,  to 
all  the  saints  in  Christ  Jesus  which  are  at  Philippi  with  the  bishops 
and  deacons  ;  grace  be  unto  you  and  peace,  from  God  our  Father, 
and  from  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,"  etc.  Philippi  is  a  single  city  of 
Macedonia  ;  and  certainly,  of  those  who  are  now  styled  bishops 
there  could  not  have  been  several  at  one  time  in  the  same  city.  But, 
because  at  that  time  they  called  the  same  persons  bishops  whom 
they  styled  also  presbyters,  therefore  the  apostle  spoke  indifTerently 
of  bishops  as  of  presbyters.'  The  writer  then  refers  to  the  fact, 
that  St.  Paul,  having  sent  for  the  presbyters  (in  the  plural)  of  the 
single  city  of  Ephesus  only,  afterwards  called   the  same  persons 


96  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

bishops.  (Acts  xx.)  To  this  fact  he  calls  particular  attention  ;  and 
then  observes  that,  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  also,  we  find  the 
care  of  the  church  divided  equally  amongst  many  ;  '  Obey  them 
that  have  ihe  rule  over  you,  and  submit  yourselves  ;  for  they  watch 
for  your  souls,  as  they  that  must  give  account ;  that  they  may  do  it 
with  joy,  and  not  with  grief,  for  that  is  [un] profitable  for  you.' — 
'  And  Peter,'  continues  Jerome, '  who  received  his  name  from  the 
firmness  of  his  faith,  says,  in  his  Epistle,  "  The  presbyters  who  are 
among  you  I  exhort,  who  am  also  a  presbyter,  and  a  witness  of  the 
sufferings  of  Christ,  and  also  a  partaker  of  the  glory  that  shall  be 
revealed  ;  feed  the  flock  of  God  which  is  among  you,  [he  omits  the 
words,  taking  the  oversight  thereof,  imaxonovv-ifg,  i.  e,  superintend- 
ing it,]  not  by  constraint,  but  willingly."  These  things  we  have 
brought  forward  to  show  that,  icith  the  ancients,  presbyters  were  the 
same  as  bishops.  But  in  order  that  the  roots  of  dissension  might  be 
plucked  up,  a  usage  gradual! y  took  place  thai  the  whole  care  should 
devolve  xipon  one.  Therefore,  as  the  presbyters  know  that  it  is  by 
the  custom  of  the  church  that  they  are  subject  to  him  ivho  is  placed 
over  them,  so  let  the  bishops  know  that  they  are  above  •presbyters 
rather  by  custom  than  by  the  truth  of  our  Lord''s  appointment,  and 
that  they  ought  to  rule  the  church  in  common,  herein  imitating  Mo- 
ses,' etc.* 

*  '  Idem  est  presbyter,  qui  et  episcopus  ;  et  antequam  diaboli  instinctu 
studia  in  relisione  fierent,  et  diceretur  in  populis,  Ego  sum  Paiili,  ego  .Spot- 
to,  ego  autcm  Ceptiae,  coinniuni  presbyterorum  consiJio  ecclesiae  guberna- 
bantar.  Postquam  vero  unusquisque  eos,  quos  baptizaverat,  suos  putabat 
esse,  non  Christi,  in  toto  orbe  decretum  est,  ut  unus  de  presbyteris  electus 
superponeretur  caeteris,  ad  quern  omnis  ecclesiae  cura  pertineret,  et  schis- 
matuni  semina  tollerentur.  Putet  aliquis  non  Scripturarum,  sed  nostram, 
esse  sententiam,  episeopum  et  presbyterum  unum  esse,  et  aliud  aetatis,  aliud 
esse  nonien  officii  :  relegat  Apostoli  ad  Pliilippenses  verba  dicentis,  "  Pau- 
]us  et  Timothcus  servi  Jesu  Christi,  omnibus  Sanctis  in  Ciiristo  Jesu  qui  sunt 
Philippis,  cum  episcopis  et  diaconis,  gratia  vobis  et  pas," — etreliqua.  Phi- 
lippi  una  est  urbs  Rlacedoniae,  et  certe  in  una  civitate  plures,  ut  nuncupatur, 
episcopi  esse  non  poterant.  Sed  quia  eosdem  episcopos  illo  tempore  quos  et 
presbyteros  appellabant,  propterea  indifferenter  de  episcopis  quasi  de  pres- 
byteris est  locutus.  Adhuc  hoc  alicui  videatur  ambiguum,  nisi  altero  testi- 
monio  comprobetur.  In  Actibus  Apostolorum  scriptum  est,  quod  cum  ve- 
nisset  Apostolus  Miletum,  miserit  Ephesum,  et  vocaverit  presbyteros  eccle- 
siae ejusdem,  quibus  postea  inter  caetera  sit  locutus,  "  Attendite  vobis,  et 
omni  gregi   in  quo  vos  Spiritus  Sanctus  posuit  episcopos,  pascere  ecclesiam 


OF  PRESBYTERS.  97 

"  The  same  views  are  maintained  by  this  father  in  his  Epistle  to 
Evagrius,  with  the  additional  mention  of  the  fact,  that  from  the  first 
foundation  of  the  church  of  Alexandria  down  to  the  days  of  Heraclas 
and  Dionysius,  the  presbyters  of  that  church  made  (or,  as  we  should 
say,  consecrated)  their  bishops.  The  passage,  which  is  quoted  at 
some  length  in  the  note,  is  very  important.  Having  referred  to 
several  passages  of  the  Acts  and  Epistles  in  proof  of  an  assertion 
which  he  had  made,  to  the  effect  that  bishop  and  presbyter  were  at  • 
first  the  same,  he  proceeds  to  say  that  '  afterwards,  when  one  was 
elected,  and  set  over  the  others,  this  was  designed  as  a  remedy 
against  schism.  *  *  *  For  at  Alexandria,  from  the  evangelist  Mark 
down  to  the  bishops  Heraclas  and  Dionysius,  the  presbyters  always 
gave  the  name  of  bishop  to  one  whom  they  elected  from  themselves, 
and  placed  in  a  higher  degree  ;  in  the  same  way  as  an  army  may 
create  its  general,  or  as  deacons  may  elect  one  of  their  own  body, 
whom  they  know  to  be  assiduous  in  the  discharge  of  duty,  and  call 
him  archdeacon.  For  what  does  a  bishop  perform,  except  ordina- 
tion, which  a  presbyter  may  not  do,'  etc.*     The  fact  which  Jerome 

Domini,  quam  acquisivit  per  sanguinem  suum."  Et  hoc  diligentius  obser- 
vate,  quo  niodo  unius  civitatis  Ephesi  presbjteros  vocans,  postea  eosdem 
episcopos  dixerit.  Si  quis  vult  recipere  eaiii  epistolam,  quae  sub  nomine 
Pauli  ad  Hebraeos  scripta  est,  et  ibi  aequaliter  inter  plures  ecclesiae  cura 
dividilur.  Siquidem  ad  plebein  scribit,  "  Parete  principibus  vestris,et  subjecti 
estole  ;  ipsi  enim  sunt  qui  vigilant  pro  animabus  vestris,  quasi  rationem  red- 
dentes,  ne  suspirantes  hoc  faciant :  siquidem  hoc  utile  (sic)  vobis  est."  Et 
Fetrus,  qui  ex  fidei  firmitate  nomen  accepit,  inepistola  sua  loquiler  dicens, 
"  Presbyteros  ergo  in  vobis  obsecro  compresbyter,  et  testis  Christi  passion- 
um,  qui  et  ejus  gloriae,  quae  in  futero  revelandus  est,  socius  sum,  pascite 
eum  qui  in  vobis  est  gregem  Domini,  non  quasi  cum  necessitate,  sed  volun- 
tarie."  Haec  propterea,  ut  ostenderemus  apud  veteres  eosdem  fuisse  pres- 
byteros quos  et  episcopos  ;  paulalim  vero.  ut  dissensionum  plantaria  evelle- 
rentur,  ad  unum  omnera  sollicitudinem  esse  delatam.  Sicut  ergo  prcsbyteri 
sciunt  se  ex  ecclesiae  consuetudine  ei  qui  sibi  praepositus  fuerit  esse  sub- 
jectos,  ita  episcopi  noverint  se  magis  consuetudine  quam  dispositionis  domi- 
nicae  veritate  presbyteris  esse  majores,  et  in  commune  debere  ecclesiam  re- 
gere,  imitantes  Moysen  ;  qui  cum  haberetin  potestate  solus  praeesse  populo 
Israel,  septuaginta  elegit,  cum  quibus  populum  judicaret. — Hieron.  Com- 
ment, in  Tit.  i.' 

*  '  Quod  autem  postea  unuselectus  est  qui  caeteris  pracponercter,  in  schis- 
matis  remedium  factum  est :  ne  unusquisque  ad  se  traliens  Christi  eccle- 
siam rumperet.     Nam  et  Alexandriae  a  Marco  evangelista  usque  ad  Hera- 

13 


98  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

here  states  respecting  the  appointment  and  ordination  of  bishops  in 
the  church  of  Alexandria  by  presbyters  alone  for  the  space  of  more 
than  two  centuries,  is  attested  also  by  Eutychius,  patriarch  of  Alex- 
andria. And  the  opinion  of  Jerome  respecting  the  original  equality, 
or  rather  identity,  of  presbyter  and  bishop,  is  in  perfect  accordance 
with  the  language  of  a  still  earlier  writer,  Tertullian.  De  Bap.  c.  17."* 

The  identity  of  bishops  and  presbyters  is  further  evident  from  the 
circumstance  that  they  loth  received  the  same  honorary  titles.,  ttqoe- 
cnaisg,  riQoaitxTai,  TTQ6e5QOL.,prepositi,  antistes,  equivalent  to  presi- 
dents, moderators,  chairmen  or  prcsidi7ig  officers.  Presbyters  were 
also  denominated  aut&Qovoi  and  ol  lov  &q6vov,  partners  of  the  throne. 
A  distinction  is  sometimes  made  between  those  of  the  first,  and  of 
the  second  throne  ;  in  which  case  the  latter  evidently  designates  pres- 
byters. But  it  is  still  plain  that,  in  such,  instances,  the  preeminence 
ascribed  to  the  bishop  is  only  that  o{  primus  inter  pares — chief 
among  equals. 

Even  the  most  zealous  advocates  of  the  Episcopal  system  in  the 
Greek,  Roman,  and  English  church  are  constrained  to  recognize  and 
admit  the  identity  of  the  terms  ijilaxoTiog  and  TTQia.jvieoog  according 
to  the  ustis  loqiiendi  of  the  ancient  church.     They  are  constrained 

clam  et  Dionysium'episcopos,  presbyteri  semper  unum  ex  se  electuni,  in 
excelsiori  gradu  collocatuin,  episcopum  nominabant:  quo  niodo  si  exeroitus 
imperalorem  faciat ;  aut  diaconi  eligant  de  se,  quern  industrium  noverint,  et 
archidiaconum  vocent.  Quid  enim  facit,  excepta  ordinatione,  episcopus, 
quod  presbyter  non  faciat  ?  Nee  altera  Romanae  urbis  ecclesia,  altera  totius 
orbis  existimanda  est.  Et  Galliae,  et  Britanniae,  et  Africa,  et  Persis,  et 
Oriens,  et  India,  et  omnes  barbarae  nationes  unum  Christum  adorant,  unam 
observant  regulam  veritatis.  )Si  auctoritas  quaeritur,  orbis  major  est  urbe. 
Ubicunque  fuerit  episcopus,  sive  Romae,  sive  Eugubii,  sive  Constanlinopoli, 
sive  Rhegii,  sive  Alexandriae,  sive  Tanis,  ejusdem  meriti,  ejusdem  et  sacer- 
dotii.  Potentia  divitiarum,  et  paupertatis  humilitas,  vel  sublimiorem,  vel 
inferiorem,  episcopum  non  facit.     Caeterum  omnes  apostolorum  successores 

sunt Presbyter  et  episcopus  aliud  aetatis,  aliud  dignitatis,  est 

nomen.  Unde  et  ad  Tituni,  et  ad  Timolheum  de  ordinatione  episcopi  et  di- 
aconi dicitur ;  de  presbyleris  omnino  reticetur ;  quia  in  episcopo  et  presby- 
ter continetur.  .  .  Et,  ut  sciamus  traditiones  apostolicas  sumetas  de  ve- 
teri  Testamento  ;  quod  Aaron  et  filii  ejus  (one  order,  namely,  priests,  cor- 
responding to  bishops  or  presbyters),  atque  Levitae  (another  order,  corres- 
ponding to  deacons),  in  templo  fuerunt,  hoc  sibi  episcopi  et  presbyteri,  et 
diaconi,  vindicent  in  ecclesia. — Hieron.  Ep.  ad  Evagrium,  65.' 
•  Riddle,  pp.  186—106. 


OF  PRESBYTKHS. 


99 


to  admit  that  the  distinction  between  the  office  of  bishop  and  presby- 
ter, which  prevailed  about  the  third  and  fourth  centuries  and  to  a 
period  still  later,  was  unknown  in  the  first  two  centuries. 

A  fierce  controversy  arose  about  the  time  of  the  Reformation 
whether  the  word  7T()((Ti3vif(>og,  as  used  in  the  Scriptures,  and  in  the 
most  ancient  documents  of  the  church,  does  not  denote  merely  the 
laitt/  and  not  any  order  of  the  clergy.  This  position  was  maintain- 
ed not  only  by  Presbyterians,  but  by  another  class  of  modern  wri- 
ters who  are  in  reality  no  friends  of  the  system.  They  sought  to 
show  that  both  presbyters  and  bishops  were  not  originally  religious 
teachers,  but  overseers  and  managers  of  the  general  concerns  of  the 
church.  According  to  this  theory,  which  had  many  advocates,^  the 
presbyters  were  merely  municipal  officers  like  the  elders  of  the 
Jews.  The  principal  arguments  for  this  theory  were  drawn  from 
1  Tim.  5:  17.  1  Thess.  5:  12,  especially  the  first.  This  theory  has 
been  ablv  discussed  by  Vitringa,  Danovius,Gabler,  and  many  others. 
The  result  of  the  whole  is  given  in  the  following  extract  from  Gab- 
ler.^  "  We  admit  that  there  were  not  a  few  presbyters  in  the  apos- 
tolic age,  appointed  by  the  churches  who  did  not  act  as  religious 
teachers.  But  contend  that  Paul,  disapproving  of  this  measure,  and 
that  he  might  prevent  the  further  spread  of  the  errors  of  false  teach- 
ers and  apostles,  ordered  that  all  presbyters  should  be  teachers,  es- 
sent  Sidixxiol.  If  now  we  admit  that  Paul  in  1  Tim.  5:  17  speaks  of 
presbyters  as  they  were  (not  as  they  ought  to  be),  all  acting  as  ru- 
lers, but  not  all  acting  as  teachers,  still  we  learn  from  another  pas- 
sage in  this  same  epistle,  1  Tim.  3:  2,  that  the  apostle's  desire  and 
direction  was,  that  all  who  should,  in  future,  be  chosen  presbyters 
should  be  "  apt  to  teach." 

History  clearly  informs  us  that  presbyters  were  uniformly  reckon- 
ed as  belonging  to  the  regular  priesthood  from  the  time  when  tiie 
church  first  begun  to  rear  up  an  ecclesiastical  hierarchy,  and  when 
the  distinction  began  to  be  made  between  clergy  and  laity.  The 
language  of  the  fathers,  and  especially  of  Cyprian  seems  to  imply 
that  there  still  were  some  who  did  not  perform  the  duties  of  their 
office  as  teachers ;  but  even  these  were  still  reckoned  among  the 
regular  clergy,  and  not  as  belonging  to  the  laity. 

Ignatius  always  joins  bishops  and  presbyters  together  as  presiding 
over  the  church,  one,  in  the  place  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  other,  as 
the  great  council  of  God,  in  the  place  of  the  apostles,  without  which 


100  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

the  church  is  no  church.  Tl  8e  nQsa^vtiQiov  u).)!  ij  aiaxri^a  Uqov, 
iTVjti^ovXoi  y.al  (TvrsdgfVTnl  tov  ijiiay.onov.     Tfisig   ds  {vjgima&s  avroiig 

(ijiiaxonoig)  mq  Xqkttov    Ir/aovv ol  8s  TiQiafjVTiQOt,  wg  avvidgiov 

■&(oi!  xal  avvdia^iog  txnoaiulav  Xftiaxoi? 

Much  the  same  representations  are  ir.ade  by  many  other  ancient 
authors.  In  the  Apostolical  Constitutions,  the  presbyters  are  denomi- 
nated the  counsellors  of  tlie  bishop — the  sanhedrim  and  council  of 
the  church fi  Chrysostom  calls  them  the  sanhedrim  of  the  presby- 
ters.9  Cyprian  styles  them  the  sacred  and  venerable  assembly  of 
our  clergy,^"  and  Jerome  the  assembly  of  presbyters — the  senate  of 
the  church.il  The  original  of  each  is  here  given  in  their  order. 
^VfiliovXoi  (consiliarii)  iniay.onoi — avvLStiLov  x«i  ^ovXi]  ri/c  ixy.Xijuiag 
— Apost.  Con.  To  Tcu*'  7i(jfa^vjiot)v  ^^('^(Jotoy— Chrysostom.  Cleri 
nostri,  sacer  venerandusque  consessus — Cyprian.  Coeliis  presbytero- 
rum,  settccfus  ecclesiae— Jerome.  To  which  the  following  may  with 
propriety^be  added  :  Primum  presbyteri  episcopi  adpellabantur  ut 
uno  recedente  sequens  ei  succederet.  Primum  episcopi  et  presby- 
teri una  ordinatio  sint.  Uterque  enim  sacerdos  est,  sed  episcopus 
primus  est  ut  omnis  episcopus  presbyter  est ;  non  omnis  presbyter, 
episcopus:  Hie  enim  episcopus  est  qui  inter  presbuteros  primus  est. 

From  all  these  passages  the  conclusion  is  that  the  imposition  of 
hands  and  the  pivileges  of  the  priesthood,  hQioavv)},  belonged  of  right 
to  the  presbyters.  For  this  reason,  and  not  because  of  any  seniority 
in  age,  they  were  called  TiQEalSviiooi,  which  is  the  same  as  priests, 
or  pastors,  shepherds,  etc.  The  term  senior  or  elder.,  which  is  the 
literal  interpretation  o{  nQia^iiioog  very  seldom  occurs,  and  when  it 
does  is  applied  only  to  such  persons  as  sustained  no  ministerial  of- 
fice, bishops,  presbyters,  deacons,  and  seniors,  and  seniors  of  the 
people  are  mentioned  in  connection.  The  clergy  and  seniors  are 
also  contrasted  one  with  the  other.  These  seniors  Augustine  styles 
viri  nobilissimi,  opl.imatcs,  prijicipes,  etc.  They  correspond  with 
the  elders  in  the  Presbyterian  church,  and  with  the  notables  in  the 
Reformed  church  in  France.  Bingham  erroneously  compares  them 
to  church-wardens,  vestry-men  and  stewards  who  assist  in  the  cere- 
monies of  the  church,  but  take  no  part  in  its  discipline,  or  ministerial 
services. 

[Gieseler's  account  of  the  foregoing  subject  is  as  follows.  "  The 
new  churches  everywhere  formed  themselves  on  the  model  of  the 
mother  church  at  Jerusalem.     At  the  head  of  each  were  the  elders^ 


OF  PRESBYTERS.  101 

ngsa,SvTiQoi,  inlaxonoi,  all  officially  of  equal  rank,  though  in  several 
instances  a  peculiar  authority  seems  to  have  been  conceded  to  some 
one  individual  from  personal  considerations.* — After  the  death  of 

*  That  these  names  are  the  same,  follows  from  Acts  20.  17,28.  Til.  1:5,7. 
Phil.  1:1.1  Tim.  3:  1,  8.  Acknowledged  by  Ilieronijmus,  Epist.  82  (al.  83) 
ad  Occanum :  Apud  veteres  iideni  Episcopi  et  Frcsbyteri,  quia  ijlud  nomen 
dignitatis  est,  hoc  aetatis:  £/;/sf.  101,  ad  Evangelum.  See  under  §  32,  n.  2. — 
Idem  ad  Tit,  1:  7.  Idem  est  ergo  Presbyter,  qui  Kpiscopus  :  et  antequam  di- 
aboli  instinctu  studia  in  religione  fierent,  ct  diccretur  in  populis,  Ego  sum 
Pauli,  ego  Apollo,  ego  autem  Cephae,  cuininu!ii  Presbyterorum  consilio  ec- 
clesiae  gubernabantur.  Postquatn  vero  unusquisque  eos,  quos  baptizaverat, 
sues  putabat  esse,  non  Cliristi ;  in  toto  orbe  decretum  est,  ut  unus  de  Pres- 
byteris  electus  superponeretur  caeteris,  ad  quern  oninis  ecclesiae  cura  pertine- 
ret,  et  schismaluin  seniina  tollerentur.  Put<it  ari<iuis  non  Scripturarum,  sed 
nostram  esse  sententiam,  Episcopum  et  Prcsbyterum  unum  esse  ;  et  aliud  aeta- 
tis,  aliud  esse  nomen  officii  :  relegat  Apostoli  ad  Philippenses  verba,  dicen- 
tis: — here  follows  the  passages  cited  above.  Then:  Haecpropterea,  ut  osten- 
deremus,  apud  veteres  eosdem  fuisse  Presbyteros,  quoset  Episcopos:  paula- 
tim  vero,  ut  dissensionum  plantaria  evellerentur,  ad  unum  omnem  soUicilu- 
dinem  esse  delatam.  Sicut  ergo  Presbyteri  sciunt,  se  ex  ecclesiae  consuetu- 
dine  ei,  qui  sibi  praepositus  fuerit,  esse  subjectos  :  ita  Episcopi  noverint  se  ma- 
gis  consuetudine,  quam  dispositionis  dominicae  veritate,  Presbytcris  esse  ma- 
jores,et  in  commune  debere  ecclesiam  regere.  ^"li/gustini  Epist.  82,  ad  Hie- 
ron.  c.  33. — cf.  Chrysostomi  horn.  I.  in  Philipp.  i.  Tkcodorct.  in  Philipp.  i.  1. 
It  is  remarkable  how  long  this  notion  of  the  original  sameness  of  Bishops 
and  Presbyters  was  retained.  Isidnrus  Hispai.  Etyniol.  \'1I.  c.  12,  copies  the 
passage  from  Hieron.  Epist.  ad  Oceanum.  Bernaldus  Constantiensis  (about 
1088),  the  most  zealous  defender  of  Gregory  VII.,  after  citing  Jerome  in  his 
de  Preshijtr.rorum  officio  tract,  (in  Monumentorum  res  AUemannorum  illus- 
trantt.  S.  Bias.  1792.  4to.T.  \l.  p.  384  seq.),  continues  :  Quumigitur  Pres- 
byteri et  Episcopi  antiquitus  idem  fuisse  legantur,  etiam  candem  ligandi  at- 
que  soivendi  potcstalem  et  alia  nunc  Episcopis  specialia  habuisse  non  dubi- 
tantur.  Postquain  autem  Presbyteri  ab  episcopal!  excellentia  cohibiti  sunt, 
coepit  eis  non  licere,  quod  licuit,  videlicet  quod  ecclesiastica  auctoritas  solis 
Ponlificibus  exequcndum  delegavit.  Even  Pope  Urban  II.  in  Cone.  Bene- 
vent.  ann.  10!)].  can.  1  :  Sacros  autem  ordincs  dicimus  Diaconatum  et  Pres- 
byteratum.  Hos  siqnidem  solos  primitiva  legitur  ecclesia  habuisse  :  super 
his  solum  praeceptuui  habemus  Apostoli.  Hence  Gratian  adopts  without  hes- 
itation the  passages,  Hieron.  ad  Tit  i.  (Dist.  XCV.  c.  5.)  Epist.  ad  Evangel. 
(Dist.  XCIII.  c.  21),  and  Isidori  Hisp.  (Dist  XXI.  c.  1).  Also  JVicol.  Tudes- 
ckus,  Jlrchiip.  Panormitanvs  (about  A.  D.  1-128)  svper  'prima  parte  Primi 
cup.  5,  (ed.  Lugdun  1547.  fol.  112  b)  :  Olim  Presbyteri  in  commune  regebant 
ecclesiam  et  ordinabant  sacerdotes.  It  is,  perhaps,  still  move  remarkable 
that  even  the  papal  Canonist,  Jo.  Paul.  Lancclottus  (about  1570)  in  his  In- 


102  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHTJKCH. 

the  apostles,  and  the  pupils  of  the  apostles,  to  whom  the  general  di- 
rection of  the  churches  had  always  been  conceded,  some  one 
amongst  the  presbyters  of  each  church  was  suffered  gradually  to 
take  the  lead  in  its  affairs.  In  the  same  irregular  way  the  title  of 
iniaxonog,  bishop,  was  appropriated  to  this  first  presbyter."*  Cunning- 


stitutt.  Juris.  Canon.  lib.  I.  Tit.  21,  §  3,  introduces  llie  passage  of  Jerome 
without  any  attempt  to  refute  it.  The  distinction  between  the  institutio  di- 
vina  et  ecclesiastica  was  of  less  importance  in  the  middle  ages,  than  in  the 
modern  Catholic  church,  and  this  view  of  the  original  identity  of  Bishops 
and  Presbyters  was  of  no  practical  importance.  It  was  not  till  after  the  Re- 
formation that  it  was  attacked.  Michcal  dc  Medina  (about  A.  D.  1570)  does 
not  hesitate  to  assert,  illos  Patres  materiales  fuisse  haereticos,  sed  in  his  Pa- 
tribus  ob  eorum  reverentiam  hoc  dogma  non  esse  damnatum.  Bellarminns  de 
clericis  lib.  1.  c.  l.j,  calls  this  sententiam  valde  inconsideratam,  and  prefers 
rather  to  resort  to  interpretation.  Since  tiiis,  all  Catholics,  as  well  as  the 
English  Episcopalians,  maintain  an  original  difference  between  bisliop  and 
presbyter.  Conip.  especially /-'fi'rtru  de  ecclesiastica  liicrarchia  lib.  V.  and 
dissertatt.  theologic.  lib.  I.,  in  his  theolog.  dogmat.  Tom.  IV'.  p.  1G4.  On  the 
other  side,  JVtilonis  Messalini  (Claud.  Salmasii)  diss,  de  episccipis  et  presby- 
teris.  Lugd.  Bat.  lt)41.  8vo.  Dav.  Biondcl.li  apologia  pro  sententia  Hieron- 
ymi  de  episcopis  et  presbyteris.  Amstelod.  IGHj.  4to.  Against  these  Hcnr. 
Hammondns  dissertatt.  IV.,  qiiibus  cpiscopatus  jura  ex  sacra  scripturaet  pri- 
ma antiquitate  adstruiintur.  Lond.  1C5L  The  controversy  was  long  contin- 
ued. On  the  side  of  the  Episcopalians  Jo.  Pearson,  Guil.  Bevcridge,  Hcnr. 
Dodicell,  .hs.  Bingham,  Jac.  Usscrius.  On  that  of  the  Presbyterians,  Jo. 
DalLaeus,  Camp,  Vitringa ;  also  the  Lutherans,  Joac/i.  Hildehrand,  Just. 
Henn.  Boclnncr,  Jo.  Franc.  Buddeas,  Christ.  Matth.  Pfnff,  etc.  romp.  Jo. 
Phil.  Gabicr  de  episcopis  primae  ecclesiae  Christ,  eorunique  origine  diss. 
Jenae. 1805.  4to. 

*  jlmhrosiastcr,  about  380,  in  comment,  ad  1  Tim.  3:  10 — Episcopi  et  Pres- 
byter! una  ordinatio  est.  Uterqiie  enim  sacerdos  est,  sed  Episcopus  primus 
est ;  ut  omnis  I^piscopus  Presbyter  sit,  non  tamen  omnis  Presbyter  Episco- 
pus :  hie  enim  Episcopus  est,  qui  inter  Presbyteros  primus  est.  We  find  the 
latest  traces  of  this  relation  between  Bishops  and  Presbyters  in  Hicronym. 
Epist.  101  (al.  85)  ad  Evangchim  (in  the  old  ed.  erroneously  ad  Evagrivm, 
also  in  Gratianus  Dist.  XCIIl.  c.  24)  :  Apostolus  pcrspicue  docet  eosdeni 
esse  Presbyteros,  quos  Episcopos.  —  Quaeris  auctorilatem  .'  Audi  testimo- 
nium. Then  he  cites  Phil.  1:  1.  Acts  20:  28,  etc.  Quod  autem  postea  unus 
electus  est,  qui  caeteris  praeponeretur,  in  schismatis  remedium  factum  est, 
ne  unusquisque  ad  se  trahens  Christi  ecclesiam  rumperct.  Nam  et  Alex- 
andrine a  Marco  Evancrelista  usque  ad  Heraclam  et  Dionysium  Episcopos 
(about  A.  I).  240)  Presbyteri  semper  unum  ex  se  electum,  in  e.xcelsiori 
gradu  collocatum,  Episcopum  nominabant.  Quomodo  si  exercitus  Impera- 
torem  faciat,  aut  Diaconi  eligant  de  se,  quem  industrium  noverint,  et  Archi- 


DUTIES  OF  PRESBYTERS. 


103 


ham's  Trans.  Vol.  I.  p.  56,  65.     So  also  Rheinwald  §  14,  p.  25,  and 
Seigel,  Vol.  I.  p.  229,  to  the  same  efTcct. — Tr.] 

§  8.  Official  Duties  of  Presbyters. 

These  duties  are  comprised  under  the  followincr  heads. 

1.  Before  any  formal  distinction  was  known  between  bishops  and 


diaconum  vocent.     (Comp.  on  this  letter  CItr.  WaechtUr,  Acta  Erud'itoruni, 
ann.  1717,   p.  484  seq.,  5'24  seq.      More  lately  the  letter  ad  Evangelum  has 
been  pronounced  spurious  by  P.  Molkenbuhr,  whom  Binterim  Denkwtlrdigk. 
d.  cbristkath.  Kirche  Bd.  2.  Th.  1.  S.  70  ff.  has  followed.     But  there  are  so 
many  similar  passages  that  little  is  gained  even  if  this  should  be  proved  not 
genuine.)     dmbros'uister  covim.  ad  Ephes.  4:  11  :  Frimi  Presbyteri  Episcopi 
appellabantur,  ut,  reccdent  eo,  sequens  ei  succederet.   Denique  apud  iEgyp- 
tuin  Presbyteri  consignant,  si  pracsens  non  sit  Episcopus.     Scd  quia  coepe- 
runt  sequentes  Presbyteri  indigni  inveniri  ad   priniatus  tcnendos,  imnuitala 
est  ratio,  prospiciente  Concilio  ;  ut  non  ordo,  sed  meritum  crearet  Episco- 
pura  multorum  sacerdotum  judicio  constitutum,  ne  indignus  temcre  usurpa- 
ret,  et  esset  multis  iica.nda.\um.—Psfudo-^vgvstini  (according  to  the  conjec- 
ture of  the  Benedictines,  Hilarii  Diaconi)  Quacstioncs  Vet  ct  .Yoc.  Tcstamcnti 
(in  the  Appendix  Tom.  III.  P.  II.  of  the   Benedict,  ed.)  Quaest.  101  :  Pres- 
byterum  autem  intelliori  Episcopum  probat  Paulus  Apostolus,  quando  Timo- 
theum,  quern  ordinavit  Presbyterum,  instruit,  qualeni  debeat  creare  Episco- 
pum (1  Tim.  3:  1).     Quid  est  enim    Episcopus,  nisi  primus  Presbyter,  hoc 
est  summus  sacerdos  .'—Nam  in  Alexandria  et  per  totam  iEgyptum,  si  desit 
Episcopus,  consecrat  [Ms.  Colb.  consignat]  Presbyter.     In  like  manner,  £m- 
tijchlus   (Said    Ibn    Batrik    about   930)    Patriarcha    Alex,  iti  Ecclesiae  suae 
Origg.   (ed.    Joh.    Seldcn,   p.  XXIX):   Conslituit    Marcus   Evangelista    XU 
Presbyteros,  qui  nempe  mancrent  cum  Patriarcha,  adeo  ut  cum  vacaret  Pa- 
triarchatus  eligerent  unum  e  XII  Presbyteris,  cujus  capili  rcliqui  XI  manus 
imponerent,  eique  benedicerent,  et  Patriarcham  eum  crearent  (coi:  ;..  I  Tim. 
4:  14).— Neque  desiit  Alexandriae  institutum  hoc  de  Presbyteris,  ut  scilicet 
Patriarchas  crearent  ex  Presbyteris  duodecim,  usque  ad  tempora  Alexandri 
Patriarchae  Alexandrini  qui  fuit  ex  numero  illo  CCCXVIII.     Is  autem  ve- 
tuit,  ne   deinceps    Patriarcham  Presbyteri  crearent.     Et  decrevit,  ut  inorluo 
Patriarcha  convenirent  Episcopi,  qui  Patriarcham  ordinarent.     In  this  pas- 
sage it  is  at  least  certain  that  the  part  which  is  contradictory  to  the  usage  of 
latter  times  has  not  been  interpolated,  and  so  far   it  has  an  historical  value. 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  explain  away  itsevidcnce  by  Morinus,  Pearson, 
Le  Qnicn,  Renaudot,  Petavius, and  especially  by  Mraham  Echcllensis  Euty- 
chius  Patriarcha  Alex,  vindicatus  et  suis  restitutus  Orientalibus,  s.  responsio 
ad  Jo.  SeldeniOrigines  etc.  Romae.  lOGl.  4to.  Mamarhii  Origg.  et  Aniiquitt. 
Christian.  Tom.  IV.  p.  503  seq.     On  the  other  hand,  see  J.  F.  Rehkopf  Vitac 
Patriarcharum  Alexandr.  fasc.  1.  et  II. 


104  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

presbyters  the  latter,  especially  those  who  were  styled  Troofo-iolTf?, 
performed  the  duties  of  the  former.  Subsequent  to  the  specific  di- 
vision of  church  officers,  [after  the  establishment  of  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal hierarchy,]  they  performed  a  vicarious  service  in  the  place  of 
the  bishops  ;  but  there  are  occasional  instances  still  later  when  they, 
in  special  cases,  or  by  virtue  of  their  office,  performed  duties  which, 
according  to  canonical  rules,  belonged  exclusively  to  the  bishops. 

2.  According  to  the  views  of  the  bishop's  office  which  represent  him 
as  controlling  all  that  relates  to  religious  worship,  and  the  admini- 
stration of  the  ordinances,  (see  above,  §4,)  the  presbyters  performed 
the  common  religious  services  as  his  representatives,  or  assistants. 
As  such,  from  the  beginning,  they  discharged  the  offices  oHeacher  and 
preacher,  which  appropriately  belonged  to  the  bishop.  Even  the 
deacons  were  frequently  authorized  to  preach.  Hence  it  appears 
that  both  presbyters  and  deacons  acted  in  this  capacity  by  authority 
delegated  by  the  bishop.  This  state  of  things  must  however  be 
understood  to  have  prevailed  only  in  communities  where  there  were 
both  bishops  and  presbyters,  and  wliile  the  bishops  were  still  able  and 
disposed  themselves  to  perform  the  duties  of  the  ministry.  Jerome 
expresses  his  dissatisfaction  that  presbyters  were  not  fully  invested 
with  the  office  of  the  ministry.^  Passages  of  much  the  same  import 
occur  in  the  writings  of  Socrates,^  Sozomen,-^  and  Ambrose.^  The 
example  of  Leo,  and  Gregory  the  Great,  together  with  the  fact  that 
there  are  still  extant  sermons  from  bishops,  such  as  Origen  and 
others,  is  sufficient  to  shovv  that  they  continued  to  discharge  the  du- 
ties of  public  preachers  through  the  first  seven  centuries  of  the 
christian  era.  From  that  period  these  duties  devolved  entirely  upon 
the  presbyters. 

3,  The  presbyters  assisted  in  the  administration  of  the  sacraments. 
They  are  styled  the  ^vlhnovQyol^  comminislri,  conscerdotaJcs,  of 
the  bishop  who,  according  to  the  explicit  rules  of  the  church,  had  the 
control  of  this  service.  That  the  presbyters  acted  as  the  represen- 
tatives and  assistants  of  the  bishops  in  this  ordinance,  may  be  infer- 
red from  the  circumstance  that  in  the  rites  of  ordination,  which  be- 
longed e.xclusively  to  the  bishop,  they  also  assisted  in  the  imposition 
of  hands. ^  Subsequently  they  regularly  administered  the  ordi- 
nances, and  other  sacred  rites,  such  as  the  following. 

a)  They  administered  baptisms,  particularly  after  the  introduction 


DUTIES  OF  PRESBYTERS.  105 

of  infant  baptism.     The  act  of  confirmation  belonged  to  the  bishop, 
though  there  are  exceptions  to  this  rule. 

b)  They  administered  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper.  The 
solemnizing  act  in  this  ordinance  is  the  consecration  of  the  elements, 
which  was  performed  by  the  presbyters  except  when  the  bishop  was 
present^  or  was  in  missa  pontificalUms,  as  the  phraseology  was.  It 
was  theirs  also,  by  an  ancient  rule,  to  impart  the  consecrated  bread 
— the  host,  and  to  pronounce  the  benediction.  The  administration 
of  this  ordinance  was  the  highest  official  act  of  the  priesthood.^  With 
reference  to  this  part  of  his  office,  the  presbyter  was  styled  (xialxrjg, 
mediator,  medius.  A  phraseology  deservedly  censured  by  Augus- 
tine as  seeming  to  relate  to  the  office  of  the  Mediator  of  the  chris- 
tian covenant ;  but  it  was  probably  designed  to  denote  the  interme- 
diate grade  of  the  presbyter,  between  the  subordinate  officers  of  the 
priesthood,  and  the  bishop. 

c)  The  presbyters  also  took  part  in  acts  of  public  penance 
while  that  system  prevailed,  though  this  was  the  peculiar  preroga- 
tive of  the  bishop.  All  that  related  to  the  regulation  of  penance 
was,  with  certain  reservations,  under  their  immediate  oversight. 
They  were  the  appropriate  penitentiary  priests,  penilentiarii  and 
confessarii. 

d)  It  belonged  to  them  appropriately,  to  solemnize  marriages,  and 
to  perform  all  the  nuptial  ceremonies. 

e)  They  administered  extreme  unction,  and  performed  all  reli- 
gious funeral  services. 

f)  All  the  forms  of  benediction  and  consecration,  such  as  that  of 
the  chrism,  or  anointing  oil,  etc.  pertained  to  their  office,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  those  which,  from  the  begiiming,  were  exclusively  pre- 
scribed to  the  bishops. 

g)  The  stated  public  prayers,  nQoacpaivrjaHC,  Bv/r]  icui'  tikttuv,  and 
collects,  ejTly.lr](ng,  occasional  prayers,  were  offered  by  bishops  and 
presbyters  indiscriminately,'' and  both  had  a  general  superintendence 
of  all  their  ceremonies  of  religious  worship,  together  with  the  over- 
sight of  the  deacons  and  lower  officers  of  the  priesthood. 

4.  In  common  with  the  bishops,  presbyters  indisputably  had  a 
part  in  the  discipline  of  the  church,  both  as  it  related  to  the  clergy 
and  the  laity .^  This  point  has  been  the  subject  of  much  uncertainty 
and  controversy,  but  it  was  never  denied  that  the  right  of  concur- 
rence belonged  to  the  presbytery  collectively,  if  not  to  individual 
14 


106  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

members  of  it.  Subsequently,  it  became  the  right  of  the  chapters 
of  the  cathedral  churches.  Indeed,  both  the  doings  of  the  church, 
and  of  the  synod  were  under  ihe  controlling  influence  of  presbyters- 
The  references  subjoined  are  sufficient  to  show,  that  they  had  both 
a  seat  and  a  voice  in  the  assembly  of  the  synod.^ 

5.  The  most  important  office  of  the  presbyters  remains  to  be  men- 
tioned, and  that  is,  the  "cure  of  souls,"  specific  and  general,  cura 
animarum,  et  generalis,  ef  specialis.  This  has  ever  been  their  chief 
employment  as  pastors,  vicars,  and  parish  ministers.  This  point  can- 
not in  this  place  be  discussed  at  length  ;  suffice  it  to  say  that,  in  the 
discharge  of  their  duties,  they  had  occasion  to  combat  with  the 
greatest  difficulties.  At  one  time,  through  the  arrogance  and 
tyrannical  power  of  the  bishops,  at  another,  through  the  contempt  of 
the  monks,  they  became  martyrs  to  their  high  and  holy  calling. 

^  9.  Of  the  different  Orders  or  Classes  of  Presbyters. 

Like  the  bishops  they  were  very  early  divided  into  city  and  rnral 
presbyters.  The  latter,  intx(!iQtoi  ngscriSunQm^  regionarii,  were  less 
esteemed,  and  accounted  somewhat  lower  in  rank,  than  the  former. 
They  were  not  permitted,  for  example,  to  administer  the  sacrament 
to  a  church  in  ihe  city  in  the  presence  of  the  bishop,  or  city-presby- 
ter, but,  in  the  absence  of  these,  the  duty  devolved  upon  one  of  them.' 
Neither  were  they  allowed  to  issue  canonical  epistles.  Mi]  7TQia[ivTs- 
Qovgioig  iv  Tiiig  ^ro'jqaiq  xavovixctg  inL(noX(xg  8i86va.i,  ^  n^hg  ficrovg 
jovg  yihovag  ijiiaxoTiovg  i}niip.nfiv.~  Similar  examples  occur  at  all 
times  sufficient  to  show  that  pastors  in  the  country,  were  subordinate 
to  those  in  the  city  ;  and  yet,  there  is  good  evidence  that  all  who  sus- 
tained the  office  of  the  priesthood  were  accounted  in  theory  equal. 

2.  The  aQxnTQf(j(ivTfQoi,  and  TiQbnoTTQsaSvTfQot,  archpresbyters,  and 
pastores  primarii,  were  the  same  ;3  both  are  called  by  the  same 
name.'*  One  who  sustains  the  relation  of  moderator  and  superior 
among  the  priesthood,  is  called  by  Jerome  archpreshyter  to  distin- 
guish him  from  the  bishop.^  By  Gregory  Nazianzen  and  others  the 
oldest  clergyman  was  styled  archpreshyter  \^  the  Greeks  called  hin> 

The  archpresbyters  enjoyed  the  highest  consideration  between 
the  fifth  and  eighth  centuries,  and  occupied  bishoprics  as  suffi-agans 
and  vicar-generals.     When  the  bishop's  see  became  vacant  they  dis- 


RANK  AND  DUTIES  OF  DEACONS.  107 

charged  his  duties,  and  took  care  to  secure  the  vacant  office  for 
themselves.  Several  branches  of  administration  tliey  held  under 
their  entire  control  ;  they  even  aspired  to  an  equality  with  the 
bishops,  with  whom  they  not  unfrequently  engaged  in  a  spirited 
controversy.  The  bishops,  on  the  other  hand,  sought  by  every 
means  to  oppose  them,  and  accordingly  favored  the  archdeacons  as 
a  check  upon  the  archpresbyters.  The  first  notice  of  this  policy 
appears  in  the  fourth  council  of  Carthage.  These  presbyters  were 
finally  made  subject  to  the  archdeacon  by  Innocent  III,  in  the 
twelfth  century. 

3.  The  office  of  dean  was  first  known  in  England  about  the 
eleventh  or  twelfth  century.  The  word  is  derived  from  decanus, 
dexaduo/og,  and  denotes  the  ruler  of  a  decad,  a  body  of  ten  men. 
The  deans  of  cathedral  churches  were  dignitaries  of  importance. 
Rural  deans  were  inferior  officers,  who  finally  became  merely  itin- 
erant visitors,  and  were  at  all  times  subject  to  the  authority  of  the 
archdeacon. 

4.  The  word  presbytera,  presbyterissa,nQf(T^vTiQa,7TQ((T^vng,\so{ 
frequent  occurrence  in  ancient  writers,  and  may  denote  either  the 
wife  of  a  presbyter,  a  female  officer,  or  a  deaconess  in  the  church  ; 
sometimes  it  denotes  the  matron  of  a  cloister,  and  an  abbess. 

§  10.  Of  the  Rank  and  Duties  of  Deacons. 

The  terms  didxovog,  diaxovia,  ^totxomv,  are  primarily  employed 
with  reference  to  every  kind  of  service,  and  every  species  of  assist- 
ance, whether  relating  to  religion  or  not ;  but  they  generally  de- 
noted some  specific  office.  They  correspond  with  the  Hebrew 
mo  and  rT};f573  ,  though  the  Septuagint  does  not  so  interpret  them, 
except  in  two  instances.  In  the  New  Testament  the  words  are  of 
frequent  occurrence,  both  in  a  general,  and  specific  application. 

But  they  are  generally  used  in  a  specific  sense  to  denote  some 
kind  of  service  in  religious  things,  as  in  the  following  passages, 
diaxovla  rov  loyov,  Acts  6:  4  ;  Sicw.oviu  xov  nviv^aiog,  2  Cor.  3:  8  ; 
diaxovla  x^?  hnovqyiag,  2  Cor.  9:  12  ;  KXifqog  t>k  8iaxoviitg,  Acts  1: 
17,25.  20:25.  21:  19.  Rom.  11:  13;  8i.ny.ovoi  xaivi'jg  dia&7iy.T]g,  2 
Cor.  3:  6  ;  dnixovoi  Osov,  2  Cor.  6:  4.  Compare  also  1  Pet.  4:  10. 
1:  12.  2  Tim.  I:  18.  Acts  19:22. 

It  is  particularly  important  however  to  remark  that  the  word  8ia- 


108  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

xovla  has,  in  many  passages,  reference  to  an  office  in  the  church  in- 
stituted by  the  apostles  ;  and  that  the  apellation  of  didxovog,  deacon, 
denotes  one  whose  duty  it  is  to  receive  the  charities  of  the  church, 
and  to  distribute  their  alms,  Acis  9:29,30.  12:  25.  Rom.  16:  1,31. 
15:  25.  2  Cor.  8:  4.  9:  1,  13,  19,  20.  Heb.  6:  10.  1  Tim.  8:  8,  10, 
12,  13.  Phil.  1:  1.  1  Peter  4:  10,  11.  An  explicit  account  of  the 
first  appointment  of  a  deacon  in  the  church  at  Jerusalem  is  given  in 
Acts  6:  1 — 7.  Here  it  may  be  observed,  1.  That  the  appointment 
was  made  to  obviate  a  misunderstanding  between  their  Jewish  and 
Gentile  converts  respecting  the  distribution  of  the  daily  alms  of  the 
church.  2.  This  account  presupposes  that  there  were  already  al- 
moners of  the  poor ;  but  that  they  belonged  exclusively  to  the  Jewish 
converts.  Mosheim^  and  KuinoeP  have  well  observed,  that  the  office 
of  deacon  was  derived  from  the  Jewish  synagogue,  in  which  there 
were  three  persons  entrusted  with  the  care  of  the  poor,  who  were 
called  D'^D^TD  ,  pas/ores.  But  in  the  church  at  Jerusalem  seven 
were  appointed,  that  they  might  better  reconcile  the  two  parties. 
3.  These  seven  were  Hellenists,  Grecians,  as  both  their  names  and 
their  care  of  the  widows  of  such  sufficiently  indicate.  4.  They 
were  inducted  into  office  by  prayer,  and  the  imposition  of  hands,  and 
yet,  though  full  of  faith  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  they  took  no  part  in  the 
ministration  of  the  word.  5.  They  were  not  reckoned  with  the 
priesthood.  By  virtue  of  their  ordination  they  became  officers  of 
the  church,  and  bore  a  part  in  the  service  of  the  church,  dcaxovta  t»Jj 
XsLiovQ/lag,  while  they  had  no  concern  with  the  instruction  or  disci- 
pline of  the  church. 

These  officers  continued  for  a  long  time  to  perform  only  the  du- 
ties at  first  ascribed  to  them,  nor  does  it  appear  that  they  were  ap- 
pointed in  any  church  save  that  at  Jerusalem.  It  is  at  least  remarka- 
ble that  no  trace  of  them  is  perceptible  in  the  Acts  of  the  apostles, 
not  even  when  the  apostles  are  making  arrangements  for  the  due 
administration  of  the  church  in  their  absence,  chap.  14:  23.  comp. 
Tit.  1:  5,  nor  in  the  epistles  to  the  Romans,  Ephesians,  Colossians, 
and  Thessalonians.  In  Philippians  1:  1,  mention  is  merely  made 
of  them  in  connection  with  bishops,  but  no  intimation  is  given  re- 
specting their  office. 

On  the  other  hand  in  1  Tim.  3:  8 — 13,  instructions  are  given  for 
the  appointment  of  deacons  in  the  church  at  Ephesus,  whose  offices 
are  totally  unlike  those  of  the  seven  whose  appointment  is  recorded 


RANK  AND  DUTIES  OF  DEACONS.  109 

in  the  sixth  chapter  of  Acts.  1.  They  are  introduced  in  immediate 
connection  with  bishops,  of  whom  Luke  makes  no  mention.  2.  In 
Jerusalem  they  were  chosen  by  the  church  and  installed  in  their 
office.  Here  nothing  is  said  of  their  election  and  the  inference  is 
from  Titus  i.  and  ii,  that  Timothy  was  authorized  to  appoint  them. 
3.  If  bishops  and  presbyters  are  classed  together  as  one  in  office, 
then  these  deacons  obviously  constitute  a  distinct  class.  But  if  the 
deacons  and  presbyters  are  identical,  then  it  would  follow  that  there 
is  no  mention  of  deacons  in  the  New  Testament  as  constituting  a 
third  order.  The  ancients  adopted  the  first  supposition  and  accord- 
ingly always  unite  the  terms  bishops  and  deacons.  4.  Many  have 
denied  that  the  deacons  were  entitled  in  any  case  to  preach.^  In  re- 
ply to  which  no  further  proof  is  requisite,  than  the  words  of  the 
apostle.  '  Holding  the  mystery  of  the  faith  in  a  pure  conscience. 
They  that  have  used  the  office  of  a  deacon  well,  purchase  to  them- 
selves a  good  degree,  and  great  boldness  in  the  faith  which  is  in 
Christ  Jesus.^    1  Tim.  3:  9,  13.' 

The  most  ancient  authorities  afTord  the  fullest  evidence  that  they 
were  strictly  ministers  who  acted  as  the  assistants  of  bishops  and 
presbyters  in  their  religious  services  and  other  official  duties.*^  To 
use  a  military  phrase,  they  were  the  adjutants  of  the  bishop.  Such 
is  the  uniform  testimony  of  ancient  history.'^  'Let  the  deacon,'  says 
the  book  of  Apostolical  Constitutions,  '  refer  all  things  to  the  bishop, 
as  Christ  did  to  the  Father.'  '  Such  things  as  he  is  able,  let  him  recti- 
fy by  the  power  which  he  has  from  the  bishop,  just  as  the  Lord  is 
delegated  by  the  Father  to  act  and  to  decide  ;  but  let  the  bishop 
judge  the  more  important  cases.'*^* — Again,  '  let  the  deacon  be  the 
ear,  the  eye,  the  mouth,  the  heart,  the  soul  of  the  bishop.'  They  are 
also  styled  his  angels  and  his  prophets.  So  universally  did  the  bish- 
op employ  their  service  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties. 

In  consequence  of  these  relations  to  the  bishop  they  early  assumed 
to  themselves  great  consequence,  and  refused  to  render  similar  as- 
sistance to  presbyters,  so  that  it  often  became  necessary  in  ecclesi- 
astical councils  to  admonish  them  of  their  duties  by  such  decrees  as 
the  following.     "  Let  the  deacons  observe  their  proper  place,  know- 

*  This  reference  to  the  relations  of  Christ  to  the  Father  was  very  common 
in  the  second  and  third  centuries.  From  the  fourth  century  it  was  avoided 
to  prevent  giving  countenance  to  the  Arian  theory  of  his  actual  subordina- 
tion. 


110  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

ing  that  they  are  indeed  the  assistants  of  the  bishop,  but  that  they  are 
inferior  to  the  presbyters."^ — "  Let  the  deacon  know  that  he  is  alike 
the  minister  of  the  presbyter,  and  of  the  bishop. "^^^  The  same  coun- 
cil proceeds  to  admonish  him  of  his  subordination,  reminding  him 
that  he  was  ordained  to  his  office  by  the  bishop  alone  without  the 
aid  of  presbyters,  for  which  they  offer  the  following  reason :  Quia 
non  ad  sacerdotium  sed  ad  ministerium  consecratur. 

The  deacons  continued  to  acquire  increasing  consideration  as  the 
bishops  rose  in  power.  Those  particularly  who  were  called  arch- 
deacons gained  great  favor  with  the  bishop  by  reason  of  the  assis- 
tance they  rendered  to  him  in  curtailing  the  power  of  the  presbyters. 
The  seven  who  were  originally  appointed  at  Jerusalem,  became  a 
precedent  for  limiting  their  number  in  other  churches,  beyond  which 
they  were  never  much  increased.  So  that  they  derived  increasing 
consequence  from  the  fact  that  they  were  so  few.^' 

There  was  another  class  of  persons  whose  duty  it  was  to  perform 
the  loioer  offices  of  deacons,  and  who,  for  this  reason,  were  called 
subdeacons  and  assistants,  vnodiuxovoi,  vntj^iTai,.  These  were  crea- 
ted a  distinct  class  when  the  duties  of  the  deacons  became  too  ardu- 
ous for  them,  in  order  that  they  might  not  diminish,  by  the  increase 
of  their  own  number,  the  consideration  which  they  had  acquired. 
Even  these  subdeacons  are,  in  many  churches,  included  in  the  su- 
perior order  of  their  officers. 

Deacons  are  sometimes  called  Levites,  and  their  office  levitica 
dignitas,  leviticum  ministerium.  In  the  councils  of  the  Western 
church  presbyters  and  deacons  are  indiscriminately  called  by  that 
name.^^ 

From  the  above  statements  it  appears,  that  the  duty  of  the  dea- 
cons was  to  perform  the  services  which  the  bishops  and  presbyters 
were  either  unwilling  or  unable  to  discharge,  with  the  exception  of 
those  which,  according  to  the  rules  and  usages  of  the  church,  could 
not  be  delegated  to  another.  There  were  official  duties  of  his  own 
which  the  bishop  could  not  impose  upon  presbyters.  These  it  was 
equally  unlawful  for  him  to  delegate  to  the  deacons.  Exceptions 
were  occasionally  made,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  archdeacon, 
but  they  were  violations  of  established  usage.  In  consequence  of 
performing  the  delegated  duties  of  the  bishop,  the  deacons  made 
many  pretensions  to  superiority  over  the  presbyters,  of  which  the 
latter  often  complained. 


RANK  AND  DUTIES  OF  DEACONS.  Ill 

The  consecration  of  the  eucharist  was  one  of  the  reserved  rights 
which  could  not  be  delegated  to  the  deacons. ^-^  Instances  to  tlie 
contrary  occasionally  occurred,  but  tliey  were  violations  of  an  es- 
tablished rule.  Baptism,  extreme  unction,  etc.  they  were  allowed 
to  administer  as  not  belonging  to  the  most  sacred  offices  of  the 
priesthood.  From  their  performing  only  these  subordinate  ministe- 
rial duties  they  were  early  called  sacerdoles  secundi  vel  tertii  or- 
dinis. 

But  there  must  have  been  certain  duties  belonging  to  their  office 
besides  those  which  were  delegated  to  them,  else  they  could  not 
with  propriety  be  regarded  as  a  third  order  of  officers  in  the  church. 
Of  those  offices,  tico  are  generally  specified — that  of  reading  the 
gospels — and  of  assisting  the  bishop  and  presbyter  in  the  sacrament 
of  the  Lord''s  supperM  Diaconatus  est  ordo  sacer  in  quo  confertur 
gratia,  et  traditur  precipua  potestas  ministrandi  proxime  Episcopo 
et  Presbutero  in  missa  sacrificio  et  solemnitur  legendi  Evangelium. 
The  deacons  alone  were  permitted  to  read  the  gospel  in  the  commu- 
nion service.  For  this  reason  the  presentation  of  the  gospel  to  them 
was  one  of  the  rites  of  their  ordination. 

The  above  were  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  their  office. 
A  full  enumeration  of  their  duties  is  given  below. 

1.  Their  first  duty  was  to  assist  in  the  administration  of  the  sacra- 
ment. '  After  the  benediction  of  the  minister,  and  the  response  of 
the  people,  says  Justin  Martyr,  they  whom  we  call  deacons  distribute 
the  consecrated  bread  and  wine  and  water  to  each  one  who  is  pre- 
sent, and  carry  them  to  those  who  are  absent.''^  According  to  the 
Constitutions,  the  bishop  distributed  the  bread,  and  the  deacons  pre- 
sented the  cup. I''  In  the  absence  of  the  bishop,  the  presbyter  inva- 
riably performed  the  same  service. 

Connected  with  the  sacramental  service,  certain  other  duties  de- 
volved upon  the  deacons,  a)  They  publicly  proclaimed  the  name 
of  each  communicant.'"  b)  They  received  the  contributions  of  the 
communicants  and  delivered  them  to  a  subordinate  officer  for  safe 
keeping,  c)  They  had  the  charge  of  the  sacred  utensils — the  cha- 
lice, the  patin  or  plate,  the  napkin,  the  fan  for  repelling  the  flies, 
glniSiov, fabeUum,  etc.^^ 

2.  It  was  their  duty,  previous  to  the  appointment  of  readers,  to 
perform  the  services  of  that  office.  Subsequently  it  continued  to  be 
their  duty  to  read  the  gospels  in  the  celebration  of  the  eucharist 


112  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CEURCH- 

whenever  the  bishop  did  not  officiate  in  person,  in  which  case  the 
reading  devolved  upon  the  presbyter.'^  At  Alexandria  the  arch- 
deacon alone  read  the  Scriptures — in  other  churches,  the  deacons, 
and  in  many  also  the  presbyters  performed  this  service,  and  on  feast 
days  it  was  discharged  by  the  bishop  himself.^° 

3.  They  acted  as  monitors  in  directing  the  several  parts  of  reli- 
gious worship,  giving  notice  by  set  forms,  called  Tr^oo-qpwyTjcm?,  of  the 
commencement  of  each  act  of  worship,  and  calling  the  attention  of 
the  audience  to  it,  commanding  silence  and  preserving  order.  For 
this  reason  they  were  called  the  sacred  heralds  of  the  church,  lego- 
xi^QvxEg,  xijQvxig,  tibicines  sacri,  precones,  etc.  The  following  are 
examples  of  these  forms :  Ssr]&wf4Ev,  oremus,  let  us  pray  ;  orate  cat- 
echumerii,  let  the  catechumens  pray  ;  altendamus,  attention  ;  Jlecta- 
mus  geMua,  kneel ;  anolvm&s,  you  are  dismissed  ;  nQosX&nE,  ite, 
withdraw  ;  missa  est,  the  service  is  ended  ;  sursum  corda,  lift  up 
your  hearts  ;  sancta  Sanctis,  holiness  becomes  sacred  things ;  and 
the  like.21 

4.  They  had  a  general  oversight  of  the  assembly  in  religious  wor- 
ship to  prevent  disturbance,  and  see  that  everything  was  conducted 
with  propriety. 

5.  They  occasionally  preached  in  the  absence  of  the  bishop. 
Chrysostom,  when  deacon  of  the  church  at  Antioch,  preached  for  his 
bishop  Flavianus,  as  did  also  Ephraim  the  Syrian,  under  similar  cir- 
cumstances. The  right  is  firmly  denied  by  Ambrose,^'^  but  explicitly 
authorized  by  the  second  council  of  Vaison,  A.  D.  529.  c.  2.  which 
devolves  upon  them  the  duty  of  conducting  the  worship  in  the  ab- 
sence of  the  bishops  and  presbyters,  or  when  they  were  prevented 
by  infirmity  from  officiating. 

6.  The  duty  of  giving  catechetical  instructions  stood  on  the  same 
footing.  It  was  the  appropriate  duty  of  the  bishop  ;  but  the  deacons 
were  frequently  intrusted  with  this  service  to  the  candidates  for 
baptism,  especially  when  it  was  continued  for  a  length  of  time. 

7.  They  administered  baptism  by  permission  of  the  bishops  and 
presbyters  as  their  substitutes,  but  not  as  authorized  administrators 
of  the  ordinance.^^ 

8.  They  were  not  only  permitted,  but  in  certain  cases  required,  to 
absolve  and  restore  penitent  backsliders.  St.  Cyprian  says,  "  If  they, 
the  sick,  are  seized  by  any  dangerous  disease,  they  need  not  await 
my  return,  but  may  have  recourse  to  any  presbyter  that  is  present, 


OF  AHCIIDEACONS.  113 

or  if  a  presbyter  cannot  bo  found,  and  tbeir  case  becomes  alarming, 
they  may  make  their  confession  before  a  deacon  that  so  they  may 
receive  imposition  of  hands  and  go  to  the  Lord  in  peace." — Ep.  13. 
al.  18. 

9.  They  liad  the  charj^e  of  tlie  inferior  orders  of  church  officers 
and  servants,  and,  in  the  absence  of  the  presbyters  might,  at  their 
discretion,  censure  or  suspend  them  for  a  time  for  misconduct. 

10.  They  acted  as  the  representatives  and  proxies  of  their  bishops 
in  general  council.  In  such  cases  they  sat  and  voted,  in  the  Eastern 
church,  not  as  deacons^  but  as  proxies,  in  the  room  and  place  of 
those  that  sent  them.  In  the  Western  church  they  voted  after  the 
bishops,  and  not  in  the  place  of  those  whose  proxies  they  were. 

11.  They  exercised  an  inspection  over  the  life  and  morals  both 
of  the  clergy  and  laity.  They  were  the  justices  and  grand  jurymen 
of  the  church,  and  were  to  make  diligent  inquiry  and  due  presenta- 
tion to  their  bishops.  It  is  in  this  sense  that  they  are  styled  ike  eyes 
and  the  ears  of  the  bishop."^'  Their  office  evidently  must  have  been 
one  of  great  respectability  ;  but  at  the  same  time  such  duties  must 
have  rendered  it  odious  to  the  community. 

12.  It  was  their  duty  to  receive  and  disburse  the  charities  of  the 
church.  In  the  discharge  of  these  duties  they  were  styled  the  month 
and  the  heart  or  soul  of  the  bishop.  In  this  sense  they  were  ac- 
counted the  indispensable  assistants  of  the  bishop,  without  whom  he 
could  do  nolhing.-^s  Their  duties  increased  with  the  possessions  of 
the  church,  so  that  they  acted  essentially  as  the  accountants  and 
clerks  of  the  bishop. 

§  11,  Of  Archdeacons. 

The  policy  of  the  bishop,  in  attaching  to  himself  the  interests  of 
the  deacons  in  opposition  to  the  presbyters,  was  peculiarly  mani- 
fested in  respect  to  the  archdeacon,  who  was  the  firm  adherent  of 
the  bishop,  and  the  bitter  opponent  of  the  archpresbyters. 

Contrary  to  the  general  usage  of  antiquity,  qualifications  for  office 
had  more  influence  in  his  election  than  seniority  of  age  and  ordina- 
tion. Athanasius  of  Alexandria,  while  yet  a  young  man,  was  in- 
vested witli  the  office  of  archdeacon.^  Jerome  also  gives  us  to  un- 
derstand that  the  deacons  chose  from  among  themselves  indiscrimi- 
15 


114  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

nalely  the  most  suitable  candidate  for  the  office  ;  according  to  the 
sanne  author,  there  was  one  archdeacon  for  each  church. 

The  office  was  in  certain  churches  elective  ;  in  others  it  was  filled 
by  appointnnenl  of  the  bishop.  Indeed,  he  might  very  naturally  be 
expected  to  guard  with  peculiar  jealousy  the  appointment  of  this 
officer  who,  according  to  the  antiquated  phraseology  of  the  day,  was 
to  be  his  own  right  hand.,  his  mouth,  his  ear,  his  eye.  Accordingly, 
when  the  rule  of  seniority  prevailed,  he  retained  the  right  of  over- 
ruling it  at  pleasure,  leaving  to  the  candidate  elect  his  rank  and 
title,  but  substituting  in  his  place  another  better  qualified  to  transact 
the  business  of  the  office.- 

The  leading  historical  facts  relating  to  this  office  are  briefly  as 
follows. 

1.  The  office  occurs  as  early  as  the  fourth  or  fifth  century,  but 
without  any  distinct  title;  such  were  Athanasius  of  Alexandria, 
Caecilianus  of  Carthage,  and  the  famous  Leo  the  Great  of  Rome. 
2.  The  arrogance  and  ambition  of  the  archdeacons  became,  as  early 
as  the  fifth  century,  the  subject  of  bitter  complaint.^  3.  They  usu- 
ally had  the  address  to  become  the  successors  of  the  bishop ;  they 
claimed  to  take  precedence  of  the  presbyters,  and  to  be  second  in 
rank  only  to  the  bishop.^  4.  Their  power  became  greatly  extended 
through  the  period  reaching  from  the  seventh  to  the  ninth  centuries, 
when  they  were  not  only  authorized  to  remove  deacons,  and  sub- 
ordinate officers,^  but  the  honors  shared  by  them  were  in  some  in- 
stances eagerly  sought  by  the  presbyters  themselves  ;^  even  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  bishop  was  disowned  by  them,  with  whom  they 
became,  in  a  measure,  partners  in  office.''  5.  From  the  eleventh  to 
the  thirteenth  centuries,  the  bishops  were  engaged  in  a  fruitless  en- 
deavor to  curtail  the  grasping  ambition  of  the  archdeacons,  who  still 
had  the  address  to  ally  themselves  more  and  more  with  the  secular 
power,  and  finally,  not  only  became  independent  of  the  bishops,  bu-t 
subjected  them,  in  a  degree,  to  their  own  control.^  The  establishment 
and  the  increase  of  their  power  was  favored  at  Rome,  as  the  means 
of  weakening  the  hands  of  the  bishops,  and  extending  the  influence 
of  the  Romish  see.  So  that  the  very  order  of  men  that  the  bish- 
ops employed  to  assist  them  in  gaming  ascendency  over  the  presby- 
ters, was  now  employed  by  a  more  aspiring  power  against  themselves. 
6.  In  the  thirteenth  century,  the  archbishops  succeeded  in  putting  an 
effectual  check  upon  the  immoderate  power  of  the  archdeacons  ;  a 


DEACONESSES.  115 

decree  in  council  having  been  finally  obtained  which  prohibited  the 
archdeacon  from  employing  any  substitute  whatever  in  the  discharge 
of  his  office,  or  passing  any  judicial  sentence  for  grave  otTences 
without  the  permission  of  the  bishop.  The  archbishops  also  required 
of  the  bishops  that  they  should  employ  in  the  discharge  of  their  du- 
ties, a  new  class  of  officers,  who  should  be  entirely  distinct  from  the 
archdeacons.  These  were  first  appointed  by  Innocent  IV,  A.  D. 
1250,  and  were  called  vicarii,  ojficialcs,  officials,  vicars,  and  also  vi- 
car generals,  because  they  were  intrusted  with  judicial  authority  and 
adjudicated  in  the  name  of  the  bishop.  This  measure  had  the  de- 
sired effect  to  reduce  the  power  of  the  archdeacon,  which  in  conse- 
quence became  an  inconsiderable  office.  In  the  East  it  became  ex- 
tinct as  early  as  the  eighth  century. 

The  office  itself  may  be  compared  both  with  that  of  bishop  and 
deacon,  for  it  partook  in  part  of  the  nature  of  both.  The  principal 
complaint  against  the  archdeacon  arose  from  the  abuse  of  his  power 
in  assuming  as  his  right  what  was  only  delegated  to  him,  as  has  been 
already  related.  His  various  offices  are  specified  by  Bingham  in 
the  following  summary,  1.  To  attend  the  bishop  at  the  altar  ;  2.  to 
assist  him  in  managing  the  church  revenues ;  3.  in  preaching  ;  4. 
in  ordaining  the  inferior  clergy  ;  5.  he  also  had  power  to  censure 
deacons,  and  the  inferior  clergy,  but  not  presbyters. 

§  12.  Of  Deaconesses. 

The  office  of  deaconess  may  be  regarded  as  substantially  the 
same  with  that  of  female  presbyters.  They  were  early  known  in 
the  church  by  a  great  variety  of  names,  all  of  which,  with  some  cir- 
cumstantial variations,  denoted  the  same  class  of  persons.  They 
were  helpers,  assistants  to  perform  various  services  in  the  church. 
The  following  are  the  most  frequent  names  by  which  they  are  dis- 
tinguished, nosdi^vTiSeg,  TiQHjfivxtQai,  diaxoviaaai,  episcopae,  episcopis- 
sae,  aiitistae,  xVQ"^h  vidu&e,  viduatas,  Tiooxa&i'jiAEvai,  ministrae, 
ancillac,  etc.  Their  most  frequent  appellation  however  is  that  of 
deaconess,  diaconissa^a  term  which  does  not  occur  in  the  Scriptures, 
though  reference  is  undoubtedly  had  to  the  ofice  in  Rom.  16:  1. 
Profane  writers  use  the  term  v  diunovog,  and  diacona,  to  denote  both 
the  wife  of  a  deacon,  and  an  officer  in  the  church  ;  which  has  been  a 
fruitful  source  of  controversy.     The   principal   ])oints  of  dispute 


116  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHORCII. 

which  have  been  raised  on  this  subject  are  arranged  utidcr  the  fol- 
lowing heads. 

1.  The  terms  diuaovat,  x^lQ^h  TiQio^in^Qui,  in  many  passages  dis- 
tinctly indicate  that  tliey  were  appointed  to  perform  the  same  offices 
towards  the  female  sex,  as  the  deacons  discharged  for  their  sex, 
Rom.  16:  1.  2,  12.  1  Tim.  5:  3,  seq.  Titus  2:  3,  seq.  1  Tim.  3:  11. 
No  satisfactory  explanation  has  yet  been  given  of  the  origin  of  this 
office,  some  suppose  it  to  have  been  derived  from  the  Jews ;  others, 
that  it  was  peculiar  to  the  Christian  church ;  Paul's  commendation 
of  Phebe,  Rom.  16:  1,  2,  however,  refutes  the  hypothesis  that  they 
were  appointed  to  administer  exclusively  to  their  own  sex. 

Hugo  Grotius,  in  his  commentary  on  that  passage  says,  that  "  in 
Judea  the  deacons  could  administer  freely  to  the  female  sex.  The  of- 
fice of  deaconess  was  accordingly  unknown  among  the  Jews  ;  but  in 
Greece  no  man  was  allowed  to  enter  the  apartment  of  that  sex, 
which  custom  gave  rise  to  two  classes  of  female  assistants,  one  call- 
ed nQij^viids^,  or  nijoy.a&jj^evai,  who  devoted  their  attention  to  the 
department  of  the  women  ;  the  other  Siuxovoi,  Latin  diaconissa^ . 
whom  Pliny  in  his  epistle  to  Trajan  calls  ministrae,  attended  to  the 
poor  and  the  sick  of  their  own  sex,  and  provided  for  their  wants." 
Others  give  a  different  explanation  of  this  matter ;  and  indeed  it 
must  be  admitted,  that  from  the  second  to  the  fourth  century  the 
office  was  known  in  many  churches  in  various  countries,  though  it 
was  never  universally  adopted. 

One  part  of  their  office  was  to  give  religious  instruction,  which 
undoubtedly  was  merely  catechetical ;  for  the  language  of  Paul,  1 
Cor.  14:  34.  1  Tim.  2:  8 — 12,  forbids  the  supposition  that  they  ever 
usurped  the  place  of  public  teachers  ;  but  the  primitive  church 
at  least  agreed  in  permitting  them  to  impart  catechetical  instruction 
to  their  own  sex.  They  were  in  this  way  private  catechists  to  fe- 
male catechumens. 

2.  Satisfactory  evidence  of  the  reality  of  this  office  is  derived,  not 
only  from  the  apostles  and  the  ancient  fathers,  but  from  pagan  wri- 
ters, particularly  from  Pliny,  (see  page  25 — 27,)  who  mentions  them 
in  his  account  of  the  persecutions  of  the  Christians  as  anillace  quae 
ministrae  dicebantur.  They  are  also  mentioned  by  Lucian  of  Samo- 
sata,  and  Libanius.^ 

3.  The  requisite  age  for  this  office  was  usually  sixty  years  and 
upward,^  1  Tim   5:  9  ;  but  the  usage  of  the  church  in  this  respect 


DEACONESSES. 


117 


was  not  uniform.  According  to  sonne  councils  they  were  eligible  to 
this  office  at  forly  ;^  some  were  chosen  even  at  the  early  age  of 
twenty.^  Their  age  probably  varied  with  the  particular  duties  to 
which  they  were  appointed  ;  matrons,  venerable  for  age  and  piety, 
being  selected  for  religious  teachers,  and  younger  women  for  alms- 
giving, the  care  of  the  sick,  assistants  at  baptism,  etc. — Neither  were 
widotcs  alone  invariably  appointed  to  this  office.  Tertullian  however 
directs  that  they  should  be  the  widow  of  one  man,  having  children. 
But  Ignatius  in  his  epistle  to  the  Smyrneans  salutes  the  virgins\\\:x\. 
are  called  widows  ;  and  such  were  not  unfrequently  chosen  to  this 
office,^  though  it  must  be  admitted  that  widows  of  virtuous  character 
were  sometimes  denominated  TiaQ&ivoo,  virgins.'^ 

4.  The  ordination  of  deaconesses  has  been  the  subject  of  much 
dispute  ;  but  there  is  satisfactory  evidence  that  they  were  consecra- 
ted to  their  office  by  prayer,  and  the  imposition  of  hands.'''  This 
form  of  consecration  was  indeed  prohibited  by  certain  councils,^  but 
even  the  prohibition  of  it  is  evidence  that  it  was  practised.  Their 
consecration,  however,  gave  them  no  pozoer  to  perform  any  of  the 
duties  of  the  sacred  office  ;  they  were  merely  a  religious  order  in  the 
church.  The  views  of  the  primitive  church  respecting  them,  are 
well  expressed  by  Epiphanius,  y.al  ozi  /.tsv  diuHonauwv  xuynu  (ordo) 
eaxiv  tlgviiv  iy.xXfaiav,  c/JS  ot/t  slg  IsQajsviiv,  ovdsri  imxoiQHV  innqz- 
■jisip,  etc. 

5.  Their  duties  were,  a)  To  take  the  care  of  the  poor  and  the 
sick ;  this  in  the  apostolic  age  was  their  principal  office.  A  service 
so  commendable  that,  in  imitation  of  it,  even  Julian  the  Apostate  re- 
quired the  same.  Under  this  head  may  also  he  classed  the  duty  of 
ministering  to  martyrs,  and  confessors  in  prison,  b)  To  instruct 
catechumens,  and  to  assist  at  their  baptism.  They  instructed  female 
candidates  in  the  symbols,  and  other  things  preparatory  to  their  bap- 
tism. Their  attendance  at  the  baptism  of  candidates  of  their  own 
sex,  was  requisite  to  assist  in  divesting  them  of  their  raiment,  to  ad- 
minister the  unction,  and  to  make  arrangements  for  the  administra- 
tion of  the  ordinance  with  all  the  decency  becoming  a  rite  so  sacred.* 
c)  To  exercise  a  general  oversight  over  the  female  members  of  the 
church.    This  oversight  they  continued,  not  only  m^all  the  exercises 

*  The  custom  of  the  tunes  was  to  baptize  by  iimaersion,  and  in  a  state  of 
nudity. '" 


118  MINISTERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

of  religious  worshisp,  of  the  sacrament,  and  of  penance,  but  in  pri- 
vate life,  imparting  needful  admonition,  and  making  due  reports  of 
them  to  the  presbyters  and  bishop. ^^ 

6.  This  office  ceased  in  the  church  at  an  early  period,  but  the 
precise  time  cannot  be  determined.  It  was  first  abrogated  in  France, 
by  the  Council  of  Orange,  A.  D.  441.  But  it  continued  for  some 
time  after  this,  and  gradually  disappeared  from  the  Western  church. 
In  the  Greek  church  it  became  extinct  in  the  twelfth  century. ^- 

Morinus  offers  several  reasons  for  the  abrogating  of  this  office  in 
Syria,^^  which  were  briefly — that  the  services  of  these  women  be- 
came less  important  after  the  cessation  of  the  agapae  of  the  primi- 
tive church, — that  the  care  of  the  sick  and  the  poor  which  had  de- 
volved upon  the  church,  was  in  the  time  of  Constantino  assumed  by 
the  state,— that  after  the  introduction  of  infant  baptism,  their  attend- 
ance at  this  ordinance  became  of  less  importance — and  finally,  that 
they,  in  their  turn,  became  troublesome  aspirants  after  the  preroga- 
tives of  office  ;  just  as  the  abbotesses  and  prioresses  of  later  times  as- 
sumed all  the  offices  of  the  bishop,  preaching,  administering  the 
communion,  absolving,  excommunicating,  and  ordaining  at  pleasure; 
abuses  which  it  required  all  the  authority  of  councils,  and  of  the 
pope  himself,  to  rectify  ;  in  a  word,  the  order  was  abolished  because 
it  was  no  longer  necessary.    Cessante   causa,  cessat  effectus. 

[There  were  fanatical  sects  even  in  the  ancient  church,  such  as 
the  Montanists  and  Collyridians,  who  authorized  and  encouraged 
women  to  speak,  dispute,  and  teach  in  public.  But  the  sentiment  of 
the  church  has  uniformly  been  opposed  to  such  indecencies.  What 
impudence,  says  Tertullian,  in  these  heretical  women  to  teach,  to 
dispute,  to  exorcise,  and  even  to  baptize  !  De  Bap.  17.  Let  no  wo- 
man speak  in  public,  nor  teach,  nor  baptize,  nor  administer  the 
sacrament,  nor  arrogate  to  herself  any  office  of  the  ministry  be- 
longing to  the  other  sex,  De  Virg.  vel.  c.  9.  Let  not  a  woman, 
however  learned  or  holy,  presume  to  teach  men  in  public  assembly 
— is  the  injunction  of  the  council  of  Carthage,  IV.  99.  Let  all  the 
female  sex,  says  Chrysostom,  forbear  from  assuming  the  responsi- 
bility of  the  sacred  office,  and  the  prerogatives  of  men,  De  Sacerdo- 
iio,  L.  II.  The  Apostolic  Constitutions  declare  it  to  be  a  heathenish 
custom.  Lib.  3.  c.  9  ;  and  Epiphanius  has  a  particular  dissertation 
in  which  he  shows  at  large,  that  no  woman,  from  the  foundation  of 
the  world,  was  ever  ordained  to  offer  sacrifice,  or  perform  any  sol- 
emn service  of  the  church. — Tr.] 


OF  SUBDEACONS.  1  19 

CHAPTER  IV. 

INFERIOR   OFFICERS  OF  THE  CHCRCH. 

§  1.  Of  Subdeacons. 

The  vnrjQhai,  servants,  of  the  New  Testament  are  the  same  as 
the  subdeacons  of  whom  mention  is  so  frequently  made,  both  by  the 
early  fathers  and  by  later  ecclesiastical  writers.  This  appellation 
was  first  used  by  Athanasius,  but  earlier  traces  of  it  occur  in  the 
epistles  of  Cyprian,  8.  20.  29.  34.  35,  etc.,  as  a  term  in  use  in  the 
Latin  church,  from  whom  it  was  afterwards  adopted  by  the  Greek 
church. ^  The  office  became  common  to  both  the  Eastern  and 
Western  churches  in  the  fourth  century. 

The  specific  duty  of  the  subdeacons  was  to  assist  the  deacons  in 
their  duties.  The  number  of  these  was  so  limited  that  it  was  quite 
impracticable  for  them  personally  to  discharge  all  the  duties  of  their 
office.  For  this  reason  they  were  provided  with  the  assistance  of 
the  subdeacons.  Like  the  deacons  they  were  usually  seven  in  num- 
ber. To  this  number  the  church  of  Rome  adhered  with  singular 
pertinacity.  But  in  order  that  they  might  retain  their  sacred  num- 
ber seven,  and  still  have  the  aid  of  a  sufficient  number  of  assistants, 
they  created  three  several  orders  of  these  officers,  consisting  of  seven 
each,  and  called  palatini,  stationarii,  and  regionarii.^  In  the  church 
at  Constantinople  there  were  at  one  time  ninety,  and  at  another, 
seventy  subdeacons. 

Authorities  are  not  agreed  respecting  the  consecration  of  the  sub- 
deacons. Some  affirm  that  they  were,  and  others  that  they  were 
not,  ordained  by  the  imposition  of  hands. ^  In  the  East  they  were 
uniformly  regarded  as  of  a  subordinate  rank,  and  classed  with  the 
readers.  In  the  West  they  ranked  the  first  in  the  lower  order  of 
the  priesthood,  and  about  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  centuries  they 
were  transferred  to  the  superior  order.^  The  reason  for  this  pro- 
motion was  that  on  the  elevation  of  the  episcopal  order  the  three  or- 
ders might  still  retain  their  original  number  and  relative  rank.  The 
Eastern  church  adhered  more  closely  to  the  original  design  for 
which  they  were  appointed. 


120  OFFICERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

Before  their  promotion  in  the  Western  church,  their  duties  were 
the  following  : — to  convey  the  bishop's  letters  or  messages  to  foreign 
churches,  and  to  execute  other  commissions  of  the  superior  minis- 
ters ;  to  fit  and  prepare  the  sacred  vessels  of  the  altar,  and  to  deli- 
ver them  to  the  deacon  in  time  of  divine  service  ;  to  attend  the  door 
of  the  church  during  the  communion  service,  taking  care  that  no  one 
went  in  or  out  during  the  tim.e  of  oblation  ;  and,  perhaps,  to  conduct 
those  who  came  into  church  to  their  proper  places.^ 

After  their  promotion  in  the  Western  church,  they  were  permitted 
to  assist  in  celebrating  mass.  An  empty  chalice  and  patine  was  de- 
livered to  them  at  their  ordination  ;  byt  they  were  not  allowed  either 
to  consecrate,  or  distribute  the  sacred  elements.  As  it  was  custom- 
ary to  deliver  to  the  deacons  a  copy  of  the  gospels,  so  to  the  sub- 
deacons  was  delivered  a  copy  of  the  epistles  also,  at  their  ordination. 
In  a  word  the  strife  was  to  elevate  their  office  as  much  as  possible 
above  that  of  the  reader,  and  to  attach  to  it  all  possible  honors.  Con- 
trary to  all  the  authority  of  the  primitive  church,  they  were  often 
promoted  to  the  highest  honors  and  offices  of  the  priesthood. 

§  2.  Of  Readers. 

These  occupied  the  first  rank  in  the  lower  order  of  church  officers 
in  the  Greek  church  ;  in  the  Roman  they  were  next  in  rank  to  the 
subdeacons.  They  have  been  frequently  regarded  as  an  order  in- 
stituted by  the  apostles,  and  by  them  derived  from  the  Jewish  syna- 
gogue. Compare  Luke  4:  16.  Acts  13:  15,  27.  2  Cor.  3:  14.  And 
it  must  be  admitted,  that  reading  formed  a  very  important  part  of 
public  worship.  There  were  also,  among  the  Jews,  persons  who 
performed  the  same  duties  as  the  readers  in  the  christian  church.' 
But  the  fact  that  the  Scriptures  were  read  by  certain  individuals,  is 
not  proof  that  these  constituted  a  distinct  order.  Justin,  indeed,  dis- 
tinguishes between  the  reader  and  the  presiding  officer  of  the  church, 
and  yet  the  former  may  have  been  a  presbyter  or  deacon.  The 
deacons  were  expressly  required  to  read  at  the  communion  service, 
but  this  is  no  certain  evidence  that  they  may  not  have  been  at  the 
same  time  the  ordinary  readers  in  the  religious  service.  For  these 
reasons  it  is  advisable  to  refer  the  institution  of  this  order  to  the  third 
century.  They  are  first  mentioned  by  TertuUian,  who  complains 
of  the  heretics  that  they  confound  all  rule  and  order,  allowing  the 


OF  ACOLYTilS.  121 

same  person  to  perform  iilternately  the  offices  of  bishop,  presbyter, 
dcacoi),  and  reader.-  Cyprian  also  mentions  the  ordination  of  a 
reader,  and  remarks  that  the  readers  are  a  subordinate  class  who 
are  candidates  for  promotion  to  the  clerical  office.  Ep.  24.  (al.  29).3 

The  office  was  at  first  held  in  peculiar  honor,  Cyprian  styles  the 
reader  the  instructor  of  the  audience,  intimating  thereby  both  the 
dignity  of  the  office,  and  the  importance  of  the  readinjf  of  the  Scrip- 
tures as  a  part  of  divine  worship.  The  church  observed  the  rules 
of  the  synagogue  in  admitting  persons  to  this  office  without  prescrib- 
ing to  them  any  specific  age.  As  with  the  Jews,  so  with  the  primi- 
tive Christians,  lads  at  an  early  age,  if  duly  qualified,  might  serve 
as  their  readers.  There  are  instances  on  record  of  youth  who,  even 
at  seven  years  of  age,  have  been  employed  in  this  service  ;  and 
others  at  eight,  ten,  and  twelve  years  of  age.  Young  men  of  noble 
birth  especially,  aspired  to  this  office.'* 

In  the  Western  church  the  subdeacons  soon  sought  means  to  bring 
the  readers  under  subordination  to  them,  and  accordingly  this  order 
finally  ceased  from  the  church.  In  the  cloisters  and  chapters,  on  the 
contrary,  they  acquired  still  increasing  consideration,  and  at  a  peri- 
od still  later,  as  they  were  withdrawn  from  the  service  of  the  church, 
they  were  transferred  to  the  professorships  of  Philosophy  and  Theol- 
ogy in  the  universities  and  other  schools  of  learning. 

§  3.  Of  Acol\'ths. 

The  word  a-Aolovdoq  denotes  a  servant.  The  office  corresponds 
to  that  of  the  Roman  apparil.or,  or  pedellus,  bedelJvs,  a  beadle.  The 
word  is  evidently  of  Greek  origin.  Hesychius  defines  it  by  o  vtdm- 
Qog  nalg,  -d^sfJuiKov,  6  nsQi  to  aoJua,  a  servant,  or  personal  attendant. 
With  this  view  of  the  origin  of  the  word,  it  is  remarkable  that  it  was, 
for  four  hundred  years,  an  office  of  the  Lathi  church,  and  adopted 
from  them  by  the  Greek  at  a  late  period.  This  may  have  arisen 
from  the  fact  that  the  subdeacons  in  the  Greek  church  have  a  close 
analogy  with  the  acolyths  in  the  Latin,  and  that  name  was  common- 
ly retained.  But  the  term  «xoAov5-oe  was  also  familiar  in  the  Greek 
church,  and  is  explicitly  mentioned  by  Eusebius  and  others.^  Eu- 
sebius  relates  that  an  inconceivable  number  ot  presbyters,  deacons, 
acolyths  and  others  attended  the  bishops  at  the  council  of  Nice. 

The  acolyths,  as  their   name  implies,  were  the  immediate  atten- 

16 


122  OFFICERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

dants  and  followers  of  the  bishop,  especially  in  public  processions, 
and  on  festive  occasions,  and  were  employed  by  them  in  errands  of 
every  kind.  Their  duties  in  regard  to  religious  worship,  as  specifi- 
ed by  the  council  of  Carthage,  were  to  light  the  candles,  and  to  bring 
the  wine  and  water  for  the  eucharist.^ 

§  4.  Of  Exorcists. 

Our  business  is  merely  to  speak  of  the  origin  and  offices  of  this 
order  in  the  church.  And  this  we  can  do  by  adopting  the  language 
of  Bingham,  who  gives  the  following  as  the  result  of  his  investiga- 
tions on  this  subject :  1.  That  exorcists  did  not  at  first  constitute  any 
distinct  order  of  the  clergy  ;  2.  That  bishops  and  presbyters  were 
in  the  three  first  centuries  the  usual  exorcists  of  the  church  ;  3.  That 
in  a  certain  sense,  by  prayer  and  by  resisting  the  devil,  every  Chris- 
tian might  be  his  own  exorcist ;  and  4.  That  exorcists  began  to  be 
known  as  a  distinct  order  in  the  church  in  the  latter  part  of  the  third 
century.  The  appointment  and  office  of  the  exorcists  is  by  the  fourth 
council  of  Carthage,  c.  7,  described  as  follows  :  When  an  exorcist 
is  ordained,  he  shall  receive  at  the  hands  of  the  bishop  a  book  where- 
in the  forms  of  exorcising  are  written,  the  bishop  saying,  "  receive 
thou  these  and  commit  them  to  memory,  and  have  thou  power  to  lay 
hands  on  the  encrgumens,  whether  they  he  baptized  or  only  catechu- 
meiis.''''  This  was  the  uniform  mode  of  ordination,  although,  after 
the  introduction  of  infant  baptism,  the  assistance  of  exorcists  in  ad- 
ministering this  ordinance  was  either  omitted  entirely,  or  greatly 
changed.  Subsequently,  the.  exorcising  of  demoniacs  was  either 
wholly  discontinued,  or  subjected,  by  explicit  decrees  of  council,  to  the 
oversight  of  presbyters  or  bishops.  "  The  routine  of  their  duties 
was  prescribed  by  the  bishop  according  to  circumstances  of  time 
and  place.  In  some  churches  in  Germany,  they  had  the  oversight  of 
the  consecrated  water,  and  the  vessels  in  which  it  was  kept.  In  oth- 
er churches  they  reciprocated  their  duties  with  the  door-keepers, 
readers,  and  acolyths  of  the  church,  or  it  was  their  business  to  conduct 
communicants  in  crowded  assemblies  to  the  sacramental  table. "^ 

[According  to  the  authority  of  Bingham,  "  Nothing  is  more  cer- 
tain than  that,  in  the  apostolic  age,  and  that  next  following,  the  pow- 
er of  exorcising  or  casting  out  devils  was  a  miraculous  gift  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  not  confined  to  the  clergy,  much  less  to  any  single  or- 


OF  SINGERS.  123 

der  among  them,  but  given  to  other  Christians  also,  as  many  other 
extraordinary  gifts  then  were."  For  his  authorities,  see  reference.^ 
Cave's  account  of  this  order  is  as  follows  :  "  After  the  miracu- 
lous power  of  casting  out  devils  began  to  cease,  or  at  least  not  to  be 
so  common  as  it  was,  these  possessed  persons  used  to  come  to  the  out 
parts  of  the  church  where  a  person  was  appointed  to  exorcise  them, 
i.  e.  to  pray  over  them  in  such  prayers  as  were  peculiarly  composed 
for  such  occasions,  and  this  he  did  in  the  public  name  of  the  whole 
church,  the  people  also  at  the  same  time  praying  within,  by  which 
means  the  possessed  person  was  delivered  from  the  tyranny  of  the 
evil  spirit  without  any  of  those  charyns  and  conjurations  and  other  un- 
christian forms  and  rites  which  by  degrees  crept  into  this  office,  and 
are  at  this  day  in  use  in  the  church  of  Rome. "-^ — Te.] 

<^  5.  Of  the  Singers,  or  Precentors. 

The  appointment  of  singers  and  choristers  takes  its  origin  from 
the  importance  in  which  the  singing  of  psalms  and  hymns  was  held 
not  only  in  the  temple  and  synagogue  service  of  the  Jews,  but  in  the 
apostolic  and  primitive  churches.  We  have  the  fullest  and  most  sat- 
isfactory evidence  of  the  early  and  universal  introduction  of  this  part 
of  religious  worship  into  the  christian  church,^  Eph.  5:  19,  20,  Col. 
3:  16,  and  of  the  appointment  of  singers  as  a  distinct  class  of  church 
officers.*  It  is  remarkable  that  this  part  of  public  worship  was  re- 
stricted by  the  council  of  Laodicea,^  to  a  distinct  order  in  the  church, 
styled  by  them  aavovi^iol  ijjuXiai,  canonical  singers.  These  went  up 
into  the  singer's  seats  and  sung  from  a  book.  The  object  of  this 
restriction  was  to  correct  abuses  and  suitably  to  regulate  this  part  of 
worship.  The  subjects  of  their  psalmody  were  submitted  to  the  con- 
trol of  the  bishops  or  presbyters.  But  all  that  related  to  the  perform- 
ance of  the  music  as  an  art  was  left  to  the  singers. 

[Bingham  asserts,  that  from  the  apostolic  age,  for  several  centu- 
ries, the  whole  body  of  the  church  united  in  singing,  and  that  these 
xavovLxol  ifjulxai  were  only  a  temporary  provision  to  regulate  and 
restore  the  singing  to  some  tolerable  degree  of  harmony,  and  that  it 
continued  to  be  the  usage  of  the  church  for  the  whole  assembly  to 
join  in  singing.  For  this  opinion  he  quotes  various  authorities. 
Baumgarten.  p.  136,  and  Siegel,  Vol.  II.  206,  also  agree  with  Bing- 
ham in  opinion. — Tr.] 


124  OFFICERS  OF    THE  CHURCH. 

Systems  of  psalmody,  both  plain  and  complicated,  were  early  in- 
troduced into  the  church.  The  singer  in  the  Latin  church  is  some- 
times called  psalmista  or  psalmistaniis,  but  more  frequently,  cantor. 
The  term  vno^olilg  also  occurs  in  connection  with  the  singers,  who 
may  be  styled  psalmi  pronuntiafores,  or  sucenlores,  leaders.  Their 
office  was  to  begin  the  psalm  or  hymn,  and  thus  lead  the  singing,  so 
that  others  might  unite  their  voices  harmoniously  with  them.  The 
duties  of  the  office  are  thus  described  by  Durandus  ;  perlinet  ad  psal- 
niistam,  officium  canendi,  dicere  benedictiones,  laudes,  sacrificium, 
responsoria,  et  quidquid  pertinet  ad  cantandi  peritiam.'* 

No  special  form  for  the  ordination  of  singers  is  prescribed  ;  and 
by  the  fourth  council  of  Carthage,  c.  10,  the  presbyter  is  authorized 
to  make  the  appointment  without  the  knowledge  or  authority  of  the 
bishop.  This  commission  the  presbyter  delivered  in  these  words  : 
Vide  ut  quod  ore  cantas,  corde  credas ;  et  quod  corde  credis,  'operi- 
bus  comprobes.  See  that  what  thou  singest  with  thy  mouth  thou  be- 
lievest  also  with  thy  heart ;  and  that  what  thou  believest  in  thy  heart, 
thou  confirmest  in  thy  life.  In  the  Catholic  church  the  singers  do 
not  constitute  a  separate  class,  and  in  other  churches  they  are  reck- 
oned with  the  readers. 

But  though  the  singers  have  not  been  classed  with  the  priesthood, 
they  have  ever  been  held  in  great  respect,  as  appears  from  the  es- 
tablishment of  schools  of  sacred  music,  and  from  the  peculiar  atten- 
tion which  was  paid  to  them ;  especially  to  the  instructors  of  them. 
Such  schools  were  established  as  early  as  the  sixth  century,  and  be- 
came common  in  various  parts  of  Europe,  particularly  in  France  and 
Germany.  These  schools  were  very  much  patronized  by  Gregory 
the  Great ;  under  whom  they  obtained  great  celebrity.  From  them 
originated  the  famous  Gregorian  Chant,  a  plain  system  of  church 
music  which  the  choir  and  the  people  sung  in  unison.  The  prior, 
or  principal,  of  these  schools  was  a  man  of  great  consideration  and 
influence.  The  name  of  this  officer  at  Rome,  was  archicantor  ec- 
clesiae  Romanae,  and  like  that  of  prelatus  cantor,  in  their  chapters 
and  collegiate  churches,  it  was  a  highly  respectable  and  lucrative 
office.^ 


OF  DOORKEEPERS.  125 


§  6,  Of  Ostiarii,  or  Doorkeepers. 

These,  though  the  last  of  the  lower  orders,  were  of  a  more  eleva- 
ted rank  than  the  modern  sexton,  with  whom  they  should  not  be  con- 
founded. The  ostiarii  belonged,  in  a  sense,  to  the  clerical  order; 
while  the  sexton  is  the  attendant  and  waiter  on  the  clergy.  Their 
duties  were  more  comprehensive  than  the  latter,  in  that  they  separa- 
ted the  catechumens  from  believers,  and  excluded  disorderly  persons 
from  the  church.^  They  closed  the  doors  of  the  church,  not  only 
at  the  close  of  religious  worship,  but  during  the  services,  especially 
after  the  first  part  of  it,  called  the  missa  catechiwienorum.  They  had 
also  the  care  of  the  ornaments  of  the  church,  and  of  the  altar. 
It  afterwards  became  their  duty  to  ornament  the  church  and  the  al- 
tar on  festive  occasions— to  guard  the  grave-yards  and  sepulchres  of 
the  dead  ;  to  present  the  book  to  the  preacher  ;  to  ring  the  bell ;  to 
sweep  the  church,  and  on  Thursday  of  passion-week  to  make  pre- 
paration for  the  consecration  of  the  chrism,  or  anointing  oil.^  They 
are  sometimes  called  mansionarii  and  janitores. 

The  most  probable  explanation  of  the  origin  of  this  order  is  that 
they  were  made  doorkeepers  of  the  christian  church  in  imitation  of 
the  doorkeepers  of  the  Jewish  tabernacle  as  related  in  the  book  of 
secret  discipline.  If  so  the  origin  of  this  office  was  antecedent  to 
the  time  of  the  apostles.  The  office  was  esteemed  as  essential  in 
observing  the  secluded  rites  of  our  religion  as  it  was  in  celebrating 
the  mysteries  of  pagan  superstition.  The  office  was  known  in  the 
Eastern  church  in  the  time  of  the  Sardinian  council  (c.  24)  but  was 
discontinued  about  the  seventh  or  eighth  centuries — being  no  lon- 
ger necessary. 

The  customary  forms  of  ordination  are  prescribed  in  the  fourth 
council  of  Carthage,  c.  9,  and  the  ceremony  of  delivering  the  keys 
is  derived  from  the  book  of  secret  discipline. 

§  7.  Of  the  subordinate  servants  of  the  Church  and  of  the 

Clergy. 

a)  The  Copiatae,  undertakers,  grave-diggers,  sextons.  These 
were  intrusted  with  the  care  of  funerals,  and  the  burial  of  the 
dead.     They  are  called   vespillones,  bisjjellones,  vtxQo&dnTui  ,•  also 


126  OFFICERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

ordo  fossariorum^  fossores^  grave-diggers — Asxiixof^toi,^  bearers  of 
the  bier,  and  collegiati,  decani,  collegiates  and  deans. 

They  are  said  to  have  been  first  instituted  at  Constantinople  by 
Constanline  the  Great,  and  to  have  been  further  organized  and  es- 
tablished by  the  emperor  Anastasius.^ 

b)  The  Parabolani.  Their  office  was  to  take  care  of  the  sick;  a 
service  which  in  the  times  of  the  apostles  and  primitive  Christians 
was  of  great  importance,  especially  during  the  prevalence  of  severe 
sickness.  The  common  belief  is  that  they  took  their  name  from  the 
hazardous  office  in  which  they  were  employed,  sgyov  nagd^okov, 
negotium  periculosum.  Others  derive  it  from  nuqu^oloi  in  the  sense 
of  bestiarii,  persons  of  great  courage  and  desperate  character  who 
exposed  themselves  in  combat  with  wild  beasts.^ 

They  were  chiefly  limited  to  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor  ;  where  they 
were  the  more  necessary  by  reason  ot  the  contagious  diseases  of 
these  countries.  Still  they  were  regarded  with  jealousy  as  danger- 
ous disturbers  of  the  peace  ;  and  for  this  reason,  efTorts  were  fre- 
quently made  to  diminish  their  number.^  Very  few  traces  of  them 
appear  in  the  history  of  the  Western  church  ;  in  the  middle  ages, 
the  brothers  and  sisters  of  charity  supplied  their  place. 

c)  The  sacrista,  sacristanus,  and  sacrislarius,  was  much  the 
same  as  treasurer,  the  keeper  of  the  sacred  things,  sacrorum  cristas, 
qui  ecclesiae  suretum  curat. ^ 

d)  The  ciistos,-  custor,  aedituus,  was  much  the  same  as  the  sacris- 
tan. Sometimes  he  is  called  capellanus,  which  denotes  particularly 
the  keeper  of  the  altar. 

e)  The  campanarii,  campanatores,  were  the  hell-ringers.  An  of- 
fice which  of  necessity  has  been  instituted  since  the  introduction  of 
bells  in  the  ninth  century.  Their  usual  business  was  to  light  the 
church,  and  ring  the  bell  for  religious  worship. 

f)  The  matricularii  were  intrusted  with  the  care  of  the  church,  in 
which  they  were  accustomed  to  sleep  ;  they  also  had  a  specific 
office  to  perform  in  public  processions. 

g)  The  parafrenarii  were  the  coachmen  of  the  higher  clergy  who 
had  also  the  care  of  their  stables,  horses,  and  coaches.  They  were 
sometimes  reckoned  among  the  number  of  the  clergy,  but  of  an  in- 
ferior order.^ 


OF  OCCASIONAL  OFFICERS.  127 


§  8.  Of  OCCASIONAL  Officers  in  the  Church  who  ranked  with 
THE  Clergy. 

a)  Catechists.^ 

In  view  of  the  importance  in  which  catechetical  instructions  were 
held,  it  is  truly  surprising  that  none  were  permanently  designated  to 
this  office.  The  name  of  catechist  indeed  is  of  common  occurrence, 
but  they  did  not  constitute  a  distinct  order.  These  instructions  were 
given  in  part  by  the  bishops  themselves,  who  were,  by  virtue  of  their 
office,  the  chief  catechists,  and  had  the  oversight  of  all  such  exer- 
cises in  which  presbyters,  deacons,  readers,  and  exorcists  bore  a  part. 
The  deaconesses,  and  aged  women  also,  acted  as  catechists  for 
their  sex. 

There  was  indeed  a  famous  catechetical  school  at  Alexandria. 
But  the  catechists  of  that  institution  sustained  the  relations  of  a  mod- 
ern lecturer  or  professor,  rather  than  those  of  a  common  catechist.^ 

b)  Capdlani. 

The  name  is  derived  from  capcUa,  which  primarily  means  a  cer- 
tain kind  of  hood.  In  the  fifth  century  it  became  the  name  of  ora- 
tories, or  private  churcJies,  which  were  built  about  that  time  in 
France,  and  afterwards  became  common  in  the  West.  The  first 
instance  of  this  form  of  private  worship  occurs  in  the  life  of  Con- 
stantine,^  who  constituted  his  military  tent  a  place  for  religious  wor- 
ship in  the  open  field.  Probably  the  iiaqxvQiov  tnl  /.nn'jf^ii]  rwi'  unoff- 
Tokwv,  which  according  to  Eusebius  was  erected  by  Constantino,  was 
a  sort  of  court-church.  Certain  it  is  that  we  read  of  the  clerici  pal- 
latii,  sacelli  regit,  court-preachers,  under  the  succeeding  emperors. 
The  chief  among  these  were  called  nanag  jov  naXmiov,  etc.  answer- 
ing to  the  Capellani,  Regii,  Archi-Capellani,  Summi,  Sacellani,  etc. 
under  the  monarchs  of  France,  Germany,  and  England.^  The 
capellanus  then  was  the  chaplain  or  minister  of  these  private  or 
court  chapels. 

After  the  crusades  multitudes  of  places  where  sacred  relics  were 
preserved  were  also  called  chapels,  and  the  persons  who  had  the 
care  of  these  relics  received  also  the  name  of  chaplai?is,  though  they 
had  no  slated  ministerial  office,  but  occasionally  officiated  by  special 
permission. 


128  OFFICERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

c)  Hermeneutai,  Interpreters. 

The  duty  of  these  was  to  translate  from  one  tongue  into  another, 
where  people  of  different  languages  were  commingled  ;  like  the 
Greek  and  Syriac, — Latin  and  Punic.  They  had  a  seat  also  with 
the  bishop  to  assist  in  translating  the  correspondence  of  the  church 
into  different  languages — to  interpret  synodical  records,  etc. 

Readers  and  deacons  were  employed  as  interpreters  for  the 
preacher  when  they  were  competent  for  the  discharge  of  such  duties, 
but  whoever  performed  this  service,  must  of  necessity  be  regarded 
as  acting  the  part  of  a  religious  teacher,  and,  in  this  sense,  as  belong- 
ing to  the  priesthood.  The  bishop's  assistant  translators  might  be 
chosen  from  among  the  laity,  when  no  suitable  person  belonging  to 
the  clergy  could  be  found  ;  and  though  he  was  little  else  than  a 
notary  or  scribe,  he  was  honored  with  a  place  among  the  clergy. 

§  9.  Of  Officers  of  the  Church  who  did  not  belong  to  the 
Priesthood. 

Persons  of  this  description  are  to  be  distinguished  by  their  rank 
and  influence  respectively,  as  well  as  by  the  time  and  circumstances 
of  their  appointment.  They  were  chosen  at  one  time  from  the 
clergy,  at  another  from  the  laity.  In  the  service  of  the  church  they 
often  sustained  much  the  same  relations  as  did  the  archbishops, 
and  other  dignitaries,  when  acting  as  ministers  of  state.  Their  in- 
fluence was  chiefly  felt  in  Rome  and  Constantinople,  rather  than  in 
the  provincial  dioceses.  The  influence  of  some  of  these  officers 
was  often  greater  even  than  that  of  a  prime  minister,  archbishop,  or 
patriarch,  just  as  the  most  important  concerns  of  church  and  state 
are  often  controlled  by  a  secretary  or  counsellor.  Officers  of  this 
class  however  had  little  or  no  concern  with  the  approj^riate  duties  of 
the  ministry.  And  we  will  treat  of  them  very  briefly  in  the  order 
of  their  importance  proceeding  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest, 
a)  The  Mansionarii,  stewards,  to  whom  was  instrusted  the  care  of 
the  church-glebes,  styled  also  ■noodj.iovuQioi,  naqauovaQioi. — b)  Ol- 
novofiot,  persons  appointed  by  the  bishop  and  archdeacon  to  assist  in 
managing  the  possessions  of  the  church.  This  became  in  the  mid- 
dle ages,  an  ofiice  of  great  influence,  and  was  in  a  good  degree  in- 


OFFICERS  NOT  BELONGING  TO  THE  PRIESTHOOD.  129 

dependent  of  the  bishop.     They  were  totally  distinct  from  tlie  stew- 
ards of  cloisters,  and  other  similar  establishments. 

c)  Cimeliarchs,  xEtfitjliuQxui,  Thesaurii,  Sacellii,  Sacrisiae,  dif- 
ferent from  the  sacristans,  or  se.vtons  before  mentioned,  treasurers. 
Miyuq  (TxavotpvXa^,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  ;  (xiyuq  (Tuxd).rxij(og, 
treasurer  of  the  cloisters,  prefect  of  monasteries,  etc. 

d)  Notarii.  The  Greek  voiuoio:,  was  of  late  origin.  Previous 
to  this,  the  corresponding  terms  were  /Qa^fiurdg,  inoyQucpaig,  vno- 
Soxtvg,  o|i7^«<f  0?,  ra/vygucpog,  etc.  neither  of  which  exactly  expres- 
ses the  meaning  of  the  term  notarius.  This  denotes  a  scribe,  and 
always  implies  that  he  acts  in  some  official  capacity^  as  \he  scribe  or 
secretary  of  a  deliberative  assembly,  or  the  clerk  of  a  court.  The 
Notarii  were  frequently  employed  by  private  persons,  but  retained 
even  then  their  official  character.  The  oivyguqioi,  and  ra/vyQr^poi, 
were  copyists  and  translators  of  homilies,  records,  etc.^  It  was  par- 
ticularly their  duty  to  write  memoirs  of  such  as  suffered  martyrdom,- 
and  to  record  the  protocols  of  synods,  and  doings  of  councils.-^  They 
also  acted  the  part  of  a  modern  secretary  of  legation,''  and  were 
again  the  agents  of  bishops  and  patriarchs  in  exercising  a  supervision 
over  remote  districts  of  their  diocese.  In  this  capacity,  they  fre- 
quently attained  to  great  influence  and  honor.^ 

The  various  services  of  a  secretary  or  scribe  in  preparing  writings, 
whether  of  a  judicial,  or  extra-judicial  character,  were  chiefly  per- 
formed by  men  of  the  clerical  order,  because  they  were  the  best 
qualified  for  these  duties. 

e)  Apocrisiarii,  or  Responsales.  They  were  often  legates  or 
ambassadors  from  one  court  to  another,  like  the  canceUarii,  consil- 
iarii,  secretarii,  referendarii^  etc.  The  title  of  apocrisiary,  was  ap- 
propriated particularly  to  the  pope's  deputy  or  agent,  who  resided 
at  the  court  of  Constantinople  to  receive  the  pope's  orders  and  the 
emperor's  answers.  The  existence  of  such  an  agent  at  that  court, 
has  been  called  in  question  without  good  reason.  Both  Leo  and 
Gregory  the  Great  once  resided  there  in  that  capacity,  and  there 
are  other  unequivocal  notices  of  the  otHce.' 

After  the  reestablishment  of  the  Western  empire,  an  accredited 
agent  of  the  pope,  of  the  like  character,  was  accustomed  to  reside  at 
the  French  court;  he  was  sometimes  called  capeUanus,  palalii  cus- 
tos,  corresponding  to  a  modern  charge  d'affaires. 

The  most  celebrated  cloisters  and   abbeys,  as   well  as  the  arch- 

17 


130  OFFICERS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

bishops  had  also  their  agents  at  Rome.  Since  the  ninth  century 
they  have  had  the  name  of  ambassadors. 

g)  Si/7icelli,  (jvyxskXoL.  The  chief  synccUus  at  Constantinople  was 
an  officer  of  high  rank,  and  the  syncelli  were  generally  chosen  from 
the  bishops  and  metropolitans  to  this  office. ^  The  prelates  of  Rome 
had  also  their  syncelli ;  but  the  office  in  time  degenerated  into  an 
empty  name.^  Their  business  is  said  to  have  been  originally  to  at- 
tend upon  the  patriarchs  and  prelates  as  their  spiritual  advisers,  and 
as  witnesses  of  their  deportment,  and  the  purity  of  their  manners. 

h)  The  Syndici,  avvdiy-oi,  defensores.  Their  business  was  to  re- 
dress the  wrongs  of  the  poor  and  the  injured,  to  defend  the  rights  of 
the  church,  to  exercise  a  supervision  over  the  property  of  the  church, 
to  settle  disputes,  manage  law-suits,  etc.  They  were  known  in  the 
church  as  early  as  the  fourth  or  fifth  century. 

i)  There  was  still  another  class  of  officers  who  may  perhaps  be 
styled  patrons  or  protectors.  By  whatever  name  they  are  called, 
.they  were  divided  into  three  subdivisions.  1.  Learned  men,  knights, 
and  counts,  who  were  patrons  and  guardians  of  different  religious 
bodies.  2.  The  agents  of  the  church,  patrons,  who,  especially  in  the 
absence  of  the  bishop,  acted  in  his  place  in  the  administration  of  af- 
fairs both  of  church  and  state.  Under  this  head  may  be  classed 
those  who,  under  the  name  of  landlords,  exercised  a  territorial  juris- 
diction in  matters  relating  to  the  church.  3.  Kings  and  emperors, 
who  claimed  to  be  patrons  of  the  church,  and  defenders  of  the  faith. 
The  Roman  Catholic  princes  of  Germany,  and  the  kings  of  France, 
have  been  peculiarly  emulous  of  this  honor. 


ELECTIONS  BY  THE  CHURCH.  131 

CHAPTER  V. 

OF  APPOINTMENT  TO   KCCLKSIASTICAL  OFFICES. 

§  1.  Election  by  Lot. 

The  first  example  on  record  of  the  appointment  of  an  officer  in 
the  christian  churcli  is  that  of  Matthias,  Acts  1:  15 — 26.  He  was 
not  chosen,  but  rather  designated  to  his  office  by  lot.  And  subse- 
quently, the  church  were  accustomed  to  resort  to  the  same  expedi- 
ent, when  they  could  not  agree  respecting  any  individual.  This  form 
of  election  was  neither  peculiar  to  any  sect,  nor  prevalent  at  any 
given  time,  nor  applicable  to  any  one  case  ;  but  was  adopted  as  oc- 
casion required.  The  election  was  little  else  than  a  decision  be- 
tween several  candidates  who  were  equally  eligible  to  the  office.^ 

^  2.  Of  elections  by  the  Church  collectively. 

Many  learned  men  are  of  opinion  that  in  the  apostolic  age  the 
right  of  universal  suffi'age  was  enjoyed  by  the  church.  In  proof  of 
this  they  appeal  to  Acts  1:  15  seq.,  where  the  apostles  appointed  a 
substitute  in  the  place  of  Judas  Iscariot,  but  not  without  the  consent 
of  the  church  at  Jerusalem.  In  the  appointment  of  the  seven  dea- 
cons it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  brethren,  the  church,  were  first 
required  to  look  out  among  them  seven  men  of  honest  report  and  full 
of  the  Holy  Ghost ;  and  that  they  made  the  choice  and  set  the  [»er- 
sons  chosen  before  the  apostles  [to  be  inducted  into  office].  Hugo 
Grotius,  indeed,  maintains  that  this  case  proves  no  more  than  the 
right  of  the  church  to  choose  their  own  deacons  to  distribute  alms, 
and  that  in  all  the  New  Testament  there  is  not  the  least  hint  of  the 
appointment  of  any  bishop  or  presbyter  by  the  intervention  of  the 
church.^  He  goes  on  to  say  that  the  apostles  themselves  did  appoint 
presbyters.  Acts.  14 :  23.  2  Tim.  ii.  Tit.  1  :  5,  and  that  Timothy 
and  Titus  were  authorized  by  Paul  to  do  the  same.  But  in  opposi- 
tion to  this  assertion,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  expression 
XiiQoioviiv  relates  to  the  act  of  consecration  and  ordination,  and  by 
no  means  excludes  the  idea  of  a  preceding  election  by  the  church. 


182  APPOINTMENT  TO  ECCLESIASTICAL  OFFICES. 

The  apostle  presupposes  thai  Timothy  and  Titus,  when  authorized 
by  him  to  consecrate  and  induct  into  office  a  presbyter  who  had  been 
duly  elected,  would  proceed  as  he  himself  and  the  other  apostles  did 
in  similar  cases — i.  e.  that  they  would  proceed  according  to  the  rule 
given  in  Acts  6:  3,  and  appoint  no  man  presbyter  without  the  know- 
ledge and  choice  or  desire  of  the  church.  The  following  passages 
and  many  others  are  sufficient  to  show  that  the  advice  and  consent 
of  the  church  was  had  in  other  matters,  Acts  15:  1  seq.  1:  15.  1 
Cor.  5:  2.  2  Cor.  ii.  8:  19,  20. 

Clemens  Romanus  is  the  best  interpreter  of  the  apostle's  senti- 
ments, and  the  earliest  witness  that  can  be  obtained  on  this  sub- 
ject. This  writer  informs  us  that  the  apostles  appointed  and  ordain- 
ed the  first  ministers  {versteher)  of  the  church,  and  "  then  gave  di- 
rection how,  when  they  should  die,  other  chosen  and  approved  men, 
dsdoxifxafffiivoi  livdQsg,  should  succeed  to  their  ministiy.  Wherefore 
we  cannot  think  those  may  justly  be  thrown  out  of  their  ministry 
who  were  either  appointed  by  them  or  afterwards  by  other  eminent 
men  with  the  consent  of  the  whole  church,  avvsvdoxrjauarjg  Tijg  fxylrjaiag 
7iuar]g.  Those  persons  who  received,  in  this  manner,  the  concurring 
suffi-ages  of  the  church,  were  to  be  men  of  tried  character,  and  of 
good  report  with  all,  (iSfiagTvgrjf^ivovg  is  noXXoig  XQ^^oig  vno  ndvitov. 
This  concurrence  of  the  whole  church,  based  upon  their  previous 
acquaintance  with  the  candidates,  evinces  clearly  the  cooperation  of 
the  church  in  the  appointment  of  its  ministers  j  and  that  this  inter- 
vention of  the  church  was  not  merely  a  power  of  negativing  an  ap- 
pointment made  by  some  other  authority.* 

The  fullest  evidence  that  bishops -and  presbyters  were  chosen  by 
the  people,  is  also  derived  from  Cyprian.  It  was,  according  to  his 
authority,  a  rule  of  divine  appointment  that  a  minister  should  be  cho- 
sen in  the  presence  of  the  people,  and  should  be  publicly  acknow- 
ledged and  approved  as  worthy  of  the  office — plehe  presenie  sub  om- 


'*  The  apostles  appointed  bishops  and  deacons,,— ^«<  fisra^v  tTTivo/UT^v  Se- 
dojxa(nv,  onag  iav  tcoijArj&aKnv,  diadi^wvtai,  tTegoi  didoy.tuaafisvoi,  av- 
dgsg  Ti]v  Imovqylav  aviwv.  Tohg  oiv  xazacFTU&ivjag  vn  ixslvoiv,  i]  ^s- 
Tu^v  vcp  siigav  ilXoyi^tav  avSgwr,  avvsvdoxTjcrdcrrjg  jijg  iy.y.lr]alag  ndarig, 
y.ai  }.movqyi]aavxttg  afiifinxcog  tw  noifivUo  roii  Xqkxjov  (xsiu  xansivo- 
cpQoai'vi]g,  r\avx(ag  y.al  d^avuvawg,  fiffiagivgr]i.tsvovg  t£  nolXolg  xQovoig 
vno  ndvibiv,  tovxovg  ov  diKumg  (lo^ilQo^iv  dno^aXia&ai  lijg  Xtnovgyiag. 
Clem.  Rom.  F.p.  (1)  ad  Corinth.  §  AA. 


ELECTIONS  BY  THE  CHURCH.  133 

7iium  oculis  deligatiir,  et  digitus  afque  idoneus  publico  judicio  ac  tes- 
timonio  comprohetur.  He  further  says  that  the  act  of  ordination 
should  in  no  instance  be  solemnized  without  the  knowledge  and 
assistance  of  the  people,  so  that  the  crimes  of  the  bad  may  be  de- 
tected, and  the  merits  of  the  good  made  known.  In  this  manner  the 
ordination  becomes  regular  and  valid,  jusla  et  legitima.  Such,  he 
observes,  was  the  example  of  the  apostles,  not  only  in  the  appoint- 
ment of  bishops  and  ministers,  but  also  of  deacons.  And  all  this 
was  done  to  prevent  the  intrusion  of  unworthy  men  into  the  sacred 
office.3*  He  further  says  of  Cornelius,  "  that  he  was  made  bishop 
agreeably  to  the  will  of  God,  and  of  Christ,  by  the  testimony  of  al- 
most all  the  clergy,  and  the  suffrage  of  the  people  then  present.''''^ 

With  reference  to  this  influence  in  appointing  them,  the  bishops 
elect  were  wont  to  style  their  constituents,  the  ^eo^\e,  fathers.  "  Ye, 
(says  St.  Ambrose,)  ye  are  my  fathers  who  chose  me  to  he  bishop : 
ye,  I  say,  are  both  my  children  and  fathers,  children  individually,  fa- 
thers collectively."-^  Which  intimates  that  he  owed  his  appointment 
to  the  choice  of  the  people.  And  this  is  still  further  confirmed  by 
the  testimony  even  of  profane  writers.  Alexander  Severus,  who 
reigned  from  A.  D.  222  to  235,  whenever  he  was  about  to  appoint 
any  governors  of  provinces,  or  receivers  of  public  revenue  first  pub- 

*  Quod  et  ipsuin  videmus  de  divina  auctoritate  descendere  ut  saccrdos 
plebc  pratscnte  sub  omnium  oculis  deligaiur,  et  dignus  atque  idoneus  publico 
judicio  ac  testimonio  comprobctur.  .  .  Coram  onini  synagoga  jabet  Deus  con- 
stitui  sacerdotem,  id  est,  instruit  atque  oslendit  ordinationes  sacerdotales 
nonnisi  sub  populi  assistentis  conscientia  fieri  oportere,  ut  plebe  praesente 
vel  detegantur  malorum  crimina,  vei  bonorum  meritapracdicentur,  et  sit  or- 
dinatlojusta  et  legitima,  quae  omnium  svffrugio  ct  judicio  fuerit  cxaminata. 
Quod  poslea  secundum  divina  magisteria  observatur  in  Actis  Apostolorum. 
.  .  .  JVec  hoc  in  episcoporum  tuntiim  ct  saccrdctum,  scd  et  in  diaconorum  ordi- 
nationibus  apostolos  fccisse  animadvcrtimus.  .  .  Quod  utique  idcirco  turn  dili- 
gentur  et  caute  concocata  plebt  tcta  gerebatur,  ne  quis  ad  altaris  ministerium, 
vel  ad  sacerdotalein  locum,  indignus  obreperet.  Cvprian,  Ep.  68.— P' actus 
est  autem  Cornelius  episcopus  de  Dei  et  Christi  ejus  judicio,  de  clericorum 
pene  omnium  testimonio,  de  plcbis,  quae  tunc  adfuit,  siiffragio,et  de  sacerdo- 
tum  antiquoruni  et  bonorum  virorum  collegio,  cum  nemo  ante  se  factus  es- 
set,  cum  Fabiani  locus,  id  est,  cum  locus  Petri  et  gradus  cathedrae  sacerdo- 
talis,  vacaret :  quo  occupato  de  Uei  voluntate,  atque  omnium  nostrum  con- 
sensione  firmato,  quisquis  jam  episcopus  fieri  voluerit,  foris  fieri  necesse  est, 
nee  habeat  ecclesiasticam  ordinationem,  qui  ccclesiae  non  tenet  unitatem. 
/(/.  Ep.  52. 


134  APPOINTMENT  TO  ECCLESIASTICAL  OFFICES. 

licly  proposed  their  names,  desiring  the  people  to  make  evidence 
against  them  if  any  one  could  prove  them  guilty  of  any  crime,  but 
assuring  them  that  if  they  accused  them  falsely,  it  should  be  at  the 
peril  of  their  lives  ;  for  he  said  "  it  was  unreasonable  that  when  the 
Christians  and  Jews  did  this  in  propounding  those  whom  they  or- 
dained their  jyriests  and  ministers,  the  same  should  not  be  done  in 
the  appointment  of  governors  of  provinces  in  whose  hands  the  lives 
and  fortunes  of  men  were  intrusted."** 

It  may  perhaps  be  said  that  all  this  is  only  proof  of  a  negative  or 
testimonial  choice  on  the  part  of  the  people,  and  that  ih\s  propound- 
ing of  the  candidates  presupposes  a  previous  appointment  of  which 
the  people  were  only  invited  to  express  their  approbation.  It  is  true, 
indeed,  that  the  clergy  or  the  presbytery,  or  the  bishop,  or  presbyter, 
on  resigning  his  office,  took  the  lead  in  these  elections  by  proposing 
<jr  nominating  the  candidate  ;  but  then  followed  the  vote  of  the  peo- 
ple, which  was  not  a  mere  testimonial  suffrage,  but  really  a  decisive 
and  elective  vote. 

Besides,  there  are  not  wanting  instances  when  the  people  made 
choice  of  some  one  as  bishop  or  presbyter  without  any  preliminary 
nomination,  or  propounding  of  the  candidate.  Ambrose  was  thus 
appointed  bishop  of  Milan  by  joint  acclamation  of  all.'''  Martin  of 
Tours  was  appointed  by  the  people  against  his  own  will,  and  that  of 
tlie  bishops.^  And  the  same  is  true  of  Eustathius  at  Antioch,^  Chrys- 
ostom  at  Constantinople,^*^  Eradius  at  Hippo,^'  and  Meletius  at  Anli- 
och,i-  etc. 

The  evidence  indeed  is  full,  that  the  people  cooperated  in  the  elec- 
tion of  presbyters,  and  numerous  instances  of  such  cooperation  oc- 
cur in  ecclesiastical  history. 

So  also  the  fourth  council  of  Carthage  decreed  :  Ut  episcopus  si- 
ne consilio  clericorum  suorum  clericos  non  ordinet :  ita  ut  civium 
adsensum  et  conniventiam  et  testimonium  quaerat. — '  that  as  the  bish- 
op might  not  ordain  clergymen  without  the  advice  of  his  clergy,  so 
likewise  he  should  obtain  the  consent,  cooperation  and  testimony  of 
the  people.' 

Sometimes,  when  the  opinions  of  the  people  were  divided  between 
several  candidates,  it  would  seem  that  the  people  were  called  to  a 
formal  vote,  styled  ^jji/jo-/?,  i//>jqpto-,u«,  ipi'jipog,  scrulinium.^'^  But  the  com- 
mon method  was  by  acclamation.  The  people  exclaiming  ot^iog,Jit ; 
or  ityuliog,  imjil.     The  apostolical  constitutions,^  c.  4,  direct  that  the 


ELECTION  OF  REPRESENTATIVES.  135 

inquiry  be  three  times  made  whether  the  candidate  is  worthy  of  the 
office,  and  that  the  uniform  and  concurring  response  be,  He  is  wor- 
thy.    In  the  Latin  church  the  acclamation  was  dignus  est  etjuslus.^^ 

§  3.  Election  by  Representatives  or  Interventors. 

The  popular  elections  above  described  were  liable  to  great  irregu- 
larities. Great  care  was  accordingly  requisite,  lest  the  exercise  of 
this  right  should  lead  to  disorder,  and  disturb  the  public  peace  by  ex- 
citing a  malignant  party  spirit.  To  what  a  pitch  these  tumultuous 
elections  were  carried,  may  be  seen  from  a  remarkable  description 
of  them  by  Chrysostom.  "  Go  witness  a  popular  assembly  conven- 
ed for  the  election  of  ecclesiastical  officers.  Hear  the  complaints 
against  the  minister,  manifold  and  numerous  as  the  individuals  of  that 
riotous  multitude,  who  are  the  subjects  of  church-government.  All 
are  divided  into  opposing  factions,  alike  at  war  with  themselves,  with 
the  moderator,  and  with  the  presbytery.  Each  is  striving  to  carry 
his  own  point ;  one  voting  for  one,  and  another  for  another  ;  and  all, 
equally  regardless  of  that  which  alone  they  should  consider — the 
qualifications,  intellectual  and  moral,  of  the  candidate.  One  is  in 
favor  of  a  man  of  noble  birth  ;  another  of  a  man  of  fortune  who  will 
need  no  maintenance  from  the  church  ;  and  a  third,  one  who  has 
come  over  to  us  from  the  opposite  party.  One  is  wholly  enlisted  for 
some  friend  or  relative,  and  another  casts  his  vote  for  some  flat- 
terer. But  no  one  regards  the  requisite  qualifications  of  the  mind 
and  the  heart.^" 

Similar  disorders  prevailed  not  only  at  Constantinople,  but  at  Rome, 
Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  other  large  cities.  To  correct  these  abus- 
es, many  distinguished  bishops  passedjnto  the  opposite  extreme,  and, 
by  the  exercise  of  arbitrary  power,  appointed  men  to  spiritual  offices. 
This  gave  great  offence  to  the  people,  who  were  ever  jealous  of  their 
rights,  and  were  provoked,  by  these  means,  to  commit  scandalous 
and  violent  outrages.  The  emperor  Valentinian  III.  upbraids  Hi- 
lary of  Aries,  that  he  unworthily  ordained  some  in  direct  opposition 
to  the  will  of  the  people,  and  when  the  people  refused  to  receive  those 
whom  they  had  not  chosen,  that  he  collected  an  armed  force  and 
by  military  power  thrust  into  office  tlie  ministers  of  the  gospel  ofpeace.^ 
Leo  the  Great  also  passes  a  similar  censure  upon  this  procedure.*^ 

It  has  been  supposed  that  the  council  of  Nice  deprived  the  people 


136  APPOINTMENT  TO  ECCLESIASTICAL  OFFICES. 

of  the  right  of  suffrage,  and  conferred  the  right  of  appointnnent  upon 
metropolitans  and  patriarchs,  but  the  supposition  is  clearly  refuted 
by  Bingham.'*  The  same  council  distinctly  recognizes  the  right  of 
the  people  in  the  choice  of  a  bishop. 

The  council  of  Laodicea,  denied  indeed  the  right  of  suffrage  to 
the  rabble^  xoig  oyloiq.  But  they  carefully  distinguished  between  these 
and  the  people,  tw  Aaw,  to  whom  they  did  not  deny  the  right.  An  ef- 
fort was  made,  particularly  in  the  Latin  church,  to  correct  the  disor- 
ders of  popular  elections  without  taking  away  the  rights  of  the  peo- 
ple. This  they  did  by  the  agency  of  an  interve?itor,  who  was  sent 
among  the  people  to  endeavor  to  unite  their  votes  upon  a  given  per- 
son, and  thus  to  secure  his  election  without  division  or  tumult.  Sym- 
machus  and  Gregory  the  Great  encouraged  this  procedure  ;^  but  it 
was  received  with  little  approbation,  and  was  soon  discontinued. 

Justinian,  for  a  similar  purpose,  restricted  the  right  of  suffrage  to 
the  arislocracy  of  the  city.  By  his  laws  it  was  provided  '  that  when 
a  bishop  was  to  be  ordained,  the  clergy,  and  chief  men  of  the  city 
should  meet  and  nominate  three  persons,  drawing  up  an  instrument, 
and  swearing  in  the  customary  forms  of  an  oath,  upon  the  Holy  Bi- 
ble, that  they  chose  them,  neither  for  any  gift,  nor  promise,  nor 
friendship,  nor  any  other  cause  ;  but  only  because  they  know  them 
to  be  of  the  catholic  faith,  of  virtuous  life,  and  men  of  learning.  Of 
these  three,  the  ordaining  person  was  required  to  choose,  at  his  own 
discretion,  that  one  whom  he  judged  best  qualified.'''^ 

Had  now  some  permanent  restrictions  been  laid  upon  the  body  of 
electors,  and  had  it  been  more  clearly  defined  who  should  be  reck- 
oned among  the  chief  men  of  the  city,  and  how  they  were  to  coop- 
erate with  the  clergy,  tlien  would  order  have  been  established,  and 
much  arbitrary  abuse  of  power  prevented.  In  this  way  a  worthy 
body  of  men  would  have  been  organized  from  the  people  of  the  dio- 
cese, by  whom  the  rights  of  the  people  would  have  been  secured, 
and  disorder,  and  party  spirit,  and  discord,  would  have  been  pre- 
vented. 

But,  instead  of  this,  the  whole  was  left  to  the  direction  of  accident, 
and  of  arbitrary  power.  Thus  the  right  of  suffrage  was  wrested 
from  the  people,  and  was  shared  in  part  by  the  rulers,  who  were  ac- 
counted the  chief  men  of  the  city,  and  in  part  by  the  priesthood,  who, 
either  by  their  bishops  and  suffragans,  or  by  collegiate  conventions, 
often  exercised  the  right  without  any  regard  to  the  people. 


FORMS    OF    ELECTION.  137 

The  church  sometimes  protested  earnestly  against  this  encroach- 
meni  of  secular  power  ;  but  in  vain.  The  council  of  Paris,  557, 
decreed  that  "  no  bishop  should  be  consecrated  contrary  to  the  will 
of  the  citizens,  a\\eg\n^,  in  vindication  of  this  measure,  the  neglect  of 
ancient  usage,  and  of  the  ordinances  of  the  church.  Nor  should 
he  attain  to  tliat  honor  who  had  been  appointed  by  the  authority 
of  the  rulers,  and  not  by  the  choice  of  the  people,  and  of  the  clergy, 
and  whose  election  had  not  been  ratified  by  the  metropolitan  and 
other  bishops  of  the  province."  Whoever  entered  upon  his  ofhce 
merely  by  the  authority  of  the  king,  they  commanded  the  other  bish- 
ops not  to  acknowledge,  under  penalty  of  being  themselves  de- 
posed from  office. 

But  such  attempts  to  restore  the  apostolical  and  canonical  forms 
of  election  were  but  seldom  made,  and  were  followed  by  no  lasting 
result.  In  Spain  the  appointment  of  a  bishop,  as  early  as  the  sev- 
enth century,  was  made  dependent  entirely  upon  the  king.^  Under 
the  Carlovingian  dynasty  in  France,  it  was  divided  between  the 
rulers  and  the  bishops  without  entirely  excluding  the  people.  Inno- 
cent III,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  excluded  entirely  the  people,  and 
made  the  election  dependent  only  on  the  chapter  of  the  cathedral.'^ 
In  the  East,  the  people  were  excluded  much  earlier.^ 

§  4.  Of  certain  unusual  Forms  of  Election. 

The  examples  on  record  of  this  description,  relate  only  to  the  ap- 
pointment of  bishops.  The  appointment  by  lot,  as  above  described, 
may  with  propriety  be  classed  among  the  unusual  forms  of  election 
in  question.     To  this  may  be  added, 

1.  Elections  hy  divine  authority,  and  providential  manifestations. 
To  this  class  belong  the  appointments  which  the  apostles  made  by 
the  divine  authority  with  which  they  were  invested.  Tradition  in- 
forms us  that  many  churches  were  planted  by  them,  besides  those 
which  are  mentioned  in  their  writings.  John,  the  apostle,  after  his 
return  from  Patmos,  is  said  by  Clemens  Alexandrinus  to  have  taken 
charge  of  the  churches  of  Asia  in  the  neighborhood  of  Ephesus; 
"  in  one  place  appointing  bishops,  in  another,  taking  upon  himself 
the  regulation  of  whole  churches,  and  in  another,  choosing  hy  lot 
one  from  such  as  had  been  designated  by  the  Spirit."^  Then  fol- 
lows a  list  of  young  men  whom  he  committed  to  the  instruction  o( 
18 


138  APPOINTMENT  TO  ECCLESIASTICAL  OFFICES. 

the  bishop  whom  he  had  ordained,  together  with  an  account  of  the 
wonderful  conversion  of  these  youths. 

Ancient  history  abounds  with  similar  examples  of  divine  interposi- 
tion in  such  appointments.-  Various  providential  circumstances 
were  regarded  as  divine  designations,  such  as  remarkable  tokens  of 
divine  approbation,  visions,  the  lighting  of  a  dove  on  the  head  of  the 
candidate,  and  the  unexpected  concurrence  of  a  discordant  people 
in  a  candidate,  as  in  the  case  of  Martin,  bishop  of  Tours,  and  Am- 
brose, bishop  of  Milan,  whose  elections  were  carried  by  the  sudden 
and  unanimous  acclamation  of  the  multitude.   Vox  popuK,  vox  Dei  ! 

2.  It  was  at  times  submitted  to  some  one  who  was  universally  re- 
spected, to  settle  a  contested  election  by  his  own  nomination  of  a 
bishop.  Alexander,  bishop  of  Comana,  was  elected  thus  by  Gregory 
Thaumaturgus,  who  is  said  to  have  been  directed  by  special  revela- 
tion."^ Bishops  were  also  appointed  by  nomination,  for  distant  prov- 
inces and  unorganized  districts.'* 

3.  Whenever  a  bishop  resigned  his  office,  or  was  removed  to 
another  diocese,  he  very  frequently  nominated  his  successor  ;  but  in 
all  such  cases  on  record,  the  concurrence  of  the  people  was  either 
presupposed,  or  expressly  obtained.^  The  council  of  Antioch,  A.  D. 
441,  c.  23,  forbade  such  nominations;*^  still  they  were  sometimes 
made,  and  a  divine  intimation  plead  in  justification.  The  church  at 
Rome,  on  the  contrary,  in  the  year  503,  conceded  to  tlie  bishops  the 
right  of  nominating  their  successors  before  their  decease.  This  was 
however  a  recommendation  of  the  candidate,  rather  than  an  election, 
but  it  was  as  influential  as  the  direct  "presentation  of  a  candidate  on 
the  part  of  a  patron.  It  laid  the  foundation  in  part,  of  ecclesiastical 
benefices^  that  crafty  expedient  by  which  so  many  canonized  rights 
have  been  usurped. 

§  5.  Of  Church  Patronage.'' 

The  prevalent  opinion  is,  that  the  origin  of  the  right  of  patronage 
ought  to  be  referred  back  to  the  fifth  century.  And  it  is  true  that 
the  subject  of  church  and  state  rights  began  to  be  publicly  asserted 
and  discussed  as  early  as  the  year  441  ;-  but  the  right  in  question, 
was  both  asserted  and  exercised  at  a  date  still  earlier.  The  council 
of  Orange  gave  permission  to  any  bishop  to  build  a  church  in  an- 
other's diocese,  reserving  the   right  of  consecration  to  him  in  whose 


CHURCH  PATRONAGE.  139 

diocese  it  was  erected,  and  instructing  him  to  ordain  any  one  to  the 
clerical  office  whom  the  founder  might  nominate  to  officiate  in  the 
church,  and  requiring  of  him  a  quiet  acquiescence  in  the  nomination, 
if  the  person  'presented  hod  already  been  ordained.  But  at  the  same 
time,  it  was  provided  that  the  entire  government  of  the  church  should 
be  submitted  to  him  in  whose  territory  the  church  was  buiU.*^ 

It  appears  from  Chrysostom  that  wiiat  is  called  secular  patronage 
prevailed  in  the  church  at  a  date  still  earlier.'*  He  speaks  of  nam- 
ing the  founders  of  churches  in  the  prayers  of  the  congregation.  In 
Justinian's  Novels,  123.  c.  18,  the  right  of  lay-patronage  is  confirm- 
ed and  perpetuated  by  inheritance.  The  bishop  is  required  to  or- 
dain the  person  nominated,  unless  disqualified  by  virtue  of  the  ca- 
nons. From  the  fifth  century  the  name  of  patron  becomes  familiar 
in  public  documents,  indicating  the  relation  of  landlord  to  his  de- 
pendents, [in  consequence  of  his  having  settled  a  parsonage  and 
glebe  upon  churches  which  he  had  built;]  but  the  whole  system  of 
church  patronage  in  conferring  benefices,  etc,  was  not  established 
until  about  the  eighth  or  ninth  century.  Thomassin  takes  notice  of 
several  distinct  stages  in  the  progress  of  this  system.  1.  The  right 
of  patronage  and  presentation,  extending  through  five  centuries. 
2.  Ecclesiastical  and  lay-patronage  from  Clovis,  A.  D.  496,  to  Chai'le- 
magne,  A.  D.  800.  3.  Through  the  dynasty  of  Charles  and  his  de- 
scendents.  4.  From  the  year  1000.  The  whole  he  sums  up  in  the 
following  remark.  "  It  appears  therefore  that  ecclesiastical  patron- 
age was  first  introduced  in  the  Western  church,  and  lay-patronage, 
at  least  so  far  as  related  to  the  conferring  of  benefices,  began  first 
in  the  Eastern  church  ;  and  that  the  limited  exercise  of  lay-patron- 
age in  the  first  centuries  after  its  introduction,  was  abundantly  com- 
pensated by  the  controlling  influence  which  the  laity  had  in  the  elec- 
tion and  ordination  of  bishops,  and  other  incumbents." 

In  most  of  the  Lutheran,  and  some  of  the  Reformed  churches,  the 
members  of  the  church  possess  a  negative  vote  concerning  the 
presentation  of  a  minister,  but  nothing  more. 


140  or  THE  CLERGY. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


OF  THF,  RANK,   RIGHTS  AND  PRIVILEGES  AND  COSTUME  OF 
THE  CLERGY. 

§  1.  Rank  of  the  Clergy. 

Nothing  appears  to  indicate  the  relation  of  rank  either  in  the  age 
of  the  apostles,  or  of  their  immediate  successors  ;  nor  indeed  until 
the  establishment  of  Christianity  as  the  religion  of  state  under  Con- 
stantino. The  representations  which  the  Scriptures  and  the  primi- 
tive fathers  so  frequently  make  of  the  dignity  and  worth  of  religious 
teachers  have  no  reference  to  this  subject.  They  only  represent 
these  teachers  as  the  servants  and  stewards  of  God,  and  their  office 
as  one  in  the  highest  degree  elevated  and  heavenly.  Ignatius  styles 
bishops  the  vicegerents  of  Christ,  whose  instructions  are  to  be  obey- 
ed as  the  ordinances  of  Christ  and  his  apostles,  and  whom  men 
should  honor  above  potentates  and  kings.  But  all  this  is  only  what, 
in  the  phraseology  of  the  times,  philosophers,  poets  and  orators 
might  have  claimed  for  themselves.  Such  representations  are  only 
ideal  delineations  which  present  the  reality  in  a  contrast  the  more 
striking.  Such,  indeed,  was  the  I'eal  estimation  in  which  some  of 
the  most  em.inent  christian  bishops  were  held,  by  the  world,  in  the 
first  three  centuries,  that  one  might  fitly  say  of  them — the  greatest 
in  the  kingdom  of  heaven  was  the  least  of  all  men. 

The  famous  Origen  was,  in  regard  to  rank,  one  of  the  lesser  lights 
in  the  church,  invested  at  first  with  only  the  humble  office  of  cate- 
cliisl,  and  afterwards,  informally,  with  that  of  deacon,  or  according 
to  some  with  that  of  presbyter.  Yet  had  he  more  influence  and  au- 
thority than  any  dignitary  of  the  church  in  his  time.  Clemens  Alex- 
andrinus  and  TertuUian  were  never  bishops  ;  but  they  were  held  in 
the  highest  estimation  both  by  their  contemporaries  and  by  posterity. 
Jerome  was  only  an  itinerating  presbyter,  but  he  was  honored  as  the 
dictator  of  the  church.  And  still  later,  even  when  the  aristocracy 
of  the  church  was  fully  established,  there  occurred,  at  times,  instan- 
ces of  men  who,  by  their  talents,  rose  superior  to  all  the  distinctions 
of  rank  and  of  office.     On  the  other  hand,  even  the  bishops  of  Rome, 


BANK  OF  THE  CLEEGT.  141 

Antioch,  Alexandria,  Carthage  and  others,  notwithstanding  their  high 
office,  were  often  treated  with  the  greatest  indignities. 

Something  analogous  to  the  relations  of  rank  must  have  existed 
among  the  priesthood  themselves  previous  to  the  time  of  Consiantine, 
as  appears  from  the  fact  that  they  were  regarded  as  a  distinct  order, 
and  were  divided  into  the  classes  superior  and  inferior.  But  it  was 
a  long  time  before  even  these  relations  became  so  distinct  as  they 
have  been  since  the  establishment  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  hie- 
rarchy in  the  eighth  century.  The  primitive  presbyters  first  sus- 
tained an  arduous  conflict  against  the  pretensions  of  bishops  to  supe- 
riority ;  and  then  again,  against  the  order  of  deacons,  and  especially 
with  the  archdeacons,  who  arrayed  themselves  on  the  side  of  the 
bishops.  And  the  bishops  again  sustained  a  struggle,  arduous  and 
disastrous  to  themselves,  with  the  archbishops,  primates,  and  patri- 
archs. With  the  latter,  particularly,  a  long  and  obstinate  strife  for 
the  mastery  was  maintained,  which  finally  resulted  in  the  popish  su- 
premacy ;  but  the  conflict  ceased  not  so  long  as  one  remained  to 
sustain  it. 

But  previous  to  the  reign  of  Constantino  no  relations  of  rank  were 
established  among  the  clergy,  save  those  of  different  gradations 
among  themselves.  As  in  both  the  Jewish  and  Roman  states  the 
priesthood  were  invested  with  peculiar  honors,  so  this  monarch 
sought  to  transfer  the  same  to  the  christian  ministry.  Thus  these 
forms  of  the  priesthood  perpetuated  themselves  in  the  christian 
church  after  the  overthrow  of  the  religion  to  which  they,  at  first, 
respectively  belonged.^ 

The  bishops,  especially,  profited  by  this  reference  to  the  priest- 
hood of  Jewish  and  pagan  systems  of  religion.  The  christian  bish- 
ops, it  was  supposed,  ought  at  least  to  be  equal  in  rank  to  the  Jew- 
ish patriarchs.2  It  was  an  expedient  for  elevating  a  depressed  priest- 
hood, to  invest  them  with  new  honors,  just  as  Julian  the  apostate 
sought  again  to  overthrow  them  by  reinstating  the  pagan  priesthood 
in  their  ancient  rank.-^  And  again  Constantino  himself  sustained  a 
certain  relation  to  the  priesthood.  Eusebius  declares  him  to  have 
been  a  bishop  duly  constituted  by  God.'*  And  he  styles  himself 
bishop,  Tcuv  ixTog  ino  -dsov  xa^Ecndfiivov  intay.onov — a  phrase  of  sim- 
ilar import  with  pontifex  maximiis,  which  after  the  example  of  the 
Roman  emperors  he  solemnly  assumed  in  the  year325.5  The  em- 
peror Gratian  was  the  last  who  bore  this  title.     But  so  long  as  it  was 


142  •  OF  THE  CLERGY. 

retained  it  had  the  effect  to  elevate  the  office,  both  of  bishops  and 
emperors  in  the  estimation  of  the  people,  and  to  justify  the  interven- 
tion of  secular  power  in  ecclesiastical  councils,  and  in  the  elections 
of  bishops. 

The  priesthood  of  the  christian  church  were  the  constituted  guard- 
ians of  the  morals  of  the  community,  and  in  this  relation  had  a  de- 
cided superiority  to  the  Pagan  and  Jewish  priesthood.  Even  the 
highest  magistrates  and  princes  were  not  exempt  from  the  sentences 
of  suspension  and  excommunication.  Theodosius  the  Great  submit- 
ted himself  to  this  discipline,  and  his  example  was  imitated  by  many 
of  his  successors  down  to  the  time  of  Henry  IV.^  Gregory  Nazi- 
anzen,  in  speaking  on  this  subject,  says  "  The  law  of  Christ  subjects 
you  to  my  control.  For  we  also  are  in  authority,  and  1  will  add,  an 
authority  greater  and  more  perfect  than  yours,  inasmuch  as  the 
carnal  is  inferior  to  the  spiritual — the  earthly,  to  the  heavenly."'^ 
Multitudes  of  passages  of  similar  import  are  found  in  the  writings  of 
Chrysostom,^  Ambrose,^  and  other  of  the  fathers.'^ 

But  notwithstanding  the  high  consideration  in  which  the  clergy 
were  held,  we  are  still  left  in  ignorance  of  their  relative  rank  in  civil 
life.  But  on  the  reestablishment  of  the  western  empire,  their  civil 
and  political  relations  were  clearly  defined  ;  and  under  the  Carlovingi- 
an  dynasty,  the  bishops  obtained  the  rank  of  barons  and  counts,  and 
as  civil  dignitaries  took  part  in  all  political  and  ecclesiastical  concerns, 
of  importance.  They  were  regular  members  of  all  imjierial  diets, 
which  were  in  reality  ecclesiastical  synods.  At  a  later  period,  bish- 
ops, archbishops  and  abbots  were,  by  statute  laws,  made  princes  of 
the  empire,  and  electors.  And  the  last  mentioned  were  often  involv- 
ed in  conflicts  with  the  Roman  cardinals  for  superiority.  This  or- 
ganization was  continued  until  the  dissolution  of  the  German  confed- 
eracy subsequent  to  the  French  Revolution,  and  became  a  pattern 
for  other  lands. 

§  2.  Immunities,  Prerogatives,  and  Privileges  of  the 
Priesthood. 

Reference  is  here  had  to  these  privileges  only  as  they  have  ex- 
isted since  the  fourth  century,  when  the  priesthood  were  duly  ac- 
knowledged by  the  civil  authorities  as  a  distinct  body.  Previous  to 
his  conversion  Constantine  gave  to  the  clergy  of  the  christian  church, 


PRIVILEGES  OF  THE  PRIESTHOOD.  1  43 

equal  privileges  with  the  Pagan  and  Jewish  priests.  These  acts  of 
toleration  were  followed  by  others  conferring  upon  the  clergy  of  the 
church  certain  specific  privileges  which  were  confirmed  and  increas- 
ed by  his  sons.  And  what  was  lost  by  the  intervention  of  JuUan 
the  apostate,  was  fully  regained  under  the  propitious  reigns  of  Valen- 
tinian  III,  Gratian,  Theodosius  the  Great,  Honorius,  etc.  For  a  full 
account  of  the  several  grants  of  the  early  emperors,  see  references.^ 
The  principal  rights  and  privileges  of  the  priesthood  were  as  fol- 
lows : 

1.  Exemption  from  all  civil  ojfices  and  secular  duties  to  the  slate? 
Such  exemption  was  granted  by  Constantino,  A.  D.  312  ;  and  in  319 
and  330,  it  was  extended  to  the  inferior  order,  and  the  reason  assign- 
ed for  conferring  this  privilege  was,  that "  the  clergy  might  not,  for 
any  unworthy  pretence,  be  called  off"  from  their  religious  duties,"  7ie 
sacrilego  livore  quorundam  a  divinis  obsequiis  avocentur,  or  as  Eu- 
sebius  expresses  it, "  that  they  might  have  no  false  pretence  or  ex- 
cuse for  being  diverted  from  their  sacred  calling,  but  rather  might 
rightfully  prosecute  it  without  molestation."  By  this  right  they  were 
excused  from  bearing  burdensome  and  expensive  municipal  offices. 
The  Jewish  patriarchs  and  Pagan  priests  enjoyed  a  similar  exemp- 
tion.3 

2.  Exemption  from  all  sordid  offices,  both  predial  and  personal. 
This  right  was  also  granted  by  Constantine  and  confirmed  by  Theo- 
dosius the  Great,  and  Honorius.^  The  right  relieved  them  from 
the  necessity  of  furnishing  post-horses,  etc.  for  public  officers,  and 
sometimes  from  that  of  constructing  and  repairing  public  highways 
and  bridges.^ 

3.  Exemi)tion  from  certain  taxes  and  imposts.,  such  as  the  census 
capiiwm— analogous  to  poll-tax ;  but  the  learned  are  not  agreed  re- 
specting the  precise  nature  of  it — the  aurum  tironimn — an  assessment 
for  military  purposes,  a  bounty  paid  as  a  substitute  for  serving  in  the 
army, — the  equus  canonicus,  the  furnishing  and  equipping  of  horses 
for  military  service, — chrysargyrum,  /qvctuq/voov,  commerce- mo- 
ney, duties  on  articles  of  trade  assessed  every  five  years,  and  paid 
in  silver  and  gold, — the  nietatwn,  tax  levied  for  the  entertainment  of 
the  emperor  and  his  court  as  he  travelled,  or  forjudges  and  soldiers 
in  their  journeys, — the  collatio  superindicta  et  extraordinaria.,  a  di- 
rect tax  levied  on  special  emergencies.'^  Certain  taxes  on  real  es- 
tate they  were  required  to  pay.' 


144  OF  THE  CLEKGY. 

4.  Exemption  from  mililary  duty.  This  right  is  not  expressly 
stated,  but  fairly  inferred  from  many  considerations.  The  maxim, 
ecclesia  non  sitil  sanguinem.,  was  always  recognized  by  the  state. 

5.  Exemption  in  certain  civil  and  criminal  prosecutions.  They 
were  not  required  to  give  testimony  under  oalh^.  Neither  were  they 
required  to  make  oath  to  affidavits,  but  instead  thereof,  they  attested 
the  truth  of  them  on  the  Bible  at  home.^  Sacerdotes,  ex  levi  causa, 
jurare  non  dehent. 

6.  No  ecclesiastical  matters  were  to  he  tried  lef ore  secular  courts.^^ 
Of  this  nature  were  all  questions  of  faith  and  practice  which  came 
appropriately  under  the  cognizance  of  presbyteries,  bishops,  or  syn- 
ods, together  with  all  such  acts  of  discipline  as  belonged  to  individu- 
al churches  in  which  the  clergy  were  allowed  a  controlling  int^uence. 

The  primitive  church  had  originally  no  other  authority  than  that 
of  deposing  from  office,  excommunicating,  and  pronouncing  their  sol- 
emn anathema.  But  after  the  church  became  dependent  upon  the 
civil  authority,  that  power  was  often  exercised  to  redress  the  offences 
of  the  church.  Heretics  especially  were  thus  brought  before  courts 
of  justice.  For  it  is  undeniably  evident  that  heresy  was  regarded  as 
an  actionable  offence,  deserving  severe  punishment.  Oflences  of  a 
graver  character  were  at  all  times  punishable,  not  in  ecclesiastical, 
but  in  secular  courts  of  justice. 

7.  Bishops,  like  the  Jewish  patriarchs,  were  often  requested  to  set- 
tle disputes  and  act  as  arbitrators  and  umpires  in  civil  matters.'^ 
They  were  also  common  intercessors  in  behalf  of  criminals  for  their 
reprieve  or  pardon  when  condemned  to  death.^^ 

§  3.    CoSTtJME  OF  THE  ClERGY. 

The  Roman  Catholics  attach  great  importance  to  the  attire  of  the 
priesthood.  They  prescribe  a  peculiar  uniform  to  the  several  or- 
ders of  their  priesthood,  according  to  the  nature  of  their  duties. 
The  origin  of  this  usage  their  writers,  together  with  most  protestants, 
concur  in  referring  to  the  fourth  century. ^  "  No  one  can  be  igno- 
rant," says  Pellicia,  "  that  the  garb  of  the  clergy  in  the  first  three 
centuries  was  nowise  different  from  that  of  the  laity."  Whether 
any  distinction  was  known  in  the  fourth  century  is  a  disputed  ques- 
tion ;  but  ecclesiastical  history  clearly  informs  us,  that  the  dress  of 
the  clergy  and  laity  was  generally  the  same,  even  in  the  sixth  cen- 


COSTUME  OF  THE  CLERGY.  145 

tury.2  Writers  on  this  subject,  however,  seem  not  to  have  been  suf- 
ficiently attentive  to  the  distinction  between  the  ordinary  and  offi- 
cial garb  of  the  priests  ;  for,  although  there  were  no  existing  rules  of 
the  church  on  this  subject,  all  analogy  requires  us  to  believe  that 
there  was,  even  in  the  first  three  centuries,  some  clerical  dress 
which  was  worn  during  the  celebration  of  divine  service.  And  in 
this  belief  we  are  the  more  confirmed  from  the  fact,  that  Christianity 
was  originally  derived  from  the  Jewish  religion.  After  the  third 
and  fourth  centuries,  this  official  garb  became  more  distinct  and 
splendid,  and  to  this  result  both  the  writings  of  the  Old  Testament, 
and  the  customs  of  the  pagan  priests  in  Greece  and  Rome  undenia- 
bly contributed. 

In  illustration  of  the  general  subject  before  us,  the  following  re- 
marks are  worthy  of  notice. 

1.  There  is  a  tradition  extant  relating  to  certain  insignia  of  the 
apostles.  Hegesippus,  as  related  by  Eusebius,^  ascribes  to  John, 
James,  and  Mark,  a  golden  head-band,  and  to  Bartholomew,  a  splen- 
did mantle.^  The  Koran  also  speaks  of  the  apostles  under  the 
name  of  candidates,  albati,  in  allusion,  as  it  would  seem,  to  their 
white  robes. 

2.  It  is  but  reasonable  to  suppose,  that  in  the  times  of  persecu- 
tion, the  priesthood  wore  no  sacerdotal  habit  in  civil  and  social  life  ; 
just  as  all  such  is  of  necessity  excluded  wherever  religion  is  not  pro- 
tected by  the  civil  authorities.  But  because  a  missionary  lays  these 
aside  in  China,  or  in  Turkey,  is  it  therefore  to  be  presumed  that  he 
would  appear  without  them  in  a  religious  assembly  in  the  discharge 
of  his  official  duties  ? 

3.  After  the  persecutions  ceased,  the  secret  discipline  of  the 
primitive  church  must  have  offered  urgent  reasons  for  the  use  of 
the  sacerdotal  robe.  When  all  was  done  with  the  air  of  solemnity 
and  mystery,  is  it  to  be  supposed  that  the  principal  actor  would  en- 
ter upon  these  solemnities  only  in  his  daily  altire  ?  Read  the  direc- 
tions given  in  the  Apostolical  Constitutions,  and  in  the  mystical  cate- 
chism of  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  respecting  the  ceremonies  of  baptism, 
and  the  Lord's  supper  ;  and  then  say,  is  it  becoming  for  the  admin- 
istrator of  these  ordinances  to  appear  in  his  daily  habit .''  The  sub- 
jects of  baptism, "  grex  niveus,"  were  arrayed  in  the  purest  white. 

Oi  S  UQ  V7iod^ri(TTyj'^sg  iv  ti^aaiv  7ii]fj.q)avooii(nv 
"Etnaaav,  ayyi^txriq  ilmviq  ayXattji.^ 
19 


146  OF  THE  CLERGY. 

At  the  baptism  of  the  younger  Theodoslus,  all  the  grandees  of  the 
court  were  dressed  in  white  raiment :  ut  existimaretur  muUitudo 
esse  nine  repletafi  Under  these  circumstances  would  the  minister 
at  the  altar  appear  only  in  his  usual  garb  ?  According  to  Clemens 
Alexandrinus,  the  whole  assembly  were  required  to  engage  in  public 
worship  in  a  hecoming  dress,  iatoXiafiivot,  xoaftlagj  And  would  not 
the  rule  apply  with  peculiar  force  to  him  who  ministered  to  the 
assembly  ? 

4.  It  is  manifestly  absurd  to  suppose  that  the  hierarchy  of  the 
church  was  established  in  the  second  or  third  centuries,  with  the 
different  orders  inferior  and  superior,  and  yet  that  they  had  no  badge 
of  office.  Besides,  the  badges  of  the  different  clerical  orders  be- 
came in  the  fourth  century,  the  subject  of  consideration  in  ecclesias- 
tical councils.  The  council  of  Laodicea  ordered  that  the  iuquqiov, 
the  surplice  or  robe  of  an  officiating  minister,  should  not  be  worn  by 
the  suboi-dinate  attendants,  readers,  or  singers.  The  fourth  council 
of  Carthage,  c.  41,  forbade  deacons  the  use  of  the  white  sui-plice, 
nisi  in  sacro  ministcrio,  except  in  the  discharge  of  the  ministerial 
office.  In  this,  and  similar  decrees,^  a  distinction  between  the  official 
garb  and  ordinary  attire  is  clearly  indicated.  It  has  been  errone- 
ously supposed  that  these  instructions  to  the  clergy  to  appear  in 
suitable  dress,  is  evidence  that  no  official  uniform  was  known  ; 
whereas  these  instructions  relate  only  to  their  daily  dress,  and 
merely  show  that  when  not  engaged  in  official  duties,  they  wore  no 
professional  habit. 

The  monks  were  the  first  to  assume  such  a  garb  ;  a  practice 
which  was  strongly  reprobated  by  the  church.  "  One  habit,"  says 
Jerome,^  "  is  proper  when  engaged  in  religious  duties  ;  another,  in 
common  life.  Hence  we  learn,  that  it  ill  becomes  us  to  enter  into 
the  most  holy  place  in  our  customary  attire,  but  that  we  ought  with 
a  pure  conscience,  and  unsullied  raiment,  to  administer  the  ordi- 
nances of  the  Lord."  Stephhaus  III,  bishop  of  Rome,  A.  D.  260, 
directs  ministers  and  the  clergy  generally,  to  wear  the  sacred  vest- 
ments, not  in  their  daily  occupations,  but  only  in  the  church.^" 

5.  In  view  of  the  foregoing  considerations,  and  others  that  could 
be  mentioned,  we  must  dissent  from  the  received  opinion  that  no  cleri- 
cal costume  was  in  use  before  the  fourth  or  fifth  century  ;  but  we 
need  not  suppose  that  the  fashion  of  it  has  from  the  beginning  been 
the  same.     All  analogy,  as  well  as  authentic  history,  justifies  the 


COSTUME  OF  THE  CLERGY,  147 

belief,  that  in  form,  and  color,  and  materials,  the  costume  may  have 
been  entirely  changed.  Some  such  essential  change  was  probably 
made  about  the  sixth  century,  by  adoiHing  the  ancient.  Gi'eek  and 
Roman  costume. 

In  support  of  this  hypothesis  we  offer  the  following  considerations. 

a)  This  costume  had  been  so  superseded  by  the  barbarian  inva- 
ders, that  it  had  already  become  obsolete  and  antiquated,  and  was 
now  recommended  not  only  by  its  natural  fitness,  and  by  its  an- 
tiquity, but  by  the  hallowed  associations  with  which  it  was  con- 
nected. 

b)  It  was  the  best  means  of  preventing  the  general  adoption  of 
the  odious  garb  of  the  monks,  which  in  the  fifth  century  was  most 
zealously  opposed.^ ^ 

c)  The  adoption  of  this  costume  was  greatly  facilitated  by  being 
combined  with  the  insignia  and  ornaments  of  the  Jewish  priests. 
The  pallium  of  TertuUian,  the  tETgdyavov  of  Greek  writers,  which 
was  afterwards  known  by  the  name  of  cappa,  was  the  cowl  of  the 
monks,  and  was  greatly  abhorred.  But  the  pallium,  called  w^iocpo- 
Qiov,  corresponded  to  the  ephod  of  the  Jews,  and  was  one  of  the 
distinguishing  insignia  of  bishops,  patriarchs,  etc. 

6.  Bellarmin,  who  traced  the  history  of  the  clerical  costume 
through  eight  or  nine  hundred  years,  has  very  justly  remarked  that, 
notwithstanding  some  circumstantial  changes,  the  characteristic 
badges  of  the  several  orders  remained  substantially  the  same.^~ 

7.  The  costume  in  question  was  originally  white,  and  that  has 
ever  been  the  prevailing  color  of  the  christian  uniform,  Xevxop  /iiw- 
viayov,  iv  Isvxdlg,  veste  candente,  in  albis,  is  the  phraseology  in 
which  it  is  constantly  described  by  ancient  writers.i^  The  bishops 
of  Constantinople,  and  the  higher  order  of  clergy  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, assumed  the  black  robe,  and  the  Novatians  retained  the  whiteM 
But  since  the  tenth  century,  the  modern  Greek  church  have  chang- 
ed again  the  color  of  their  costume.  On  festivals  in  honor  of  saints, 
they  are  accustomed  to  wear  a  purple  robe. 

In  the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries,  red,  blue,  and  green,  was 
worn  in  clerical  vestments,  as  well  as  black,  and  white.  Inno- 
cent III.  prescribed  white,  the  emblem  of  purity,  for  confessors  and 
young  people, — red,  as  a  suitable  memorial  of  the  apostles  and  mar- 
tyrs,— green,  for  sunday  and  feast-days ;  and  black,  for  fasts,  fune- 


148  OF  THE  CLEEGY. 

rals,  lent,  etc. ;  violet  was  worn  at  first  but  twice  a  year,  but  after- 
wards became  common  in  some  churches.^^ 

8.  Peculiar  attention  was  paid  to  the  head-dress  both  of  bishops 
and  priests.  The  clerical  tonsure  was  introduced  between  the  sixth 
and  eighth  centuries,  and  continued  an  essential  requisite  of  the 
clergy,  while  the  other  ornaments  of  the  head  were  endlessly  varied, 
both  in  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches.  The  use  of  the  wig 
is  of  a  date  still  later,  and  was  totally  unknown  in  the  primitive 
church.  It  was  universally  adopted  by  the  clergy  against  all  pre- 
cedent, and,  although  often  prohibited,  was  for  a  long  time  retained, 
and  then  again  passed  into  disuse.  In  the  protestant  church  it  was 
again  introduced  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  and 
became  alternately  the  badge  of  orthodoxy,  heresy,  and  neology. i'^ 

9.  Sandals  and  the  caligae,  a  kind  of  half  boot,  or  bootees,  were 
at  first  the  only  ornaments  of  the  foot ;  the  use  of  common  shoes 
was  censured  as  unbecoming. i'''  In  the  year  789,  the  priests  were 
required  to  wear  shoes  made  after  the  fashion  at  Rome.^^  In  the 
middle  ages,  ihey  wore,  in  the  summer,  a  kind  of  boot  called  aesti- 
valia.     The  accampia  were  probably  some  military  boot. 

10.  The  various  kinds  of  ornaments  which  were  worn  by  the 
priests  are  passed  in  silence.  A  mere  enumeration  of  them  would 
be  of  no  value,  and  a  treatise  respecting  them  would  of  necessity  be 
too  extensive  for  this  work.  For  information  respecting  their  sacred 
vestments  the  curious  reader  is  referred  to  the  works  of  Ferrarius, 
Ritter,  Bonanni,  DuTour,  Saussaeus,  Boileau,  and  others. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


OF  THE  REVENUE  OF  THE  CHURCH,  AND  THE    MAINTENANCE 
OF  THE  CLERGY. 

Nothing  like  the  provisions  of  the  levitical  law,  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  priesthood  was  known  in  the  primitive  church.  Neither 
was  there  any  distinction  between  the  property  of  the  church  and 
of  the  parish.  But  the  duty  of  the  church  to  maintain  her  religious 
teachers  is  presupposed  and  implied  in  the  writings  of  the  New  Tes- 


REVENUE  OF  THE  CHURCH.  149 

lament.  The  workman  is  worthy  of  his  meat,  says  Christ,  to  which 
the  apostle  appeals.  Even  so  hath  the  Lord  ordained  that  they 
which  preach  the  gospel  should  live  by  the  gospel,  1  Cor.  9:  14, 
which  he  had  previously  shown  to  be  not  only  an  obvious  conclusion 
from  the  words  of  Christ,  but  from  the  common  understanding  of 
men,  and  from  the  Mosaic  laws,  vs.  7 — 13.  All  this  he  is  careful 
to  show  is  said,  not  for  his  own  sake,  vs.  15 — 18,  for  he  uniformly 
preached  the  gospel  and  served  the  church  gratuitously  ;  Acts  20: 
33-35.  2  Thess.  3:  7  seq.  2  Cor.  11:  7,  8.  12:  13.  Phil.  4:  16— 
18.  1  Tim.  6:  5.  Tit.  1:  11.  Acts  18:  3.  24:  17,  etc.,  but  to  exhibit 
the  duty  of  the  Church  towards  her  teachers.  The  example  of  the 
apostle  was  the  general  rule  of  the  apostolic  age.  The  church  pos- 
sessed no  property,  and  exacted  no  tithes  ;  but  her  wants  were  sup- 
plied by  voluntary  olTerings  and  contributions. 

The  ordinary  maintenance  of  the  clergy  consisted  merely  in  the 
supply  of  their  personal  wants,  2  Thess.  3:  8.  1  Cor.  11:  20.  22:  33. 
Jude  11,  12.  For  this  end  the  priests  were  accustomed  to  retain  a 
due  portion  of  the  contributions  which  were  made  at  the  agapae,  or 
love  feasts  of  the  church.  But  TertuUian  severely  censured  this 
custom,  together  with  other  abuses  connected  with  this  festival. ^ 

Whatever  was  given  for  the  relief  of  the  poor  and  for  the  support 
of  religious  worship,  was  altogether  voluntary  on  the  part  of  the 
church.  Acts  11:  29.  Rom.  15:  26,  1  Cor.  16:  1  seq.  TertuUian 
particularly  informs  us  that  they  were  accustomed  once  a  month, 
or  at  any  time,  to  deposit  in  a  charity  box  whatever  any  one  was  able 
and  willing  to  give,  and  adds,  Nam  nemo  compellitur,  sed  sponte  con- 
fert?  These  charities  were  expended  in  providing  for  the  support 
and  burial  of  the  poor  ;  of  orphans,  of  aged  domestics,  of  the  disa- 
bled and  infirm  ;  and  for  their  brethren  in  bonds.  It  is  worthy  of 
remark  that  in  all  this,  no  mention  is  made  of  the  clergy,  as  a  distinct 
class  ;  but  they  are  included  among  the  aged  and  the  poor. 

Such  collections  were  at  all  times  voluntary  in  the  church,  and 
when  at  length  specific  provision  was  made  for  the  support  of  the 
clergy,  and  of  religious  worship,  it  was  not  by  any  ordinance  of  the 
church,  but  by  the  law  of  the  state.  Cases  growing  out  of  voluntary 
or  stated  contributions  and  compensations  made  to  clergymen, 
were  frequently  submitted  to  the  decision  of  councils.^  Fees  paid 
to  the  clergy  for  services  rendered,  were  called  sporlae,  sportellae, 
and  sportulae ;  probably  in  allusion  to  the  bringing  of  the  first  fruits 


150  REVENUE  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

in  a  basket,  sportula,  Deut.  26:  1 — 12.  They  surely  were  not  the 
same  as  the  jura  stolae,  stol-gebiihren,  surplice  fees,  which  were  total- 
ly unknown  in  the  primitive  church.  It  was  an  established  rule  that 
no  fees  should  be  received  for  religious  services.  The  council  of  11- 
libiris,  c.  48,  forbade  the  custom  of  dropping  a  piece  of  money  into 
the  baptismal  basin  as  a  gratuity  to  the  minister  for  administering 
the  ordinance.^  Another  strictly  prohibited  the  receiving  of  anything 
from  communicants  at  the  Lord's  table,  alleging  that  the  grace  of 
God  was  not  an  article  of  merchandize,  neither  was  the  sanctification 
of  the  spirit  imparted  for  money.^  Neither  was  it  lawful  to  receive 
any  fee  for  performing  the  burial  service.'^ 

The  first  departure  from  the  voluntary  principle  above  mentioned, 
began  with  the  celebration  of  religious  ordinances  in  a  private  man- 
ner^ in  which  the  individual,  at  whose  request  this  private  celebra- 
tion was  performed,  was  required  to  pay  something  as  an  equivalent 
for  the  public  and  voluntary  oblations  which  would  otherwise  have 
been  made.  For  the  sake  of  increasing  the  treasury  of  the  church, 
a  dispensation  of  the  primitive  usage  was  also  introduced  in  the  case 
of  penance,  which  shortly  led  on  to  a  wider  departure  from  the 
rules  of  the  church.  Still  when  the  payment  of  surrogate  and  sur- 
plice fees  became  common,  they  were  not  paid  to  the  officiating 
priest,  but  into  the  public  treasury  of  the  church.  The  payment  of 
fees  and  perquisites  as  now  practised,  is  an  abuse  of  later  date  than 
the  above  mentioned,  which,  like  the  penance-fees  so  often  and  so 
justly  censured,  still  has  found  supporters  even  in  the  protestant 
churches  of  Europe.^ 

So  far  as  the  clergy  of  the  primitive  church  can  be  said  to  have 
had  any  salary,  it  was  paid,  either  according  to  their  necessities,  or 
according  to  some  general  rule,  from  the  treasury  of  the  church,  or 
of  the  society.  The  treasury  was  supplied  only  from  incidental 
sources,  and  chiefly  from  voluntary  contributions.  The  amount  paid 
lo  servants  of  the  church,  and  for  the  poor,  must  have  been  more  or 
less,  according  to  the  receipts  of  the  treasury.  The  revenue  of  the 
church  was  submitted  to  the  direction  of  the  bishops,  who  employed 
the  deacons  and  the  oeconomi,  or  stewards  to  disburse  it. 

Various  rules  were  from  time  to  time  given  for  the  distribution  of 
funds.9  One  required  that  they  should  be  divided  into  three  equal 
parts,  one  of  which  was  to  be  paid  to  the  bishops,  another  to  the 
clergy,  and  the  third  was  to  be  expended  in  making  repairs  and  pro- 


REVENUE  OF  THE  CHURCH.  151 

vlding  lights  for  the  house,  etc^^  Another  orders  a  fourfold  divi- 
sion,  to  be  equally  appropriated  to  the  bishop,  the  clergy  and  the 
poor,  and  in  repairs  of  the  churches  and  their  furniture. ^^ 

In  the  fourth  century  the  church  and  the  clergy  came  into  the 
possession  of  property,  personal  and  real.  Asearly  as  the  year  321, 
Constantino  granted  the  right  of  receiving  the  donations  and  bequests 
of  pious  persons.i^  This  right  was  often  renewed  and  defined  to 
prevent  unjust  exactions  and  other  abuses.  According  to  Eusebius, 
he  granted  at  one  time  more  than  seventy  thousand  dollars  from  his 
treasury  for  the  support  of  the  ministry  in  Africa  ;  which  is  only  one 
instance  among  many  of  his  liberal  donations. i^  The  laws  of  Julian 
confiscating  this  property  were  themselves  either  quickly  abrogated, 
or  but  partially  enforced,  without  producing  any  lasting  effect.^"^ 

The  liberality  of  Gratian,  Theodosius  the  Great,  Theodosius  the 
Younger,  and  other  emperors,  we  must  pass  in  silence ;  but  there 
were  certain  other  ordinances  for  enriching  the  revenue  of  the 
church  which  are  worthy  of  notice. 

1.  On  the  demolition  of  heathen  temples  and  the  dispersion  of  their 
priests  by  Theodosius  and  his  sons,  some  of  the  spoils  were  secular- 
ized to  enrich  the  treasury  of  the  state  ;  but  the  greater  part  were 
applied  to  the  benefit  of  the  clergy,  or  appropriated  to  religious 
uses.^^ 

2.  On  the  same  principle  the  property  belonging  to  heretics  was 
sequestrated  to  the  true  catholic  church. ^^ 

3.  The  estates  of  the  clergy  who  died  intestate  and  without  heirs, 
and  of  all  those  who  left  the  ministry  for  unworthy  reasons,  became 
the  property  of  the  church. i" 

4.  The  church  was  the  heir  at  law  of  all  martyrs  and  confessors 
who  died  without  near  relations.i^ 

5.  The  revenue  of  the  church  was  increased  by  tithes  and  Jirst 
fruits.  The  primitive  church  might  be  expected  to  have  introduced 
this  ordinance  of  the  Jews  from  the  beginning.  But  it  was  wholly 
unknown  until  the  fourth  and  fifth  century.  Irenaeus,  indeed,  speaks 
o{  first  fruits  at  an  earlier  period,'^  but  it  is  a  disputed  passage,20  and 
only  relates  to  the  wine  and  the  bread  of  the  eucharist  as  the  first 
fruits  of  Christ.  Besides  Irenaeus,^!  Chrysostom,^^  Gregory  Nazi- 
anzen,-3  Hilary ,2-1  Augustine,'-^^  and  others,  all  enjoin  the  paying  of 
tithes  as  a  duly.,  and  not  in  imitation  of  the  Jews.  These  tithes  and 
first  fruits  the  primitive  Christians  gave  as  a  freewill  offering,  and 


152  OF  ORDINATION. 

not  by  constraint  of  law,  of  which  there  appears  no  indication  in  the 
first  five  centuries.  The  council  of  Magon,  in  the  year  585,  ordered 
the  payment  of  tithes  zn  the  church,  as  the  restoration  of  an  ancient 
and  venerable  custom.  They  directed  the  clergy  to  urge  the  duty 
in  their  public  addresses,  and  threatened  with  excision  from  the 
church  all  who  should  refuse  compliance.^^  This  it  will  be  observ- 
ed is  merely  an  ecclesiastical  law.  No  mention  is  made  of  any 
enactment  of  the  state. 

Charlemagne  first  required  the  payment  of  tithes  by  statute  law, 
and  enforced  the  duty  by  severe  penalties.-'^  That  emperor  himself 
paid  tithes  from  his  private  property  and  his  Saxon  possessions. 
His  successors  confirmed  and  completed  the  system  of  tithe  by  law, 
which  was  subsequently  introduced  into  England  and  Sweden.^^ 

In  the  Eastern  church  the  support  of  religion  was  never  legally 
enforced,  but  it  was  urged  as  a  religious  duty,  and  tithes  were  paid 
as  a  voluntary  offering.^^  In  the  Western,  under  the  general  name 
of  offerings,  the  ancient  system  of  contributions  and  almsgivings  was 
perpetuated  in  connection  with  the  tithes  and  first  fruits.  These  of- 
ferings were  made,  in  some  instances,  in  money,  and  in  provisions, 
and  in  live  stock — cattle,  swine,  lambs,  geese,  fowls,  etc.  The 
avails  of  these  were  applied  to  the  treasury  of  the  church,  or  pre- 
sented particularly  to  the  parson,  vicar,  chorister,  or  warden.  Simi- 
lar offerings  are  still  common  in  the  protestant  churches. 

The  payment  of  a  stipulated  salary  to  the  clergy,  in  money,  par- 
sonages, tithes,  interest,  and  other  rents,  and  the  distribution  of  regu- 
lar salaries  and  occasional  perquisites,  is  an  institution  of  the  middle 
ages,  and  too  extensive  and  complicated  to  be  discussed  in  this  place. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

OF 


§  1.  Remarks. 
The  solemn  consecration  of  a  religious  teacher  to  his  office,  as  an 
institution  of  religion,  is  derived  from   the   ordinances  of  the  syna- 
gogue, as  they  were  constituted  after  the  Babylonish  captivity.    The 
presidents  and  readers  of  the  synagogue  were  at  first  appointed  to 


DISQUALIFICATIONS  FOR  ORDINATION.  153 

their  office  by  the  solemn  imposition  of  hands.  Afterwards  was 
added  the  anointing  with  oil,  the  investiture  with  the  sacred  gar- 
ments, and  the  dehvery  of  the  sacred  utensils.  This  was  callef' 
n;  NV.'a  ,  the  filling  of  the  hands,  Ex.  29:  21.  Lev.  21:  10.  Num. 
3:  3. '  ' 

The  first  instance  on  record  of  an  ordination  in  a  christian  church 
is  that  of  the  seven  deacons  at  Jerusalem,  in  Acts  6:  1 — 7.  These, 
though  not  appointed  to  the  office  of  religious  teachers,  were  set 
apart  by  prayer  and  the  laying  on  of  hands.  The  consecration  of 
religious  teachers  and  officers  of  the  church  is  also  mentioned  in  the 
following  passages,  Acts  13:  1—4.  14:  23.  1  Tim.  4:  14.  5:  22. 
2  Tim.  1:  6.  In  these  passages  three  particulars  are  mentioned, 
fasting,  prayer,  and  the  laying  on  of  hands. 

The  historical  fact  is  undeniable,  that  the  church  has,  at  all  times, 
observed  some  prescribed  mode  of  inducting  into  the  sacred  office 
those  who  were  appointed  to  serve  in  that  capacity.  The  several 
offices  which  were  subsequently  created  were  indeed  unknown  in 
the  first  organization  of  the  church,  as  well  as  the  different  rites  of 
ordination  and  installation.  But  the  injunction  that  all  things  should 
be  done  decently  and  in  order — the  ministry  of  the  word,  and  the 
laying  on  of  hands,  of  which  the  apostle  so  often  speaks,  all  imply 
a  consecration  to  the  sacred  office  by  peculiar  religious  rites.  The 
most  ancient  liturgies  also,  both  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  church, 
prescribe  at  length  the  mode  of  consecration  to  this  office,  and  in 
this  manner  illustrate  the  solemnity  of  the  transaction  in  the  estima- 
tion of  the  ancient  fathers  of  the  church. 

It  is  also  worthy  of  observation,  that  the  various  religious  sects, 
schismatics  and  heretics,  almost  without  exception,  observed  the 
rites  of  ordination. 

§  2.  Disqualifications  and  qualifications  for  Ordination. 

The  strictest  precaution  was  exercised  by  the  church  to  guard 
against  the  introduction  of  unworthy  or  unsuitable  persons  into  the 
ministry.  Several  classes  of  persons  were  accordingly  excluded 
from  ordination,  such  as  the  following. 

1.  Women^  This  rule  was  in  conformity  with  the  apostolical 
precept,  1  Cor.  14:  34,  35.  1  Tim.  2:  11  seq.  The  appointment  of 
deaconesses  was  no  exception  to  this  rule.     They  were  not  appoint- 

20 


154  OF  ORDINATION. 

ed  to  bear  rule,  or  to  teach,  but  to  perform  certain  offices  which, 
from  a  due  sense  of  decency  and  propriety  were  restricted  to  their 
own  sex.*  They  were  ordained  with  the  usual  formalities  in  the 
early  periods  of  the  church,-  but  the  custom  was  afterwards  discon- 
tinued.-^ 

2.  Catechumens.  To  this  rule  there  were  a  few  exceptions  as  in 
the  case  of  Ambrose,  Nectarius,  etc.,  but  in  general  it  was  observed 
with  great  strictness. 

3.  Neophytes,  novices  ;  men  who  were  deficient  in  age,  or  know- 
ledge, or  christian  experience,t  1  Tim.  3:  6. 

4.  Energumens  ;  including  all  who  were  subject  to  severe  mental 
or  bodily  infirmities. 

5.  Penitents  ;  all  who  for  any  offence  had  fallen  under  the  cen- 
sure of  the  church,  even  though  they  had  been  fully  restored  to  the 
privileges  of  its  fellowship  and  communion. 

6.  Apostates.  All  who  lived  a  vicious  life  after  baptism.^  Offen- 
ces committed  previously  were  not  alleged  as  a  disqualification.^ 

7.  All  who  were  devoted  to  theatrical  pursuits,  ox  d^wy  occupations 
which  disqualified  them  from  receiving  baptism. | 

8.  Slaves,  and  Jreedmen  who  were  still  under  some  obligation  to 
their  former  masters.  This  restriction  was  made  not  by  reason  of 
their  humble  condition,  but  because  such  ])ersons  could  not  be 
supposed  to  act  with  the  freedom  and  independence  which  became 
the  ministerial  office. 

9.  Soldiers  and  military  men  of  every  description ;  for  reasons 


*  Kal  uTi  [XEV  zlinxoviaoMV  Tiiy/Aix  icnlv  fig  tvv  ixxlr^alav,  ukk  ovxl 
ilg  TO  liQonsisiv,  Olds  TO  inixbj()Hv  iunQsmiv,  tvsKiv  8a  (TspvoTijTog  Toii 
yvvaixiiov  yivovg,  i}  So  wQUf  Iovtqov,  i}  imaxitpsag  na&ovg,  i]  ncvov, 
xal  0T£  yufxva&ioij  dw^ia  yvviuov,  iV«  ^t>j  tno  avSqtjJv  UQOVfjyovvTbw  -d^stj- 
■&tor],  akk   vjio  Trig  Siay.opovffijg.     Epiph.  Haeres.  79,  n.  3. 

f  Mt)  Ssop  TTQoaq^aToi'  [n^oacpdrcj?]  (fOJTia&h'Tag  TTQoadyaax^ac  iv  rdy/naTc 
leQaroxm-  Cone.  Laodi.c.  can.  :i  Conveniens  non  est,  nee  ratio,  nee  disci- 
plina  patitur,  ut  teniere  vel  levitcr  ordinelur,  ant  Episcopus,  aut  Presbyter, 
ant  Diaconus,  qui  Neophytus  est.  .  .  .  Seel  hi,  quorum  per  longum  tempus 
examiiiata  sit  vita,  et  merita  fuerint  comprobata.  Cone.  Sardic.  c.  10  ;  Conf. 
Grf.cor  M.  Epist.  lib.  iv.  ep.  T^O  ;  lib.  vii.  ep.  3  ;  Justin.  Kov.QijC.  1  ;  Nov. 
137,  e.  1  ;   Cone.  Paris.  A   D.  829,  can  5. 

X  Puto  nee  maiestati  divinae  (says  Cyprian),  nee  evangelieae  disciplinae 
congruere,  ut  pudor  et  honor  eeclesiae  tarn  turpe  et  infarni  contagione  foede- 
tnr. 


DISQUALIFICATIONS  FOR  ORDINATION.  155 

substantially  the  same  as  those  which  are  mentioned  in  the  preced- 
ing article. 

10.  Laiinjers  and  civilians.  Men  bearing  civil  offices,  or  in  any- 
way entangled  with  the  afTairs  of  state,  were  incapacitated  for  the 
sacred  office.  Cavendum  ab  his  est  (says  Innocent  I.),  propter  tri- 
bulationem  quod  saepe  de  his  ecclesiae  provenit.  The  power  of 
Rome  at  times  overruled  this  regulation,  but  the  church  uniformly 
sought  to  separate  herself  wholly  from  all  connection  with  the  state.^ 

11.  All  who  were  mai7ned,  especially  eunuchs.  Non  infirmitaiem 
(says  Ambrose),  sed  firmitatem ;  non  victos,  sed  victores,  postulat 
ecclesia.     To  this  rule  there  were  exceptions. 

12.  Persons  who  had  contracted  a  second  marriage.  This  rule 
is  based  on  an  erroneous  interpretation  of  1  Tim.  3:  2,  and  Tit.  1: 6. 
To  these  views  of  the  church  may  be  traced  the  ancient  sentiments 
respecting  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  which  prevailed  as  early  as 
the  fourth  century,  and  in  the  twelfth  required  of  them  the  vow  of 
celibacy  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church. 

13.  Those  who  had  received  baptism  upon  their  beds  in  extreme 
sickness,  or  under  any  urgent  necessity  when  they  might  be  suspect- 
ed of  having  acted  not  voluntarily,  but  by  constraint.''' 

14.  They  toho  had  been  baptized  by  heretics.  An  exception,  how- 
ever, was  made  in  favor  of  the  Novatians  and  Donatists. 

15.  Persons  who  had  been  guilty  of  simoniacal  conduct,  i.  e.  of 
using  bribery  or  any  unfair  means  of  obtaining  ordination.  This 
species  of  iniquity,  the  buying  and  selling  of  appointments  to  spiri- 
tual offices,  and  the  obtaining  of  them  by  any  unfair  and  dishonora- 
ble means,  was  severely  censured  by  the  church.  The  penalty  was 
deposition  from  office,  both  on  the  part  of  him  who  was  invested 
with  holy  orders,  and  of  those  who  had  assisted  in  his  ordination. 
The  laws  of  Justinian  also  required  the  candidate  elect  to  make  oath 
that  he  had  neither  given  nor  promised,  nor  would  hereafter  give, 
any  reward  directly  or  indirectly  as  a  remuneration  for  aiding  in  his 
appointment.^ 

The  exceptions  above  mentioned  are  comprised  in  the  following 
lines  : 

Alco  ;  venator  ;  inilos  ;  caupo  ;  aulicus  ;  erro 

Mercator;  lanius;  pincerna  ;  tabell'io  ;  tutor, 

Curator;  sponsor;  conductor;  conciliator;  pronexeta 

Patronus  causae  ;  procurator  ve  forensis  ; 

In  causa  judex  civili ;  vel  capital!, 

Clericus  esse  nequit,  nisi  Canones  transgrediantur 


156  OF  ORDINATION. 

Besides  the  foregoing  negative  rules,  there  were  others  of  a  j)osi- 
live  character  prescribing  the  requisite  quahfications  for  ordinations. 

1.  The  candidate  was  required  to  be  of  a  certain  age.  The  rules 
by  which  this  canonical  age  was  determined  were  undoubtedly  de- 
rived from  the  Jewish  rituals.  The  deacons  were  required  to  be  of 
equal  age  with  the  levites — twenty-five  years.  The  canonical  age 
of  presbyters  and  bishops  was  the  same  as  that  of  the  priests  of  the 
Jews — thirty  years.  The  Apostolical  Constitutions  prescribe  fifty 
years  as  the  canonical  age  of  a  bishop.  This  was  afterwards  reduc- 
ed to  thirty.  In  some  instances,  persons  may  have  been  introduced 
into  the  ministry  at  an  age  still  earlier.^^  Both  Siricius  and  Zosimus 
required  thirty  years  for  a  deacon,  thirty-five  for  a  presbyter,  and 
forty-five  for  a  bishop. ^^ 

The  age  at  which  our  Lord  entered  upon  his  ministry  is  frequent- 
ly alleged  as  a  reason  for  requiring  the  same  age  in  a  presbyter  and 
bishop.  That  was  usually  the  lowest  canonical  age.'~  Children 
were  sometimes  appointed  readers.  The  age  of  subdeacons,  aco- 
lyths,  and  other  inferior  officers,  was  established  at  different  times,  at 
fifteen,  eighteen,  twenty,  and  twenty-five  years. 

2.  They  ^oere  subject  to  a  strict  examination  previous  to  ordination. 
This  examination  related  to  their  faith,  their  morals,  and  their  world- 
ly condition.  They  weie  especially  subjected  to  the  severest  scrutiny 
in  regard  to  the  first  particular.  It  was  the  duty  of  the  bishop  and 
subordinate  officers  of  the  clergy  to  conduct,  for  the  most  part,  the 
examination ;  but  it  was  held  in  public,  and  the  people  also  took  a 
part  in  it.  No  one  would  be  duly  ordained  without  the  concurrence 
of  the  people  in  this  examination,  and  the  united  approbation  both 
of  them  and  the  bishop.*  Cyprian  also  insists  upon  the  concur- 
rence of  the  people  in  the  selection  of  a  pastor,  and  offers  as  a  rea- 
son, the  consideration  that  they  were  more  familiarly  acquainted 
with  the  life  and  conversation  of  the  candidate. ^"^  The  names  of 
the  candidates  were  published,  in  order  that  they  might  be  subjected 
to  a  severer  canvass  by  the  people.^"*  By  a  law  of  Justinian,  the 
candidate  was  required  to  give  a  written  statement  of  his  religious 
faith,  in  his  own  handwriting,  and  to  take  a  solemn  oath  against  si- 
mony.^^ 

*  NiiUus  clericus  ordineter  non  probatus  vet  cpiscoporum  examine,  vet  pop- 
uli  tcsiimonio.     Cone.  Carthage,  111,  c.  22. 


QUALIFICATIONS  FOR  ORDINATION.  157 

The  extracts  in  the  margin  show  how  carefully  the  church  observ- 
ed the  apostolic  injunction  to  lay  hands  suddenly  on  no  man.* 

3.  No  person  could  regularly  he  appointed  to  the  higher  offices  of 
the  church  without  having  passed  through  the  subordinate  grades. 
To  this  rule  there  were  frequent  exceptions,  but  the  principle  was 
strenuously  maintained,  in  order  that  no  one  should  assume  the  min- 
isterial office  until  he  had,  in  this  way,  become  practically  familiar 
with  the  whole  system  of  ecclesiastical  discipline  and  polity."^ 

4.  Every  one  urns  to  he  ordained  to  some  special  charge.]  This 
was  supposed  to  be  the  apostolical  rule.  Acts  14:  33.  Tit.  1:5.  1 
Pet.  5:  2.  Exceptions  sometimes  occurred,  though  very  rarely,  and 
always  against  the  decided  sentiments  of  the  church.  Non-resident 
clergy  who  are  in  this  way  removed  from  the  watch  and  discipline 

*  Qui  episcopus  ordinatus  est,  antea  examinetur  :  si  natura  sit  prudens,  si 
docilis,  si  moribus  temporatus,  si  vita  castus,  si  sobrius,  si  semper  suis  nego- 
tiis  vacans,  [al.  cavens],  si  humilis,  si  affabilis,  si  niisericors,  si  literalus,  si  in 
lege  Uomini  instructus,  si  in  Scripturaruin  sensibus  cauliis,  si  in  dogmati- 
bus  ecclesiasticis  exercitatus,  et  ante  omnia,  si  fidei  docnmenta  verbis  sim- 
plicibus  afFerat  [asserat].  Quaeiendumetiam  ab  eo;  si  novi  vel  veteris  Tes- 
tament!, id  est  legis  et  prophetarum  et  apostolorum,  unum  eundemque  credat 
auctorem  et  Deum  ;  si  Diabolus  non  per  conditionem  sed  per  arbitrium  fac- 
tus  sit  malus.  Cone.  Carth.  iv.  c.  1. — Quando  episcopus  ordinationes  f'acere 
disponit,  omnes,  qui  ad  sacrum  ministerium  accedere  volunt,  feria  quarta  an- 
te ipsam  ordinationcm  evocandi  sunt  ad  civitatem,  unacum  archipresbyteris, 
qui  eos  repraesentare  debent.  Et  tunc  episcopus  a  latere  suo  eligere  debet 
sacerdotes  et  alios  prudentes  viros,  gnaros  divinae  legis,  exercitatos  in  eccle- 
siasticis sanctionibus,  qui  ordinandorum  vitam,  genus,  patriani,  aetatem,  in- 
stitutionem,  locum  ubi  educati  sunt,  si  sint  bene  literati,  si  instruct!  in  lege 
Domini,  diligenter  investigent,  ante  omnia  si  fidem  catholicam  firmiter  tene- 
ant,  et  verbis  simplicibus  asserere  queant.  Ipsi  autem,  quibus  hoc  commit- 
titur,  cavere  debent,  ne  aut  favoris  gratia,  aut  cujuscunque  muneris  cupidi- 
tate  illecti  a  vero  devient,  et  indignum  et  minus  idoneum  ad  sacros  gradus 
suscipiendos  episcopi  manibus  applicent.  Cone.  JVannetense,  A.  D.  (558. 
can.  11.  Presbyterum  ordinari  non  debet  ante  legitimum  tenipus,  hoc  est, 
ante  xxx  aetatis  annum  ;  sed  priusquam  ad  presbyteratus  consecrationem  ac- 
cedat,  maneat  in  episcopio  discendi  gratia  ofKcium  suum  tarn  diu,  donee  pos- 
sint  et  mores  et  actus  ejus  animadverti  ;  et  tunc,  si  dignus  fuerit,  ad  sacerdo- 
tium  promoveatur.     Cmc.  Turon.  3,  A.  D.  813,  c.  12. 

t  Ut  ex  laico  ad  gradum  sacerdotii  ante  nemo  veniat,  nisi  prius  in  officio 
lectorati  vel  subdiaconati  disciplinam  ecclesiasticam  discat,  et  sic  per  singu- 
los  gradus  ad  sacerdotium  veniat.  Cone.  Bracar.  2,  A.  D.  5G3,  c.  20.  Va- 
ria  habendu  est  ordinatio  quae,  nee  loco  fundata  est  nee  auctorilate  mu- 
iiita.'^ 


158  OF  ORDINATION. 

of  the  church,  receive  no  favor  from  the  ancient  canons,  and  early 
ecclesiastical  writers.* 

5.  Every  minislcr  loas  required  to  remain  in  the  diocese  over 
which  he  teas  ordained  ;  and  no  one  could,  at  the  same  time,  be  in- 
vested with  more  than  one  office.  Plurality  of  livings  were  unknown 
to  the  ancient  church. 

6.  A  clerical  tonsure  was  made  requisite  about  the  fifth  or  sixth 
century.  No  mention  is  made  of  it  before  the  fourth,  and  it  is  first 
spoken  of  with  decided  disapprobation.^^ 

§  3.  Administration  of  the  Rite. 

The  duty  of  administering  the  rite  devolved,  ex  officio,  upon  the 
bishop  alone.  This  is  abundantly  implied  in  the  canons  of  councils, 
and  often  expressly  asserted  by  ecclesiastical  writers.^  Ordination 
by  a  presbyter  is  frequently  declared  to  be  null  and  void.^  The  of- 
fice of  the  presbyter  in  the  rites  of  ordination  was  to  assist  the  bishop 
in  ordaining  a  fellow  presbyter.t 

The  ordination  was  solemnized  in  the  church  and  in  the  presence 
of  the  assembly.     Private  ordinations  were  severely  censured.^ 

During  the  first  four  centuries,  the  ordination  was  had  at  any  sea- 
son of  the  year,  as  occasion  required,  and  on  any  day  of  the  week. 
It  afterwards  became  a  rule  of  the  church  that  the  ordination  should 
be  performed  only  on  the  sabbath,'*  sometimes  in  the  morning,  some- 

*  Mrjdiva  dnolslv/iivojg  (absolute)  yfnQorovsiod'at  fti'ivs  TTQsa^vTSQOVj  fiTjrs 
Sidy.ovov,  ftt'jTS  bh'jg  riva.  tujv  iv  i'KKXrjoiaaTiy.M  Tayfiari  si  fiy  iSiaws  (specia- 
liler)  f  I  iayXijoia  noXso)?,  tJ  ko'jju7js,  ?]  fia^rvQivj,  i]  jj.ovaar7]Qioj  c  ytiQOTOvovfie- 
vog  iTTinrjfjvTTOiTO.  Taig  St  aTtoXvrojg  yttQOTOvovfitvo?  ojQiatv  7]  dyla  ai'vooos 
uy.vQov  I'yuv  17)1'  Toiavxr^v  ytiQO&fciav,  xai  fi7jd'auov  Si  vaa&ai  iVfQyilv  icp  v^- 
Qtt  Tov  yttQOTOvi'joavTag.  Cone.  Chalccd.  A.  D.  451,  c.C;  Conf.  Cone.  Va- 
lent  c.  6. 

t  Presbyter  cum  ordinatur,  episcopo  eum  benedicente  et  nianum  super  ca- 
put ejus  tenente,  ctiani  oinnes  presbyteri  qui  praesentes  sunt,  manus  suas 
juxta  manum  episcopi  super  caput  illius  tenearit ;  Cone.  Carth.'w .  c.  A. — 
Presbyteros  quoque  et  diaconos  sola  nianuum  iuipositione  ordinabant ;  sed 
suos  presbyteros  quisque  episcopus  cum  presbyterorum  collegio  ordinabat. 
Quanquani  autem  idem  agebant  omnes,  quia  tamen  praeibat  episcopus  et 
quasi  ejus  auspiciis  res  gerebatur,  ideo  ipsius  dicebatur  ordinatio.  Unde  ve- 
teres  hoc  saepe  habent,  non  differre  alia  re  ab  episcopo  presbyterum,  nisi 
quia  ordinandi  potestatem  non  habeat.  Calvin.  Instit.  Ret.  Chr.  lib.  iv.  c. 
4,  §  15. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  RITE.  159 

times  in  the  evening,  but  usually  in  connection  with  the  celebration 
of  the  Lord's  sup[)er.-^ 

Candidates  for  ordination  were  accustomed  uniformly  to  observe 
a  season  of  fasting  and  prayer  preparatory  to  this  ordinance,*^  and  to 
receive  the  sacrament. 

The  first  and  most  significant  act  in  the  rite  of  ordination  was  the 
imposition  of  hands.  This  has  been,  from  the  beginning,  an  uni- 
form and  expressive  rite  in  the  consecration  of  one  to  the  service  o,f 
the  sacred  ministry ;  and  in  this,  accompanied  with  prayer,  the  act 
of  ordination  essentially  consisted.  By  many  this  is  supposed  to  dif- 
fer from  the  common  imposition  of  hands  at  baptism,  confirmation, 
and  absolution.  The  manner  of  performing  the  ceremony  has  dif- 
fered at  different  times. 

About  the  ninth  century  it  became  customary,  in  the  Romish 
church,  to  anoint  the  candidate  for  holy  orders. 

The  investiture — the  custom  of  delivering  the  sacred  vessels,  or- 
naments and  vestments— was  introduced  in  the  seventh  century. 
But  some  mention  is  made  of  it  at  an  earlier  date.  The  badges  and 
insignia  varied  with  different  persons  according  to  the  nature  of  their 
ofRce. 

In  the  ordination  of  a  bishop,  an  open  Bible  was  laid  upon  his 
head — sometimes  delivered  into  his  hands,  to  indicate  that  he  was 
continually  to  consult  this  for  direction  in  duty.  A  ring  was  put 
upon  his  finger  as  a  token  of  his  espousal  to  the  church,  and  a  staff 
in  his  hand  as  the  shepherd  of  the  flock.  The  mitre  was  added  in 
the  tenth  century,  and  the  glove  was  also  introduced,  but  at  what 
time  does  not  appear. 

The  presbyter  received  the  sacramental  cup  and  plate,  in  token 
of  his  service  in  administering  the  sacrament. 

Upon  the  deacon,  the  bishop  laid  his  right  hand  and  delivered  to 
him  a  copy  of  the  gospels,  to  indicate  that  he  was  to  act  as  the 
agent  and  organ  of  the  bishop. 

The  subdeacon  received  an  empty  patin  and  cup,  with  an  ewer 
and  napkin  ;  the  reader  received  a  copy  of  the  Scriptures  ;  the 
acolyth,  a  candlestick  with  a  taper  ;  and  the  ostiarii,  the  keys  of  the 
church. 

The  party  ordained  was  signed  with  the  sign  of  the  cross,  and, 
after  his  ordination,  received  the  kiss  of  charity  from  the  ordaining 
minister  and  his  assistants.''' 


160  OP  ORDINATION. 

The  following  is  the  prayer  which  is  prescribed  by  the  Apostoli- 
cal Constitutions,  to  be  used  in  the  ordination  of  a  bishop. 

"  O  eternal  and  almighty  Lord  God,  the  only  unbegotten  and  su- 
preme, who  art  from  eternity,  before  all  time  and  all  things  ;  thou 
who  hast  need  of  nothing,  and  art  exalted  far  above  all  circumstan- 
ces and  events  ;  thou  who  art  the  only  true,  the  only  wise,  the  high- 
est over  all  ;  whose  nature  is  inscrutable,  and  whose  knowledge  is 
without  beginning  ;  thou  who  alone  art  good,  and  with  whom  no  one 
may  compare  ;  thou  who  knowest  all  things,  before  they  come  to 
pass  ;  thou  from  whom  no  secrets  are  hid,  whom  no  one  can  ap- 
proach unto,  whom  no  one  can  command  ;  O  thou  God  and  Father 
of  thine  only-begotten  Son,  our  Lord  and  Saviour  ;  thou  who 
through  time  hast  created  all  things,  and  who  upholdest  all  ;  thou 
father  of  mercy,  and  God  of  all  consolation  ;  thou  who  dwellest  in 
the  highest,  and  regardest  the  things  that  are  below  ;  thou  who  hast 
given  to  the  church  its  bounds  by  the  incarnation  of  thy  Christ,  with 
the  testimony  of  the  Comforter,  by  thine  apostles,  and  by  the  bishops 
here  present  by  thy  grace  ;  thou  who  from  the  beginning,  amongst 
the  first  men,  didst  for  the  good  of  thy  people  appoint  priests,  even 
Abel,  Seth,  Enos,  Enoch,  Noah,  Melchizedek,  and  Job  ; — thou  who 
didst  choose  thy  faithful  servants  Abraham  and  the  other  patriarchs, 
Moses,  Aaron,  Eleazar,  and  Phineas,  and  didst  appoint  from  among 
them  princes  and  priests  for  the  service  of  the  covenant ;  who  didst 
make  Samuel  both  priest  and  prophet,  who  didst  not  leave  thy 
sanctuary  without  ministers  and  attendance,  and  didst  show  favor 
unio  those  whom  thou  didst  cause  to  minister  to  thy  glory  ; — we  be- 
seech thee  to  pour  out  now  through  us,  by  the  mediation  of  thy 
Christ,  the  power  of  thine  almighty  spirit,  which  is  given  through  thy 
beloved  Son  Jesus  Christ,  and  which  he  imparted  to  thine  holy  apos- 
tles, according  to  thy  will,  O  eternal  God.  Grant,  O  thou  searcher 
of  the  heart,  that  this  thy  servant,  whom  thou  hast  chosen  to  the 
office  of  a  bishop,  may  feed  thy  holy  flock  in  thy  name,  and  may 
serve  thee  unblameably  as  thine  high  priest,  day  and  night ;  and 
that  he,  propitiating  thy  countenance,  may  gather  unto  thee  the 
number  of  those  who  shall  be  called,  and  may  present  the  offerings 
of  thy  holy  church.  Grant  unto  him,  O  Lord  Almighty,  by  thy 
Christ  and  the  communication  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  that  he  may  have 
power  to  remit  sins  according  to  thy  commandment,  to  confer  orders 
(Sidoycii  y.h'iQovc)  according  to  thy  appointment,  and  to  loose  every 


DUTIES  OF  CHRISTIAN  MINISTERS.  161 

bond  {TidtvTit  aind((T[tuv)  according  to  the  power  which  thou  didst 
grant  unto  thine  apostles.  (,Trant  that  he  may  please  tiiee  by  meek- 
ness, purity  of  heart,  constancy,  sincerity,  and  a  blameless  conver- 
sation ;  that  so  he  may  offer  unto  thee  the  pure  and  unbloody  sacri- 
fice which  thou  hast  appointed  hy  Christ  in  the  sacrament  of  the  new 
covenant,  and  as  the  offering  of  a  sweet-smelling  savor,  through  thy 
dear  Son  Jesus  Christ,  our  God  and  Saviour,  through  whom  be  unto 
thee  glory,  honor,  and  adoration,  in  the  Holy  Spirit,  now  and  for 
ever.    Amen." 

§  4.  Remarks  of  chrysostom,  Jerome,  and  Gregory  Nazianzen, 
relating  to  the  character  and  duties  of  christian  ministers. 

Bingham  has  inserted  in  his  Antiquities  a  large  collection  of 
quotations  from  the  Fathers,  especially  Chrysostom,  Jerome,  and 
Gregory  Nazianzen,  relating  to  the  character  and  duties  of  christian 
ministers  ;  from  which  I  make  the  following  selection.  The  subject 
is  one  of  more  than  ordinary  interest ;  and  many  of  the  observations 
of  these  pious  writers  of  former  times  will  be  found  to  possess  an 
uncommon  degree  of  intrinsic  weight  and  value.  It  may  also  be  a 
seasonable  relief  to  us,  in  the  midst  of  this  collection  of  testimonies 
from  the  early  writers  concerning  the  external  constitution  and  prac- 
tices of  the  church,  to  hear  the  evidence  of  the  same  writers  con- 
cerning something  of  a  more  internal  character  ;  to  learn  what  was 
their  standard  of  moral  and  spiritual  excellence  in  the  character  of  a 
christian  minister,  as  well  as  to  consider  their  institutions  concern- 
ing the  different  orders  of  clergy,  their  appointments,  the  offices  as- 
signed to  them,  their  revenues,  and  dress. 

"  Some,"  says  Gregory  Nazianzen,  "  do,  with  unwashen  hands 
and  profane  minds,  press  to  handle  the  holy  mysteries,  and  affect  to 
be  at  the  altar  before  they  are  fit  to  be  initiated  to  any  sacred  ser- 
vice ;  they  look  upon  the  holy  order  and  function,  not  as  designed 
for  an  example  of  virtue,  but  only  as  a  way  of  supporting  themselves; 
not  as  a  trust,  of  which  they  are  to  give  an  account,  but  in  a  stale  of 
absolute  authority  and  exemption.  And  these  men's  examples  cor- 
rupt the  people's  morals,  faster  than  any  cloth  can  imbibe  a  color, 
or  a  plague  infect  the  air  ;  since  men  are  more  disposed  to  receive 
the  tincture  of  vice  than  virtue  from  the  example  of  their  rulers." 
In  opposition  to  this,  he  declares  it  to  be  incumbent  upon  all  spiritual 

21 


162  OF  ORDINATION. 

physicians,  "  that  they  should  draw  the  picture  of  all  manner  of  vir- 
tues in  their  own  lives,  and  set  themselves  as  examples  to  the  peo- 
ple ;  that  it  might  not  be  proverbially  said  of  them,  that  they  set 
about  curing  others,  while  they  themselves  are  full  of  sores  and  ul- 
cers." He  urges,  also,  the  necessity  of  purity  in  the  life  and  con- 
versation of  the  clergy,  from  the  consideration  of  the  dignity  and 
and  sacredness  of  their  office. 

"  A  minister's  office  places  him  in  the  same  rank  and  order  with 
angels  themselves  ;  he  celebrates  God  with  archangels,  transmits 
the  church's  sacrifice  to  the  altar  in  heaven,  and  performs  the  priest's 
office  with  Christ  himself;*  he  reforms  the  work  of  God's  hands, 
and  presents  the  image  to  his  maker;  his  workmanship  is  for  the 
world  above  ;  and  therefore  he  should  be  exalted  to  a  divine  and 
heavenly  nature,  whose  business  is  to  be  as  God  himself,  and  make 
others  gods  also."  (Greg.  Naz.  Orat.  1,  Apologet.  de  Fuga.)  And 
Chrysostom  makes  use  of  the  same  argument,  "  that  the  priesthood, 
though  it  be  exercised  upon  earth,  is  occupied  wholly  about  heaven- 
ly things  ;  that  it  is  the  ministry  of  angels  put  by  the  Holy  Ghost  in- 
to the  hands  of  mortal  men  ;  and  therefore  a  priest  ought  to  be  pure 
and  holy,  as  being  placed  in  heaven  itself,  in  the  midst  of  those 
heavenly  powers."  (Chrysostom,  De  Sacerdot.  lib.  3,  c.  4.)  He 
dwells,  also,  upon  the  dangerous  influence  of  bad  example.  ''  Sub- 
jects commonly  form  their  manners  by  the  patterns  of  their  princes. 
How  then  should  a  proud  man  be  able  to  assuage  the  swelling  tu- 
mors of  others }  or  an  angry  ruler  hope  to  make  his  people  in  love 
with  moderation  and  meekness }  Bishops  are  exposed,  like  com- 
batants in  the  theatre,  to  the  view  and  observation  of  all  men  ;  and 
their  faults,  though  never  so  small,  cannot  be  hid  ;  and  therefore,  as 
their  virtuous  actions  profit  many  by  provoking  them  to  the  like  zeal, 
so  their  vices  will  render  others  unfit  to  attempt  or  prosecute  any- 
thing that  is  noble  and  good.  For  which  reason,  their  souls  ought 
to  shine  all  over  with  the  purest  brightness,  that  they  may  both  en- 

*  This  mistaken  view  of  the  ministerial  office  is  one  of  the  errors  of  the 
times  in  which  Gregory  wrote.  Misrepresentations  concerning  the  real  na- 
ture of  the  christian  ministry  are  not  peculiar  to  the  church  of  Rome;  they 
arose  as  early  as  the  third  and  fourth  centuries.  But  while  we  discard  the 
errors  of  the  men  of  those  times,  let  us  not  throw  aside  their  reverent  regard 
for  that  which  constitutes  the  real  dignity  and  usefulness  of  the  sacred  of- 
fice as  a  minister  in  holy  things. 


DUTIES  OF  CHRISTIAN  MINISTERS.  163 

lighten  and  stimulate  the  souls  of  others,  who  have  their  eyes  upon 
them.  A  priest  should  arm  himself  all  over  with  purity  of  life,  as 
with  adamantine  armour  ;  for  if  he  leave  any  part  naked  and  un- 
guarded, he  is  surrounded  both  with  open  enemies  and  pretended 
friends,  who  will  be  ready  to  wound  and  supplant  him.  So  long  as 
his  life  is  all  of  a  piece,  he  needs  not  fear  their  assaults  ;  but  if  he 
be  caught  in  a  fault,  though  but  a  small  one,  it  will  be  laid  hold  of, 
and  improved,  to  the  prejudice  of  all  his  former  virtues.  For  all 
men  are  most  severe  judges  in  his  case,  and  treat  him  not  with  any 
allowance  for  being  encompassed  with  flesh,  or  as  having  an  human 
nature  ;  but  expect  that  he  should  be  an  angel,  and  free  from  all  in- 
firmities." (Ibid.  lib.  iii.  c.  14.)  "  He  cannot,  indeed,  with  any  tol- 
erable decency  and  freedom  discharge  his  office  in  punishing  and 
reproving  others,  unless  he  himself  be  blameless  and  without  re- 
buke." (Ibid.  lib.  v.  c.  3.) 

The  j>eculiar  virtues  of  the  external  life  and  conversation  of  the 
clergy,  which  these  pious  writers  most  frequently  commend,  are  the 
following; — hospitality  and  kindness  to  the  poor, — frugality,  and  a 
holy  contempt  of  the  world, — harmless  and  inoffensive  discourse  ;  — 
and  care  to  avoid  all  suspicion  of  evil. — Jerome  says,  "  It  is  one  of 
the  glories  of  a  bishop  to  provide  for  the  poor;  but  a  disgrace  to  the 
sacred  function,  to  seek  only  to  enrich  himself."  (Hieron.  Ep.  2  ad. 
Nepotian.)  Chrysostom  highly  extols  his  bishop  Flavian  upon  ac- 
count of  this  virtue.  He  says  that  "  his  house  was  always  open  to 
strangers,  and  to  such  as  were  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  flight  for 
the  sake  of  religion  ;  where  they  were  received  and  entertained  with 
such  liberality  and  kindness,  that  his  house  might  as  properly  be 
called  '  The  house  of  strangers,'  as  '  The  house  of  Flavian.'  Yea, 
it  was  so  much  the  more  his  own,  for  being  common  to  strangers; 
for  whatever  we  possess  is  so  much  the  more  our  property  for  being 
communicated  to  our  poor  brethren  ;  there  being  no  place  where  we 
may  so  safely  lay  up  our  treasure,  as  in  the  hands  of  the  poor." 
(Chrysos.  Serin.  1  in  Gen.)  On  the  other  hand,  Jerome  observes, 
in  his  instruction  to  Nepotian,  "  You  must  avoid  giving  great  enter- 
tainments to  secular  men,  and  especially  to  those  who  are  high  in 
office.  For  it  is  not  very  reputable  to  have  the  lictors  and  guards 
of  a  consul  stand  waiting  at  the  doors  of  a  priest  of  Christ,  who  him- 
self was  crucified  and  poor  ;  nor  that  a  judge  of  a  province  should 
dine  more  sumptuously  with  you,  than   in  a  palace.     If  it  be  pre- 


164  OF  ORDINATION. 

tended  tliat  you  do  this  only  to  be  able  to  intercede  with  him  for 
poor  criniHials  ;  there  is  no  judge  but  will  pay  a  greater  deference 
and  respect  to  a  poor  clergyman  than  to  a  rich  one,  and  show  great- 
er reverence  to  your  sanctity  than  to  your  riches.  Or  if  he  be  such 
an  one  as  will  hear  a  clergyman's  intercession  only  at  his  table,  I 
should  willingly  be  without  this  benefit,  and  rather  beseech  Christ 
for  the  judge  himself,  who  can  more  speedily  and  powerfully  help 
than  any  judge."  (Hieron.  Ep.  2  ad  Nepolian.)  Again,  "  The  laity 
should  rather  find  us  to  be  comforters  in  their  mournings,  than  com- 
panions in  their  feasts.  That  clergymen  will  soon  be  despised,  who 
never  refuses  any  entertainments  when  lie  is  frequently  invited  to 
them."  (Ibid.) — The  virtues  of  the  tongue  were  also  considered  of 
great  importance  in  the  life  of  a  clergyman,  in  the  times  of  which 
we  are  treating.  Jerome  gives  a  particular  caution  to  ministers, 
against  the  sin  of  detraction  and  calumny,  and  especially  against 
giving  encouragement  to  evil  speaking,  by  a  patient  hearing.  "  No 
slanderer,"  says  he,  "  tells  his  story  to  one  who  is  not  willing  to  hear 
him.  An  arrow  never  fixes  in  a  stone,  but  often  recoils,  and  wounds 
him  that  shoots  it.  Therefore  let  the  detractor  be  less  forward  and 
busy,  by  your  unwillingness  to  hear  his  detraction."  (Hieron.  Ej).  2 
ad  Nepolian.) 

The  same  writer  recommends  another  virtue  of  the  tongue  to 
clergymen  ;  namely,  the  habit  of  keeping  secrets,  and  of  observing 
a  becoming  silence,  especially  about  the  affairs  of  public  persons. 
"  Your  office,"  says  he,  "  requires  you  to  visit  the  sick,  and  thereby 
you  become  acquainted  with  the  families  of  matrons  and  their 
children,  and  are  entrusted  with  the  secrets  of  noble  men.  You 
ought,  therefore,  to  keep  not  only  a  chaste  eye,  but  a  chaste  tongue. 
....  You  ought  not  to  let  one  house  know  from  you  what  may 
have  been  done  in  another."  {Ibid.)  Chrysostom  gives  some  excel- 
lent advice  respecting  the  greatduty  of  avoiding  every  appearance  of 
evil, — a  duty  especially  incumbent  upon  Christian  ministers.  "  If," 
says  he,  "  the  holy  apostle  St.  Paul  was  afraid  lest  he  should  have 
been  suspected  of  theft  by  the  Corinthians  ;  and  upon  that  account 
took  others  into  the  administration  of  their  charity  with  himself,  that 
no  one  might  have  the  least  pretence  to  blame  him  ;  how  much 
more  careful  should  we  be  to  cut  off  all  occasions  of  sinister  opinions 
and  suspicions,  however  false  or  unreasonable  they  might  be,  or  dis- 
agreeable to  our  character.     For  none  of  us  can  be  so  far  removed 


DUTIES  OF  CHRISTIAN  MINISTERS.  165 

from  any  sin,  as  St.  Paul  was  from  theft ;  yet  he  did  not  think  fit  to 
contemn  the  suspicions  of  the  vulgar;  he  did  not  trust  to  the  repu- 
tation which  both  his  miracles,  and  the  integrity  of  his  life,  had  gen- 
erally procured  for  him  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  he  imagined  that 
such  suspicions  and  jealousies  might  arise  in  the  liearts  of  some  men, 
and  therefore  he  took  care  to  prevent  them  ;  not  suffering  them  to 
arise  at  all,  but  timely  foreseeing  them  and  prudently  forestalling 
them  ;  providing,  as  he  says,  for  honest  things,  not  only  in  the  sight 
of  God,  but  also  in  the  sight  of  men.  The  same  care,  and  much 
greater,  should  we  take,  not  only  to  dissipate  and  destroy  the  ill 
opinions  men  may  have  entertained  of  us,  but  to  foresee  afar  off 
from  what  causes  they  may  spring,  and  to  cut  off  beforehand  the  oc- 
casions and  pretences  from  which  they  may  arise.  And  it  is  much 
easier  to  do  this,  than  to  extinguish  them  when  they  are  risen,  which 
will  then  be  very  difficult,  and  perhaps  impossible  ;  besides  that 
their  being  raised  will  give  great  scandal  and  oflence,  and  wound  the 
conscience  of  many."  (Chrysost.  de  SacerdoL.  lib.  vi.  c.  9.)  Je- 
rome in  like  manner,  represents  it  as  the  duty  of  a  minister  to  avoid 
all  suspicions  ;  and  to  take  care  before  hand  that  there  should  be  no 
probable  grounds  for  fictitious  stories  to  the  disadvantage  of  his 
moral  character.  (Hieron.  Ej).  2  ad  Neoplian.)  But  it  might  hap- 
pen, as  Bingham  truly  observes,  that  a  man,  after  the  utmost  human 
caution  and  prudence  that  could  be  used,  might  not  be  able  to  avoid 
the  malevolent  suspicions  of  ill-disposed  persons ;  for  our  blessed 
Lord,  whose  innocence  and  conduct  were  both  equally  divine  could 
not  in  his  converse  with  men  wholly  escape  them.  Now,  in  this  case 
the  church  could  prescribe  no  other  rule  than  that  of  patience  and 
christian  consolation,  given  by  our  Saviour  to  his  apostles,  "  Blessed 
are  ye,  when  men  shall  revile  you,  and  persecute  you,  and  shall  say 
all  manner  of  evil  against  you  falsely  for  my  sake  ;  rejoice,  and  be 
exceeding  glad  ;  for  great  is  your  reward  in  heaven."  (Matt.  5:  11.) 
"  When  we  have  done,"  says  Augustin, "  all  that  in  justice  and  pru- 
dence we  could,  to  preserve  our  good  name,  if,  after  that,  some  men 
will  notwithstanding  endeavor  to  blemish  our  reputation,  and  blacken 
our  character,  either  by  false  suggestions  or  unreasonable  suspicions, 
let  conscience  be  our  comfort,  and  even  our  joy,  that  great  is  our 
reward  in  heaven."  (Augustin.  De  Bono  Viduitat.  c.  22.) 

From  these  observations  respecting  the  general  life  and  conversa- 


166  OF  ORDINATION. 

tion  of  the  clergy,  let  us  pass  to  others  more  immediately  relating  to 
the  exercise  of  the  duties  and  offices  of  their  sacred  function. 

The  fathers  frequently  insist  upon  the  necessity  of  due  sLudy  and 
application,  in  order  to  the  right  discharge  of  the  ministerial  office. 
For  since,  as  Gregory  Nazianzen  observes,  {Oral.  1.  De  Fvga,)  a 
man  could  not  become  master  of  the  meanest  arts  without  the  cost 
of  much  time  and  pains,  it  were  absurd  to  think  that  the  art  of  wis- 
dom, which  comprehends  the  knowledge  of  things  human  and  di- 
vine, and  comprises  everything  that  is  noble  and  excellent,  was  so 
light  and  vulgar  a  thing,  as  that  a  man  needed  no  more  than  a  wish 
or  a  will  to  obtain  it.  Some  indeed,  he  complains,  (Ibid.)  were  of 
this  fond  opinion  ;  and,  therefore,  before  they  had  well  passed  the 
time  of  their  childhood,  or  knew  the  names  of  the  books  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament,  or  how  well  to  read  them,  if  they  had  learnt 
but  two  or  three  pious  words  by  heart,  or  had  read  a  few  of  the 
Psalms  of  David,  and  put  on  a  grave  habit,  which  made  some  out- 
ward show  of  piety,  they  had  the  vanity  to  think  themselves  qualified 
for  the  government  of  the  church.  They  then  talked  of  nothing  but 
the  sanctificaiion  of  Samuel  from  his  cradle,  and  thought  themselves 
profound  scribes,  great  rabbles  and  teachers,  sublime  in  the  know- 
ledge of  divine  things;  and  were  for  interpreting  the  Scripture,  not 
by  the  letter,  but  after  a  spiritual  way,  propounding  their  own  dreams 
and  fancies,  instead  of  the  divine  oracles,  to  the  people.  This,  he 
complains,  was  for  want  of  that  study  and  labor  which  ought  to  give 
continual  employment  to  those  persons  who  take  upon  them  the  of- 
fices of  the  sacred  function.  Chrysostorn  pursues  this  matter  a  litde 
further  ;  and  shows  the  necessity  of  continual  labor  and  study  in  a 
clergyman,  from  the  nature  of  the  work  which  he  has  upon  hand, 
each  part  of  which  requires  great  and  sedulous  application.  For, 
says  he,  first,  he  ought  to  be  qualified  to  minister  suitable  remedies 
to  the  several  maladies  and  disorders  of  men's  souls  ;  the  cure  of 
which  requires  greater  skill  and  labor  than  the  cure  of  their  bodily 
distempers.  And  this  can  be  done  only  by  the  doctrine  of  the  gos- 
pel ;  wuh  which,  therefore,  it  is  necessary  that  he  should  be  inti- 
mately acquainted.  Then  again,  secondly,  he  must  be  able  to  stop 
the  mouths  of  all  gainsayers,  Jews,  gentiles,  and  heretics,  who  em- 
ploy different  arts  and  different  weapons  in  their  attacks  upon  the 
truth  ;  and  unless  he  exactly  understands  all  their  fallacies  and  so- 
phisms, and  knows  the  true  art  of  making  a  proper  defence,  he  will 


DUTIES  OF  CHRISTIAN  MINISTERS.  167 

be  in  danger  not  only  of  suffering  each  of  them  to  make  havoc  of 
the  church,  but  of  encouraging  one  error  while  combating  another. 
For  nothing  was  more  common,  in  Chrysostom's  time,  than  for  ig- 
norant and  unskilful  disputants  to  run  from  one  extreme  to  another  ; 
as  he  shows  in  the  controversies  which  the  church  had  with  the  Mar- 
cionites  and  Valentinians  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Jews  on  the  other, 
about  the  law  of  Moses  ;  and  the  dispute  about  the  Trinity,  between 
the  Arians  and  the  Sabellians.  Now,  unless  a  man  were  well  skil- 
led and  exercised  in  the  word  of  God,  and  the  true  art  and  rules  of 
disputation,  which  could  not  be  attained  witliout  continual  study  and 
labor,  he  concludes  that  "  it  would  be  impossible  for  him  to  maintain 
his  ground,  and  the  truih,  as  he  ought,  against  so  many  subtle  and 
wily  opposers."  He  then  inculcates  that  instruction  of  St.  Paul  to 
Timothy,  "  Give  attendance  to  reading,  to  exhortation,  to  doctrine  : 
meditate  upon  these  things  ;  give  thyself  wholly  to  them,  that  thy 
profiting  may  appear  to  all  men."  Thirdly,  he  shows  "  how  diffi- 
cult and  laborious  a  work  it  was  to  make  continual  homilies  and 
regular  discourses  to  the  people,  who  were  become  very  severe 
judges  of  the  preacher's  compositions,  and  would  not  allow  him  to 
rehearse  any  part  of  another  man's  work,  nor  so  much  as  to  repeat 
his  own  upon  a  second  occasion.  Here  his  task  was  something  the 
more  difficult,  because  men  had  generally  nice  and  delicate  palates, 
and  were  inclined  to  hear  sermons  as  they  heard  plays,  more  for 
pleasure  than  profit.  Which  added  to  the  preacher's  study  and  la- 
bor ;  who,  though  he  was  to  contemn  both  popular  applause  and 
censure,  yet  was  also  to  have  such  a  regard  to  his  auditory,  as  that 
they  might  hear  him  with  pleasure,  to  their  edification  and  advan- 
tage." Some  persons  having  been  ready  to  plead  the  apostle's  au- 
thority for  their  ignorance,  and  even  to  pride  themselves  upon  their 
want  of  learning,  to  this  Chrysostom  very  properly  replies,  that  "this 
was  a  misrepresentation  of  St.  Paul's  meaning,  and  was  vainly  urged 
in  excuse  for  any  man's  sloth  and  negligence  in  not  attaining  to 
those  necessary  parts  of  knowledge  which  the  clerical  life  required. 
If  the  utmost  heights  and  perfections  of  foreign  eloquence  had  been 
rigidly  exacted  of  the  clergy  ; — if  they  had  been  required  to  speak 
always  with  the  smoothness  of  Isocrates,  or  the  loftiness  of  Demos- 
thenes, or  the  majesty  of  Thucydides,  or  the  sublimity  of  Plato, — 
then  indeed  it  might  be  pertinent  to  allege  this  testimony  of  the  apos- 
tle.    But  rudeness  of  style,  in  comparison  with  such  eloquence,  may 


168 


OF  ORDINATION. 


be  allowed  ;  provided  men  be  otherwise  qualified  with  knowledge, 
and  furnished  with  ability  to  preach  and  dispute  accurately  concern- 
ing the  doctrines  of  faith  and  religion,  as  St.  Paul  was  ;  whose  tal- 
ents in  that  kind  have  made  him  the  wonder  and  admiration  of  the 
whole  world  ;  and  it  would  be  unjust  to  accuse  him  of  rudeness  of 
speech,  who  by  his  discourses  confounded  both  Jews  and  Greeks, 
and  wrought  many  into  the  opinion  that  he  was  the  Mercury  of  the 
gentiles.  Such  proofs  of  his  power  of  persuasion  were  sufficient 
evidence  that  he  had  bestowed  some  pains  upon  this  matter ;  and 
therefore  his  authority  was  vainly  abused  to  patronize  ignorance  and 
sloth,  whose  example  was  so  great  a  reproach  to  them."  The  same 
writer  afterwards  proceeds  to  show,  that  a  good  life  alone  is  not  a 
sufficient  qualification  for  a  minister,  nor  ought  to  be  regarded  as 
any  valid  ground  of  excuse  for  want  of  knowledge  and  study,  and  the 
art  of  preaching  and  disputing.  "  Both  these  qualifications,"  says 
he,  "  are  required  in  a  priest ;  he  must  not  only  do,  but  teach,  the 
commands  of  Christ,  and  must  guide  others  by  his  word  and  doctrine 
as  well  as  by  his  practice  ;  each  of  these  have  their  part  in  his  of- 
fice, and  are  necessary  to  assist  one  another,  in  order  to  complete 
men's  edification.  For  otherwise,  when  any  controversy  may  arise 
about  the  doctrines  of  religion,  and  Scripture  may  be  pleaded  in  be- 
half of  error  ;  what  will  a  good  life  avail  in  this  case  .''  What  will  it 
signify  to  have  been  diligent  in  the  practice  of  virtue,  if,  after  all,  a 
man  through  gross  ignorance  and  unskilfulness  in  the  word  of  truth, 
fall  into  heresy,  and  cut  himself  off  from  the  body  of  the  church  .'' 
And  I  know  many  that  have  done  so.  But,  suppose  that  a  man 
should  stand  firm  himself,  and  not  be  drawn  away  by  the  adversa- 
ries ;  yet,  when  the  plain  and  simple  people  who  are  under  his  care 
shall  observe  their  leader  to  be  baffled,  and  that  he  has  nothing  to 
say  to  the  arguments  of  a  subtle  opponent,  they  will  be  ready  to  im- 
pute this  not  so  much  to  the  weakness  of  the  advocate,  as  to  the  bad- 
ness of  his  cause  :  and  so,  by  one  man's  ignorance,  a  whole  people 
will  be  carried  headlong  to  utter  destruction  :  or,  at  least,  will  be  so 
shaken  in  their  faith,  that  they  will  not  stand  firm  for  the  future." 
(Chrysost.  De  Sacerdot.  lib.  iv.  5.)  And,  in  like  manner,  Jerome 
observes  in  his  Epistle  to  Nepotian,  "  that  the  plain  rustic  brother 
should  not  value  himself  upon  his  sanctity,  and  despise  knowledge  ; 
neither  should  the  skilful  and  eloquent  speaker  measure  his  holiness 
by  his  tongue.     For,  though  of  two  imperfections   it  was  better  to 


DUTIES  OF  CHRISTIAN  MINISTERS.  169 

have  a  holy  ignorance  than  a  vicious  eloquence  ;  yet  both  qualifica- 
tions were  necessary  to  complete  a  priest,  and  he  ought  to  have 
knowledge  as  well  as  sanctity  to  fit  liinj  for  the  several  duties  of  his 
function."  (Hieron.  Ep.  2  ad  Nepotian.) 

But  it  was  the  study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  which  was  especially 
enjoined  upon  christian  ministers  by  these  pious  writers.  Chrysos- 
tom  says,  "  In  a<lministering  spiritual  remedies  to  the  souls  of  men, 
the  word  of  God  is  instead  of  everything  that  is  used  in  the  cure  of 
bodily  distempers.  It  is  instrument,  and  diet,  and  air  ;  it  is  instead 
of  medicine,  and  fire,  and  knife  ;  if  caustics  and  incisions  are  neces- 
sary, they  are  to  be  done  by  this  ;  and  if  this  do  not  succeed,  it  were 
in  vain  to  try  other  means.  This  is  it  which  is  to  raise  and  comfort 
the  dejected  soul ;  and  to  take  down  and  suppress  the  swelling  hu- 
mors and  presumptions  of  the  confident.  By  this  they  are  both  to 
cut  off  what  is  superfluous,  to  supply  what  is  wanting,  and  to  do 
everything  that  is  necessary  to  be  done  in  the  cure  of  souls.  By  this 
all  heretics  and  unbelievers  are  to  be  convinced,  and  all  the  plots  of 
Satan  to  be  countermined  :  and  therefore  it  is  necessary  that  the 
ministers  of  God  be  very  diligent  in  studying  the  Scriptures,  that  the 
word  of  Christ  might  dwell  richly  in  them."  (Chrysost.  De  Sacerdot. 
lib.  iv.  c.  3,  4.)  Jerome  commends  his  friend  Nepotian  for  this, 
"  that  at  all  feasts  it  was  his  practice  to  propound  something  out  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  entertain  the  company  with  some  useful 
di.squisition  from  it.  And,  next  to  the  Scriptures,  he  employed  his 
time  upon  the  study  of  the  best  ecclesiastical  authors,  whom  by  con- 
tinual reading  and  frequent  meditations  he  had  so  treasured  up  in  the 
library  of  his  heart,  that  he  could  repeat  their  words  on  any  proper 
occasion  ;  saying,  thus  spake  Terturiian,thus  Cyprian,  so  Lactantius, 
after  this  manner  Hilary,  so  Minucius  Feli.x,  so  Victorinus,  these 
were  the  words  of  Arnobius,  and  the  like."  (Hieron.  Epitaph.  Ne- 
pal.., J.  ad  Heliodor. ) 

We  find  the  following  observations,  among  many  others,  respect- 
ing the  public  discharge  of  ministerial  duties  :— "  With  what  exact 
care,"  says  Chrysosiom,  "  ought  he  to  behave  himself,  who  goes  in 
the  name  of  a  whole  city,  nay,  in  the  name  of  the  whole  world,  as 
their  orator  and  ambassador,  to  intercede  with  God  for  the  sins  of 
all  ?*     But  especially  when  he  invocates  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  offers 


*  There  is  great  danger  in  the  use  of  such  language  as  this.     Doubtless 

22 


170  OF  ORDINATION. 

up  the  tremendous  sacrifice  of  the  altar  ;*  with  what  purity,  with 
what  reverence  and  piety,  should  his  tongue  utter  forth  those  words  ; 
whilst  the  angels  stand  by  him,  and  the  whole  order  of  heavenly 
powers  cries  aloud,  and  fills  the  sanctuary  in  honor  of  him  who  is 
represented  as  dead  and  lying  upon  the  altar."  Chrysost.  De  Sacer- 
dot.  lib.  vi.  c.  4.) 

Concermn^  preacJmig,  the  following  rules  are  laid  down  by  Greg- 
ory Nazianzen,  Chrysostom,  and  Jerome. — First,  thai  the  preacher 
be  careful  to  make  choice  of  an  useful  subject.  Gregory  Nazianzen 
(Oral.  1  de  Fiign),  specifies  some  particular  and  leading  subjects, 
— such  as  the  doctrine  of  the  world's  creation,  and  the  soul  of  man  ; 
the  doctrine  of  providence,  and  the  restoration  of  man  ;  the  two  cov- 
enants ;  the  first  and  second  comings  of  Christ;  his  incarnation,  suf- 
ferings, and  death  ;  the  resurrection,  the  end  of  the  world,  and  the 
future  judgment ;  the  different -rewards  of  heaven  and  hell;  together 
with  the  doctrine  of  the  blessed  Trinity,  which  is  the  principal  arti- 
cle of  the  Christian  faith.  Such  subjects  as  these  are  fit  for  edifica- 
tion, to  build  up  men  in  faith  and  holiness,  and  the  practice  of  all  pi- 
ety and  virtue. 

But  then,  secondly,  these  subjects  must  be  treated  in  a  suitable 
way  ;  not  with  too  much  art  or  loftiness  of  style,  but  with  great  con- 
descension to  men's  capacities,  who  must  be  fed  with  the  word  as 
ihey  are  able  to  bear  it.  This  is  what  Gregory  Nazianzen  so  much 
commends  in  Athanasius,  when  he  says,  "  He  condescended  and  ac- 
commodated himself  to  mean  capacities,  whilst  to  the  acute  his  no- 
tions and  words  are  more  sublime,"  (Greg.  Naz.  Oi^at.  21,  de  Laud. 
Atlian.)  Jerome  also  observes  upon  this  head,  "  that  a  preacher's 
discourse  should  always  be  plain,  intelligible,  and  affecting ;  and 
rather  adapted  to  excite  men's  groans  and  tears  by  a  sense  of  their 
sins,  than  their  admiration  and  applause  by  speaking  to  them  what 
neither  they,  nor  he  himself  perhaps,  do  truly  understand.  For  they 
are  chiefly  ignorant  and  unlearned  men  who  affect  to  be  admired  for 
their  speaking  above  the  capaciUes  of  the  vulgar.     A  bold  man  often 


there  is  a  sense  in  which  it  maybe  rightly  employed  ;  but  it  must  be  careful- 
ly remembered  that  the  only  mediator  between  God  and  man, — the  only  in- 
tercessor on  behalf  of  the  church, — is  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  Many  prac- 
tical errors,  however,  were  interwoven  with  the  Christian  faith  during  the 
third  and  fourth  centuries. 

*  That  is,  celebrates  the  Lord's  Supper  in  the  conjrregation. 


DUTli:S  OF  CHRISTIAN  MINISTERS.  171 

interprets  what  he  himself  does  not  understand  ;  and  yet  he  has  no 
sooner  persuaded  others  to  they  know  not  what,  than  he  assumes  to 
himself  the  title  of  learning  upon  it.  While  yet  there  is  nothing  so 
easy  as  to  deceive  tlie  ignorant  multitude,  who  are  always  most 
prone  to  admire  what  they  do  not  understand."  (Hieron,  Ep.  2  ad 
Nepotian.)  Chrysostom  spends  almost  a  whole  hook  {De  Sacerdot, 
lib.  V.)  ia  cautioning  the  christian  orator  against  the  fault  of  courting 
popular  applause  ;  and  points  out  the  necessity  of  his  despising  both 
ihe  applauses  and  censures  of  men,  and  all  other  tilings  which  might 
tempt  him  to  flatter  his  hearers.,  rather  than  edify  them.  "  In  a 
word,"  says  he,  "  his  chief  end  in  all  his  compositions  should  be  to 
please  God  :  and  then,  if  he  also  gained  the  praise  of  men,  he  might 
receive  it ;  if  not,  he  needed  not  to  court  it  nor  torment  himself  be- 
cause it  was  denied  him.  For  it  would  be  consolation  enough  for  all 
his  labors,  that  in  the  application  of  his  doctrine  and  eloquence  he 
had  always  sought  to  please  his  God."  (De  Sacerdot.  lib.  v.  c.  7.) 

A  third  rule  was,  ihat  preachers  should  carefully  adapt  their  doc- 
trine to  the  actual  wants  and  necessities  of  their  hearers.  Chrysos- 
tom, in  describing  this  part  of  a  minister's  duty,  says,  that "  he  should 
be  watchful  and  clear-sighted,  and  have  a  thousand  eyes  about  him, 
as  living  not  for  himself  alone,  but  for  a  multitude  of  people.  To 
live  retired  in  a  cell  is  the  part  of  a  monk  ;  but  the  duty  of  a  watch- 
man is  to  converse  among  men  of  all  degrees  and  callings;  to  take 
care  of  the  body  of  Christ,  the  church,  and  have  regard  both  to  its 
health  and  beauty  ;  carefully  observing  lest  any  spot,  or  wrinkle,  or 
other  defilement,  should  sully  its  grace  and  comeliness.  Now  this 
obliges  spiritual  physicians  to  apply  their  medicines,  that  is,  their  doc- 
trines, as  die  maladies  of  their  patients  chiefly  require  ;  to  be  most 
earnest  and  frequent  in  encountering  those  errors  and  vices  which 
are  most  predominant,  or  by  which  men  are  most  in  danger  of  being 
infected.     (Chrysost.  Dc  Sacerdot.  lib.  iii.  c.  12  ;  lib.  iv.  c.  2,3.) 

In  private  addresses  to  the  persons  under  their  charge,  the  cler- 
gy were  enjoined  to  exercise  prudence,  as  well  as  fidelity  and 
diligence.  "  Man,"  says  Gregory  Nazianzen,  "  is  so  various  and 
uncertain  a  creature,  that  it  requires  great  art  and  skill  to  manage 
him.  For  the  tempers  of  men's  minds  differ  more  than  the  features 
and  lineaments  of  their  bodies  ;  and,  as  all  meats  and  medicines  are 
not  proper  for  all  bodies,  so  neither  is  the  same  treatment  and  disci- 
pline proper  for  all  souls.     Some  are  best  moved   by  words,  others 


172  OF  ORDINATION. 

by  examples  ;  some  are  of  a  dull  and  heavy  temper,  and  so  have 
need  of  the  spur  to  stimulate  them  ;  others,  that  are  brisk  and  fiery, 
have  more  need  of  the  curb  to  restrain  them.  Praise  works  best 
upon  some,  and  reproof  upon  others,  provided  that  each  of  them  be 
ministered  in  a  suitable  and  seasonable  way,  otherwise  they  do  more 
harm  than  good.  Some  men  are  drawn  by  gentle  exhortations  to 
their  duty  ;  others  by  rebukes  and  hard  words  must  be  driven  to  it. 
And  even  in  this  business  of  reproof  some  men  are  affected  most 
with  open  rebuke,  others  with  private.  For  some  men  never  regard 
a  secret  reproof,  who  yet  are  easily  corrected,  if  chastised  in  public  : 
others  again  cannot  bear  a  public  disgrace,  but  grow  either  morose, 
or  impudent  and  implacable,  under  it ;  who,  perhaps,  would  have 
hearkened  toa  secret  admonition,  and  repaid  their  monitor  with  their 
conversion,  as  presuming  him  to  have  accosted  them  out  of  mere 
pity  and  love.  Some  men  are  to  be  so  nicely  watched  and  observ- 
ed, that  not  the  least  of  their  faults  are  to  be  dissembled  ;  because 
they  seek  to  hide  their  sins  from  men,  and  arrogate  to  themselves 
thereupon  the  praise  of  being  politic  and  crafty  :  in  others  it  is  bet- 
ter to  wink  at  some  faults,  so  that  seeing  we  will  not  see,  and  hear- 
ing we  will  not  hear,  lest  by  too  frequent  chidings  we  bring  them  to 
despair,  and  so  make  them  cast  off  modesty  and  grow  bolder  in  their 
sins.  To  some  men  we  must  put  on  an  angry  countenance,  and 
seem  to  deplore  their  condition,  and  to  despair  of  them  as  lost  and 
pitiable  wretches,  when  their  nature  so  requires  it :  others  again 
must  be  treated  with  meekness  and  humility,  and  be  recovered  to  a 
better  hope  by  more  promising  and  encouraging  prospects.  Some 
men  must  be  always  conquered  and  never  yielded  to  ;  whilst  tooth- 
ers it  will  be  better  to  concede  a  little.  For  all  men's  distempers 
are  not  to  be  cured  the  same  way  ;  but  proper  medicines  are  to  be 
applied,  as  the  matter  itself,  or  occasion,  or  the  temper  of  the  patient 
will  allow.  And  this  is  the  most  difficult  part  of  the  pastoral  office, 
to  know  how  to  distinguish  these  things  nicely,  with  an  exact  judg- 
ment, and  with  as  exact  a  hand  to  administer  suitable  remedies  to  ev- 
ery distemper.  It  is  a  master-piece  of  art,  which  is  not  to  be  attained 
but  by  good  observation,  joined  with  experience  and  practice."  (Greg. 
Naz.  Orat.  1.  de  Fuga  ;  Conf.  Oral.  21,  de  Laud  Atlutn.)  In  like 
manner,  Chrysostom,  speaking  of  the  qualificaiion  of  a  christian 
minister,  observes,  that  "  he  ought  to  be  wise,  as  well  as  holy ;  a 
man  of  great  experience,  and  that  understands  the  world  ;  and,  be- 


PUNISHMENT  OF  DELINQUENTS.  173 

cause  his  business  is  with  all  sorts  of  men,  he  should  be  noixilog,  one 
that  can  appear  with  different  aspects,  and  act  with  a  great  variety 
of  skill.  But  when  I  say  this,  I  do  not  mean,"  says  he,  "  that  he 
should  be  a  man  of  craft  or  servile  flattery,  or  a  dissembling  hypo- 
crite ;  but  a  man  of  great  freedom  and  boldness,  who  knows,  not- 
withstanding, how  to  condescend  and  accommodate  himself  to  men's 
advantage,  when  occasion  requires,  and  who  can  be  mild  as  well  as 
austere.  For  all  men  are  not  to  be  treated  in  the  same  way  ;  no 
physician  uses  the  same  method  with  all  his  patients."  (Chrysost. 
De  Sacerdot.  lib.  iii.  c.  16.) 

Zeal  and  courage  in  defending  the  truth  is  an  other  quality  which 
the  ancients  correctly  represent  as  requisite  in  a  christian  minister. 
"  In  other  cases,"  says  Gregory  Nazianzen,  "  there  is  nothing  so 
peaceable,  so  moderate,  as  christian  bishops  ;  but  in  this  case  they 
cannot  bear  the  name  of  moderation  to  betray  their  God  by  silence 
and  sitting  still ;  here  they  are  exceedingly  eager  warriors  and  fight- 
ing champions,  that  are  not  to  be  overcome."  (Greg.  Naz.  Orat. 
21,  De  Laud.  Athan.:  Conf.  Orat.  20,  De  Laud.  Basil.)  But  in 
speaking  thus,  they  made  it  to  be,  at  the  same  time,  distinctly  under- 
stood that  "  the  weapons  of  our  warfare  are  not  carnal." 

Such  are  among  the  truly  excellent  remarks  of  Chrysostom,  Greg- 
ory Nazianzen,  and  Jerome,  concerning  the  character  and  duties  of 
a  christian  minister.  These  specimens  of  practical  piety  and  wis- 
dom from  the  writings  of  the  Fathers,  while  they  convey  important 
instruction  on  the  particular  subject  to  which  they  relate,  may  also 
serve  to  direct  our  attention,  in  general,  to  the  true  value  and  use  of 
those  precious  records  of  the  early  church.  Let  us  not  be  unwilling 
to  avail  ourselves  of  the  piety,  learning,  and  experience  of  ancient 
christian  teachers  ;  nor  be  disposed  to  overlook  what  is  really  im- 
portant in  their  writings,  merely  because  they  were  subject  to  hu- 
man infirmity,  and  were  involved  in  some  of  those  errors  which  grad- 
ually gathered  round  the  church  from  the  second  century,  until  the 
days  of  the  blessed  Reformation. 

§  5.    PtJNISHJIENT  OF  DELINQUENTS.* 

The  stern  and  awful  sanctity  of  the  primitive  christians  is  pecu- 
liarly manifest  in  the  severity  of  that  discipline  to  which  they  sub- 


Siegel's  AllerthOmer  HI.  Bd.  70. 


174  OF  ©RDINATION. 

jected  offending  members  of  their  communion.  Their  system  of 
discipline  towards  la5'men  who  were  subject  to  it,  is  fully  developed 
in  a  subsequent  part  of  this  work,  chap.  xvii.  But  the  clergy  of 
every  grade  were  the  subjects  of  a  discipline  peculiar  to  their  body  ; 
and  in  some  respects  even  more  severe  than  that  of  private  members 
of  the  church.  The  latter  might,  by  suitable  demonstrations  of  peni- 
tence, be  again  restored  to  their  former  standing ;  but  this  privilege 
was  never  accorded  to  a  degraded  or  excommunicated  minister.  If, 
for  any  offence,  he  once  fell  under  ecclesiastical  censure,  he  was  ex- 
cluded from  the  clerical  order  entirely  and  forever. 

The' offences  for  which  a  clergyman  was  liable  to  censure  or  pun- 
ishment were  very  numerous,  and  continually  mcreased  as  the  spirit 
of  ancient  Christianity  degenerated  and  gave  place  to  the  ostentatious 
formalities  of  later  times.  They  may,  however,  be  comprised  un- 
der the  following  classes  :  apostasy,  heresy,  simony,  neglect  of  duty 
of  any  kind,  especially  departure  from  the  prescribed  forms  of  wor- 
ship;  and  open  immorality. 

Many  of  these  offences  evidently  related  to  the  peculiar  trials  to 
which  the  primi.ive  Christians  were  subject,  and  to  the  heresies  and 
defections  which  were  consequent  upon  them.  Offences  of  this 
character  were  visited  with  peculiar  severity  upon  the  clergy. 

The  punishments  inflicted  upon  offending  members  of  the  clerical 
body  during  the  first  seven  or  eight  centuries,  may  be  reduced  to  the 
following  heads  :  suspension,  degradation,  exclusion  from  the  com- 
munion, imprisonment,  corporal  punishment,  and  excommunication. 

1.  Suspension.  This  related  either  to  the  salary  of  the  clergyman, 
or  to  his  office.  Both  methods  of  punishment  were  practised  by  the 
ancient  cliurch.  An  instance  is  related  in  the  writings  of  Cyprian 
of  some  whose  monthly  wages  were  suspended,  while  they  were  al- 
lowed to  continue  in  the  discharge  of  their  office.  Decrees  to  this 
effect  were  ordained  by  the  councils  of  Nice,  Ephesus,  and  Agde. 

Suspension  from  office  was  varied  according  to  circumstances. 
At  one  time  the  offender  was  suspended  from  the  performance  of  the 
active  duties  of  his  office,  whilst  he  still  retained  his  clerical  rank 
with  his  brethren  in  the  ministry.^  At  another,  he  was  forbidden  to 
perform  some  of  the  duties  of  his  office,  while  he  continued  in  the 
discharge  of  others  ;  and  again,  he  was  debarred  the  performance  of 
all  ministerial  duties  for  a  definite  period  of  time. 

2.  Degradation,    This  punishment  consisted,  as  its  name  implies. 


PUNISHMENT  OF  DELINQUENTS.  175 

in  removing  the  offender  from  a  iiigher  to  a  lower  grade  of  office. 
This  sentence  of  degradation  appears  to  bave  been  final  and  irrevo- 
cable.- Bishops  were  in  this  manner  transferred  from  a  larger  to  a 
smaller  or  less  important  diocese.-^  Presbyters  were  degraded  to  the 
order  of  deacons  ;  and  deacons,  to  that  of  subdeacons.  This  spe- 
cies of  punishment  was  also  inflicted  upon  bishops  in  Africa  by  su- 
perseding them  in  their  expected  succession  to  the  office  of  arch- 
bishop or  metropolitan.'* 

3.  Exclusion  from  the  communion.  Of  this  there  were  two  kinds, 
which  were  denominated  communio  peregriiia,  and  communio  laica. 
The  former  has  sometimes  been  confounded  with  the  latter,  or  it 
has  been  supposed  to  denote  a  communion  in  one  kind,  or  commu- 
nion only  at  the  point  of  death,  which,  in  the  Romish  church,  was 
regarded  as  a  kind  of  passport  to  the  future  world.  The  most  prob- 
able explanation  of  this  point,  confessedly  obscure,  is,  that  the  term 
communion  implied  not  only  a  participation  of  the  eucharist,  but  in 
all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  a  member  of  the  church.  Travellers 
and  strangers,  unless  they  had  testimonials  certifying  to  their  regular 
standing  in  the  church,  were  presumed  to  be  under  censure,  and 
were  not  allowed  the  privileges  of  full  communion,  though  permitted 
to  receive,  if  need  be,  a  maintenance  from  the  funds  of  the  church. 
An  instance  is  related  of  Chrysostom,  who  on  a  certain  occa- 
sion hospitably  entertained  the  bishop  of  Alexandria,  who  had  fled 
from  persecution  to  him  at  Constantinople  ;  but  the  bishop  was  not 
allowed  to  partake  of  the  eucharist,  until  it  had  been  fully  ascertained 
that  no  just  accusation  could  be  brought  against  him.  Clergy- 
men under  censure  were  sometimes  treated  in  this  way  in  their  own 
communion.  They  were  placed  in  the  same  relations  as  strangers, 
which  was  denoted  by  the  phrase  communio  peregrina.^  Under 
these  circumstances  they  could  neither  officiate  nor  be  present  at  the 
celebration  of  the  Lord's  supper,  until  they  had  given  the  prescribed 
satisfaction. 

The  act  of  communion  was  indeed  the  highest  privilege  of  a  lay- 
man ;  but  it  was  a  severe  rebuke  to  one  who  had  been  elevated  to 
the  rank  of  the  clergy  to  be  again  degraded  to  the  condition  of  a 
layman,  and  to  be  required  to  communicate  as  a  layman  at  the  table 
of  the  Lord.  This  was  a  kind  of  mitigated  excommunication.  He 
was  excluded  from  the  body  of  the  clergy  and  reduced  to  the  condition 
of  a  humble  individual.     In  this  situation  he  was  required  to  perform 


176  OF  CHTJRCHES  AND  SACKED  PLACES. 

certain  services  for  that  same  body  from  which  he  had  been  expelled. 
This  was  styled  communio  laica,  and  the  subject  of  this  penalty  was 
said  to  be  delivered  over  to  the  secular  arm,  curiae  tradi,  in  the 
phraseology  of  the  ancient  canonists. 

4.  Imprisotmienl.  The  custom  of  confining  delinquent  clergy- 
men in  monasteries  appears  to  have  taken  its  rise  in  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries.  At  a  later  period  it  became  a  frequent  mode  of  pun- 
ishment. 

5.  Corporal  punishment.  This  kind  of  punishment,  together  with 
the  last  mentioned,  was  inflicted  only  on  clergy  of  the  inferior  or- 
ders.6  This  mode  of  punishment  was  by  no  means  uncommon  in 
the  time  of  Augustine.  A  presbyter,  who  had  given  false  witness, 
could  first  be  deposed  from  his  office  ;  and  then,  as  a  layman,  might 
be  subjected  to  corporal  punishment.  Connected  with  the  churches 
in  large  cities,  such  as  Constantinople,  there  were  houses  of  correc- 
tion, decanica,  for  administering  the  correction  of  imprisonment  and 
of  corporal  punishment. 

6.  Excommunication.  This  was  the  last  and  highest  form  of  ec- 
clesiastical censure.  It  cut  off  all  hope  on  the  part  of  the  offender 
from  ever  being  again  reinstated  in  the  ministry,  even  if  he  were  re- 
stored to  the  fellowship  of  the  churches.  None  who  had  at  any  time 
been  exposed  to  public  censure,  were  restored  again  to  their  office.''' 

The  above  penalties  appear  to  have  been  inflicted  by  authority  of 
ecclesiastical  councils  alone,  or  at  least  to  have  been  prescribed  by 
them. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

OF    CHURCHES    AND    SACRED    PLACES. 

§  1.  History  of  Churches. 

Christians  in  different  ages  have  called  the  places  where  they 
were  wont  to  meet  together  for  religious  worship  by  a  great  variety 
of  names.  The  primitive  appellation  was,  acccording  to  some,  ix- 
i(Xr)(Titt,  1  Cor.  11:  18,  20,  22.  So  it  was  used  by  Ignatius,  Clemens 
Alexandrinus,  Tertullian,  etc.     To  this  may  be  added  the  names  of 


HISTORY  OF  CHURCHES.  177 

olxog  ^sou,oly.og  iy.y.h,(fitj(g,doiniiiicU7n,  Domus  Dei,  eiC.xvQiuxuv^Tx^otr- 
fvxT>'j(Jiov,  v«6g,  teinphwi,  elc,  the  Lord's  house,  houseof  the  church, 
bouse  of  prayer,  temple,  etc.  These  names  became  familiar  in  the 
third  and  fourth  centuries. 

The  German  kirclie,  from  which  is  derived  the  Scotch  kirk,  and 
English  church,  came  into  use  in  the  eighth  century.  The  original 
of  the  word  is  y-vQiaxuv,  xi'^jiny.i'j,  the  Lord's  house.  Churches  have 
also  been  entitled  /.luoivgiu,  in  honor  of  the  holy  martyrs,  and  for  the 
same  reason  particular  churches  have  been  called  by  the  names  of 
different  saints  and  martyrs,  St.  Paul's,  St.  Peter's,  etc.  The  fol- 
lowing names  have  also,  at  different  times,  and  for  various  reasons, 
been  given  to  christian  churches  :  tituli,  [tliIol],  uvu/.toqov,  7()6nui,a,- 
ay.rivi},  concilia,  conciliahula,  conventicuia,  casae,  avvoSoi,  fiovaatijQiov, 
y,oiin]xiiQiov,  columba,  corpus  Christi,  vuug,  vijaog,  unocnolilov,  ttqo— 
(fji]iHov,  and  many  others. 

The  primitive  Christians  were  compelled  to  unite  in  the  worship 
of  God  wherever  they  could  meet  without  molestation, — in  private 
houses,  in  the  open  fields,  in  desert  and  solitary  places,  in  caves  and 
dens  of  the  earth. ^  In  view  of  these  circumstances,  many  have  sup- 
posed that  no  sacred  edifices  were  set  apart  for  the  worship  of  God 
in  the  first  and  second  centuries.  But  there  is  satisfactory  evidence 
of  the  existence  of  such  churches  in  the  year  202,^  and  that 
they  were  allowed  to  appropriate  to  themselves  such  places  of  wor- 
ship, under  the  emperors,  from  A.  D.  222  to  235,^  and  again  fro«i 
2G0  to  300.'*  From  this  time,  the  evidence  of  the  existence  of  chris- 
tian churches  becomes  full  and  satisfactory.^  Dioclesian  directs  his 
rage  especially  against  them,  ordering  them  by  his  edict,  A.  D.  303, 
to  be  razed  to  the  earth,^  of  which  more  than  forty  had  already  been 
erected  in  Rome.  Optatus  mentions  that  in  his  time  there  were  forty 
or  more  large  churches  in  Rome. — De  Schism.  Donat.  lib.  2.  c.  4. 

After  the  persecution  of  Dioclesian,  under  Constantino  and  his  suc- 
cessors, the  demolished  churches  were  rebuilt,  and  such  as  had  been 
closed  were  again  opened.'''  Pagan  temples  were,  in  some  instances, 
converted  into  christian  churches;  but  they  were  usually  deslroyed, 
as  not  suited  for  public  worship.^  Churches  in  great  numbers  were 
erected,  in  a  style  of  magnificence  before  unknown,  in  Constanti- 
nople, in  Jerusalem,  and  throughout  'he  cities  of  Palestine,  and  sol- 
emnly dedicated  to  the  worship  of  God.^  This  religious  rite  was 
first  introduced  by  Constantino.^" 

23 


178  or  CHURCHES  AND  SACRED  PLACES. 

In  his  zeal  for  building  churches,  Justinian  I.  far  surpassed  all  oth- 
ers, and  throughout  his  long  reign,  from  A.D.  527  to  565,  made  this 
the  great  business  of  his  life.  But  his  chief  care  he  expended  in 
building  the  magnificent  and  colossal  church  of  St.  Sophia  at  Con- 
stantinople. Such  was  the  splendor  of  this  work,  that  at  the  conse- 
cration of  it  he  exclaimed,  iVfi'/zjjKK  (r«  .5'oAojU&>r,  "  I  have  surpassed 
thee,  O  Solomon."  The  perpendicular  height,  from  the  summit  of 
the  grand  arch  to  the  pavement  of  this  edifice,  was  one  hundred  and 
eighty  feet.  Some  idea  of  this  great  work  may  be  obtained  from  the 
number  of  ministers  and  attendants  who  were  appointed  by  the  de- 
cree of  the  emperor  for  the  service  of  this  church.  They  were  as 
follows  :  sixty  presbyters,  one  hundred  deacons,  forty  deaconesses, 
ninety  subdeacons,  one  hundred  and  ten  readers,  twenty-five  singers, 
one  hundred  door-keepers  ;  making  a  retinue  of  five  hundred  and 
twenty-five  ministers  and  attendants  !  The  value  of  40,000  pounds 
of  silver  was  expended  in  ornamenting  the  altar  and  the  parts  adja- 
cent.    The  entire  cost  was  nearly  $5,000,000.^^ 

After  the  death  of  Justinian,  the  zeal  for  building  churches  greatly 
declined,  and  few  of  any  notoriety  were  erected  from  the  fifth  to  the 
eighth  century.  The  arts  of  architecture,  sculpture  and  painting, 
had  fallen  into  disrepute,  and  the  churches  which  were  erected  were 
of  an  inferior  character,  devoid,  in  a  great  degree,  of  ornament  and 
taste. 

The  Byzantine,  or  ancient  CTOthic  style  of  architecture,  was  intro- 
duced under  Theodoric,  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century  j^^ 
and  in  this  and  the  following  centuries,  many  churches  of  this  order 
were  built  in  Italy,  Spain,  France,  England,  and  Germany.  From 
the  seventh  to  the  twelfth  century,  the  resources  of  the  christian 
church  were  expended  chiefly  on  cloisters,  monasteries,  and  other 
establishments  suited  to  the  ascetic  life,  to  which  Christians  of  those 
ages  generally  addicted  themselves. 

The  vast  cathedrals  of  Europe,  in  the  style  of  Modern  Gothic, 
are  the  product  of  the  middle  ages,  and  some  of  them  date  back 
even  to  the  thirteenth  century.  About  this  time  ecclesiastical  archi- 
tecture attained  to  the  height  of  its  perfection.  After  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  pointed  arch,  at  the  beginning  of  this  period,  buildings 
were  erected  which  exceeded,  in  size  and  architectural  beauty,  all 
which  had  hitherto  been  dedicated  to  the  services  of  the  church. 
The  style  of  architecture  which  obtained  at  this  time  has  been  usu- 


HISTORX^  OF  CHURCHES.  179 

ally  denominated  Gothic,  or  new  Gothic  ;  but  it  may  more  properly 
claim  the  title  of  German,  or  English.  It  prevailed  in  Germany, 
the  Netherlands,  England,  and  Denmark  ;  and  from  those  countries 
it  was  introduced  into  Italy,  France,  and  Spain.  Some  suppose  that 
Saxony  is  the  country  to  which  its  origin  may  be  traced. 

Some  antiquaries  regard  the  beautiful  architecture  of  this  period 
as  a  sudden  etTect  produced  by  the  invention  of  the  pointed  arch  ; 
while  others  contend  that  it  was  the  result  of  a  gradual  improvement 
in  the  art  during  the  course  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries. 
Certain,  however,  it  is,  that  this  style  of  building,  after  having  at- 
tained its  perfection  more  or  less  rapidly  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
prevailed  almost  exclusively  during  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth. 

Opinions  are  divided  also  upon  a  question  relating  to  the  quarter 
from  which  this  style  was  originally  derived.  Some  persons  sup- 
pose that  it  was  brought  from  the  Arabians  or  Saracens,  at  the  time 
of  the  Crusades,  or  from  the  same  people,  in  Spain  and  Sicily,  at  a 
still  earlier  date.  And  it  seems  likely  that  some  of  its  forms,  at  least, 
may  have  originated  in  this  quarter.  Others  refer  the  design  to  the 
talent  and  invention  of  one  or  two  great  masters,  whom  they  sup- 
pose to  have  flourished  in  the  early  part  of  the  century,  but  without 
being  able  to  say  who  they  were.  While  others  again  consider  that 
we  are  indebted  for  the  improvement  to  the  societies  of  masons, 
which  existed  from  a  very  early  period,  and  were  greatly  encour- 
aged by  popes  and  emperors  during  the  middle  ages.  They  had 
lodges  in  England  and  on  the  Continent ;  some  place  their  beginning 
in  Germany,  others  in  France,  and  others  in  England  under  the 
Saxon  kings.  These  architectural  corporations  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  modern  freemasons. 

Early  in  the  eleventh  century  began  the  system  of  raising  money 
for  ecclesiastical  buildings  by  the  sale  of  indulgences.  The  example 
of  this  practice  was  set  by  Pontius,  bishop  of  Aries,  in  the  year  1016. 
According  to  Morinus,  (De  Sacram.  Panit.  lib.  vii.  c.  14,  20,)  the 
French  bishops  professed,  during  the  twelfth  century,  to  remit  a 
third  or  fourth  part  of  penance  to  persons  who  should  contribute  a 
certain  sum  of  money  towards  the  building  or  restoring  of  a  place 
of  worship.  In  this  way  Mauritius,  bishop  of  Paris,  built  the  splen- 
did cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  and  four  abbeys  ;  for  which,  however, 
he  incurred  the  censure  of  some  of  his  contemporaries.  In  later 
times  the  example  was  frequently  followed  at  Rome  ;  and  it  is  well 


180  OF  CHURCHES  AND  SACRED  PLACES. 

known  that  the  collection  of  Peter's  pence,  and  the  sale  of  indul- 
gences in  raising  money  for  the  building  of  St.  Peter's,  was  one  of 
the  proximate  causes  of  the  German  reformation. 

§  2.  Form,  Site,  and  Position  of  Churches. 

1.  Form.  The  most  ancient  and  approved  form  for  churches 
was  an  oblong  ;  sometimes  with  parallel  sides,  but  more  frequently 
elliptical,  like  the  form  of  a  ship.  So  the  Apostolical  Constitutions 
direct,  lib.  2.  c.  57,  7xqi~nov  fitv  o  oixog  lora)  f7T/^u»'x>;c,  (oblong)  uari? 
toixe  vifC.  As  it  was  common  to  speak  of  the  christian  community 
under  the  metaphor  of  a  ship,  so  the  edifice  in  which  they  worship- 
ped was  denominated  naris,  a  ship,  circa,  an  ark,  navis  Noae,  the 
ark  of  Noah,  navicula  Petri,  the  boat  of  Peter  ;  having  an  allegori- 
cal reference  to  the  perils  to  which  the  church  was  exposed,  and  its 
safety  in  God. 

Another  favorite  form  for  several  ages  after  Constantino  the  Great 
was  that  of  a  cross,  (jravgov  diyrjy,  ajavgoiiStj^  aiavQuna.  Some 
were  also  quadrangular,  octagonal ,  poly gonal ,  and  sometimes,  though 
very  rarely,  circular ;  this  was  the  usual  form  of  lieathen  temples, 
and  therefore  was  disapproved  by  Christians. 

2.  Site.  For  the  location  of  their  churches  the  primitive  Chris- 
tians selected  the  summit  of  some  high  hill  or  elevated  ground,  unless 
compelled  for  the  sake  of  concealment  to  resort  to  some  place  less 
conspicuous.  At  other  times  they  erected  their  churches  over  the 
graves  of  martyrs  and  confessors.  And  not  unfrequently  for  some 
special  reason,  they  prepared  for  themselves  churches  and  oratories 
under  ground,  which  served  both  for  devotional  purposes,  and  as 
sepulchres  for  their  dead.^  In  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries, 
there  were  many  such  in  Germany  ;  these  were  denominated  >;^i'7r- 
T«/,  cryptae. 

"  During  the  sanguinary  persecutions  that  assailed  the  primitive 
disciples,  the  myrmidons  of  imperial  vengeance  often  broke  in  up- 
on their  worship,  dispersed  their  assemblies,  and  violently  disposses- 
sed them  of  the  "  upper  rooms,"  in  which  they  were  wont  to  con- 
gregate ;  and  in  these  circumstances,  while  some  fled  to  the  moun- 
tains and  some  to  the  deserts,  multitudes  took  permanent  refuge  in 
the  spacious  cemeteries  that  were  situated  in  the  outskirts  of  the_an- 
cient  cities.     Amid  the  deep  and  unbroken  solitude  of  the  cata- 


ARRANGEMENT  AND  CONSTITUENT  PARTS.  181 

combs— places  of  abode  less  irksome,  perhaps,  from  the  ancient 
style  of  building,  than  we  are  apt  to  imagine, — they  solaced  and  ani- 
mated one  another  from  midnight  till  dawn,  with  spiritual  exhorta- 
tions to  constancy  in  the  faith ;  and  while  the  sword  of  vengeance 
was  sheathed,  and  the  fury  of  their  jjcrsecutors  slumbered  in  the 
night,  they  continued,  in  those  undiscovered  retreats,  their  wonted 
exercises  of  prayer  and  praise.  About  forty-three  of  such  subter- 
ranean excavations  still  remain  in  the  neighborhood  of  Rome  alone, 
containing  the  most  convincing  evidences  that  they  were  employed 
for  the  ordinances  of  religion,  as  well  as  for  concealment ;  and  when 
we  consider  that  numbers  died,  and  deposited  their  bones  there, 
some  of  whom  had  eminently  distinguished  themselves  as  martyrs 
in  the  cause  of  Christ,  it  is  not  difficult  to  imagine  the  strong  emo- 
tions that  would  animate  the  primitive  Christians  for  the  venerable 
dust  that  surrounded  them,  and  the  intense  power  which  religion 
would  acquire  over  their  minds,  in  places  which  served  at  once  for 
the  offices  of  worship  and  for  the  burial  of  the  saints."* 

3.  Position,  or  aspect.  In  the  aspect  of  their  churches,  the  an- 
cient Christians  reversed  the  order  of  the  Jews,  placing  the  altar  on 
the  East,  so  that  in  focing  towards  the  altar  in  their  devotions  they 
were  turned  to  the  East,  in  opposition  to  the  Jewish  custom  of  turn- 
ing towards  the  West  in  prayer.  As  the  Jews  began  their  day  with 
the  setting  sun,  so  the  followers  of  Christ  began  theirs  with  the 
rising  sun.  The  eye  of  the  Christian  turned  with  peculiar  interest 
to  the  East,  whence  the  day-spring  from  on  high  had  visited  him. 
There  the  morning  star  of  his  hope  fixed  his  admiring  gaze.  Thence 
arose  the  Sun  of  righteousness  with  all  his  heavenly  influences. 
Thither  in  prayer  his  soul  turned  with  kindling  emotions  to  the  altar 
of  his  God.  And  even  in  his  grave,  thither  still  he  directed  his 
slumbering  eye,  in  quiet  expectation  of  awaking  to  behold  in  the 
same  direction  the  second  appearing  of  his  Lord,  when  he  shall 
come  in  the  clouds  of  heaven  to  gather  his  saints.^ 

§  3.  Arrangement,  and  constituent  parts. 

No  established  order  of  arrangement  and  division  prevailed  in  the 
first  three  centuries.     The  churches  of  this  period  were  rude  and 

*  Jamieson,pp.  lOG,  107. 


182  OF  CHURCHES  AND  SACREU  PLACES. 

simple  structures,  varying  in  form  and  size  according  to  circumstan- 
ces ;  but  about  the  fourth  century,  great  uniformity  began  to  be  ob- 
served in  this  respect.  The  body  of  the  church  was  divided  into 
three  divisions^  corresponding  with  the  three  orders  among  Chris- 
tians ;  the  cZer^^,  including  all  officers  of  the  community,  ihe  faith- 
ful, or  believers,  and  the  catechumens.  This  arrangement  also  bore 
a  resemblance  to  the  division  of  the  Jewish  temple  into  the  holy  of 
holies,  the  sanctuary,  and  the  court.  Perhaps  there  was  an  inten- 
tional reference  to  both  of  these  divisions  ;  for  it  must  be  remembered 
that  there  was,  at  this  time,  an  increasing  disposition,  in  the  chris- 
tian church,  to  imitate  the  rites  of  Jewish  worship.  The  three  divi- 
sions were,  1.  The  bema  or  sanctuary,  a  sacred  enclosure  around 
the  altar  appropriated  to  the  clergy.  2.  The  naos  or  nave,  occu- 
pied by  the  faithful,  the  lay  members  of  the  church.  3.  The  nar- 
thex,  or  ante-temple,  the  place  of  the  penitents  and  catechumens. 
Sometimes  four  or  five  divisions  are  enumerated  ;  which  arise  from 
sub-dividing  the  narlhex  into  outer  and  inner,  and  reckoning  the  e.xe- 
drael,  or  rniier  buildings,  as  a  portion  of  the  church.  We  adhere  to 
the  threefold,  or  more  simple  division,  and  proceed  to  speak  of  each 
part  in  the  order  already  described. 

§  4.  Of  the  Bema,  or  SANCTUARy.* 

The  bema,  or  sanctuary,  the  inner  portion  of  the  church  which 
was  appropriated  to  the  clergy,  was  known  by  many  different 
names.  It  was  called  the  chorus  or  choir, '^  from  the  singing  of  the 
service  by  the  clergy,  ^i]^a  from  ava^aivtiv,  to  ascend,  being  an  ele- 
vated platform,  uyiov,  uyiua^a,  ayiov,  ayiav,  sanctum,  sanctua)'iu7n,^ 
etc.,  because  it  was  the  sanctuary  where  most  of  the  sacred  rites 
were  performed.  It  was  also  denominated  UguTttov,-^  ngta^vTi'jQiov, 
SiaxovLxov,  &v(jiu<yTi'\QLOv,^  altar,  a^aiop,  uSvtov,°  places  not  to  be  en- 
tered. Neither  laymen  nor  females  were  permitted,  on  any  occa- 
sion, to  enter  it ;  kings  and  emperors  were  privileged  with  a  seat 
within  this  sacred  enclosure,  from  whene  it  received  the  name  of 
avuxTOQov,  royal  palace. 

The  platform  of  this  portion  of  the  church  was  a  semi-circular  or 
elliptical  recess,  with  a  corresponding  arch  overhead,  and  separated 

*  See  plan  of  ancient  churches,  at  the  beginning. 


THE  NAVE.  183 

from  the  nave  by  a  railing  curiously  wrought  in  the  form  of  net  work 
cancelli,  hence  the  name  chancel.  Within  v/as  the  throne  of  the 
bishop,  and  subordinate  seats  on  the  right  and  left  for  the  lower 
clergy.*'  The  bishop's  throne  was  usually  covered  with  a  veil,  and 
for  this  reason  was  styled  cathedra  velala~'  In  the  middle  of  the 
churcli  stood  the  holy  altar,  or  communion  table,  T§«nf^a  Efpa,  (ivcr- 
Txii'i,  nvsvfiariyt),  the  sacred,  mysterious,  or  spiritual  table,  in  such  a 
position  as  to  be  easily  encompassed  on  every  side.  On  this  the  sa- 
cred elements  were  placed  in  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper. 
On  one  side  of  the  altar  was  a  small  table  or  secretary  for  receiving 
the  customary  oblations  previous  to  the  sacrament ;  and  on  the  other 
stood  the  (Timvcpvluy.iov,  a  recess  into  which  the  sacramental  vessels 
were  conveyed  to  be  washed  and  replaced  before  being  removed  to 
the  sacristry  in  which  they  were  usually  kept. 

In  process  of  time,  this  part  of  the  church  became  the  depository 
of  sacred  relics,  and  the  burial  place  of  the  sainted  dead. 

§  5.  The  Nave. 

The  nave,  or  main  body  of  the  church,  was  called  by  different 
names  derived  from  the  uses  to  which  it  was  applied.  It  was  called 
the  oratory  of  the  people  ;  because  there  they  met  for  religious  wor- 
ship, reading  the  Scriptures,  prayer  and  the  preaching  of  the  word. 
It  was  also  called  the  place  of  assembly,  and  the  quadrangle,  from 
its  quadrangular  form  in  contrast  with  the  circular  or  elliptical  form 
of  the  chancel. 

In  a  central  position  stood  the  ambo,  ^ijfia  joiv  avayvmaTbJv,  sug- 
gestum  leciorum,  or  reader's  desk,  elevated  on  a  platform  above  the 
level  of  the  surrounding  seats.  This  was  sometimes  called  the  pul- 
pit and  the  tribunal  of  the  church,^  in  distinction  from  the  /5»//ua  or 
tribunal  of  the  choir.  All  public  notices,  letters  missive,  and  docu- 
ments of  public  interest,  were  also  communicated  from  the  reader's 
desk.  The  choristers  and  professional  singers,  yavovixol  ipdlrat,  were 
provided  with  seats  on  or  near  this  desk.  The  seats  in  front  and  on 
either  side  were  occupied  by  the  believers  or  christian  communi- 
cants. 

The  gospels  and  the  epistles  were  chanted  from  before  the  altar. 
The  sermon  was  also  delivered  by  the  preacher  standing  on  the  plat- 
form of  the  sanctuary  before  the  altar,  or  on  the  steps  leading  to  it. 


184  OF  CHURCHES  AND  SACRED  PLACES. 

But  afterwards,  wlien  larger  churches  were  erected,  it  became  diffi- 
cult for  the  preacher  to  make  himself  heard  from  this  station.  To 
remedy  this  inconvenience  a  platform  was  erected  for  the  speaker 
in  front  of  the  bema,  within  the  body  of  the  nave,  and  surrounded  by 
railings  called  cancelli,  which  gave  to  this  platform  the  name  of 
chancel.  Such  was  the  origin  and  appropriate  signification  of  the 
term.  Afterwards,  it  became  in  common  with  many  others,  the 
name  of  all  that  space  which  was  allotted  to  the  altar,  and  to  those 
that  ministered  at  the  altar. 

The  body  of  the  church  was  very  early  divided  in  separate  parts, 
and  specific  seats  assigned  to  the  several  classes  into  which  the  audi- 
ence were  divided.-  The  object  of  this  careful  division  was  to  pre- 
vent disorder  and  confusion,  and  to  invite  a  fuller  attendance.  Such 
an  arrangement,  indeed,  was  indispensably  necessary  in  connection 
with  their  various  classes  of  believers,  penitents,  catechumens,  etc., 
and  the  services  adapted  to  each.  But  between  the  Eastern  and 
Western  churches  there  has  never  been  any  uniformity  in  the  inter- 
nal arrangements  of  their  places  of  worship. 

The  rules  of  the  primitive  churches  required  the  separation  of  the 
sexes  in  the  church,  and  this  was  generally  observed.^  The  men 
occupied  the  left  of  the  altar  on  the  south  side  of  the  church,  and 
the  women  the  right,  on  the  north.  They  were  separated  from  one 
another  by  a  veil  or  lattice.  In  the  Eastern  churches  the  women 
and  catechumens  occupied  the  galleries  above,  while  the  men  sat 
below.  In  some  churches  a  separate  apartment  was  also  allotted  to 
widows  and  virgins. 

The  catechumens  occupied  a  place  next  to  the  believers,  arranged 
in  the  order  of  their  several  classes.  But  they  were  required  to 
withdraw  at  the  summons  of  the  deacons — ite,  catechumeni  !  In  the 
rear  of  the  catechumens  sat  the  penitents  who  had  been  allowed  a 
place  again  within  the  church.  In  the  seating  of  the  assembly  and 
preservation  of  order,  the  ostiarii,  acolyths,  subdeacons,  deacons, 
and  deaconesses  all  bore  a  part.'* 

A  certain  part  of  the  church  styled  awXsu,  aoUcc,  aoXdag,  aoXtloVf 
etc.  has  been  the  subject  of  much  dispute  ;  but  it  is  generally  under- 
stood to  denote  the  seat  within  the  chancel,  which  was  appropriated 
to  the  emperors,  kings,  princes,  etc.^ 

The  walls  of  the  church  were  surrounded  by  ante-chambers  and 
recesses,  for  the  accommodation  of  the  assembly,  for  private  read- 


THE  ANTE-TEMPLE.  185 

ing,  meditalion  and  prayer.*^  There  were  aisles  surrounding  the 
nave,  which  separated  it  from  these  chambers.  The  nave  was  fur- 
ther separated  from  the  sanctuary  by  a  partition  of  lattice-work  and 
a  curtain  whicli  could  be  drawn  so  as  to  screen  the  sanctuary  entire- 
ly from  the  view  of  the  assembly^  The  sanctuary  was  usually  con- 
cealed from  the  view  of  the  audience  except  at  the  celebration  of  the 
Lord's  supper,  or  when  the  sermon  was  delivered  from  that  place. 

§  6.  The  Narthex,  or  xVnte-Temple. 

This  was  the  outer  division  of  the  church  within  tlie  walls.  It  was 
called  nqovaog,  ante-temple;  ngoKvla,  porticus,  portico,  and  vuq&j)^ 
ox  ferula,  from  its  oblong  or  dromical  sha[)e.  It  was  an  oblong  sec- 
tion of  the  building  extending  across,  and  occupying  the  front  part 
of  the  interior  of  the  house.  It  was  entered  by  three  doors  leading 
from  the  outer  porch.  From  the  narthex  there  were  also  three  en- 
trances. The  main  entrance  was  in  the  middle  directly  opposite  the 
altar,  and  opening  immediately  into  the  nave.  Two  smaller  doors 
upon  each  side  appear  to  have  opened  into  the  tn^oloq,  or  side  aisles, 
from  which  the  nave  was  entered  by  doors  on  the  north  and  the 
south. 

The  doors  consisted  of  two  folding  leaves,  and  after  the  eleventh 
century  were  often  ornamented  with  bronze  and  with  carved  and 
embossed  work.  The  several  classes  of  worshippers  entered  the 
nave  at  different  doors,  which  were  called  "  the  priest's  door,"  "  the 
men's  door,"  etc. 

The  vestibule  or  -nQovaoc,  appropriately  so  called,  and  situated 
without  the  walls,  was  allotted  to  the  catechumens  and  penitents. 
Heretics  and  unbelievers  were  also  allowed  a  place  here.  The 
council  of  Laodicea,  c.  57,  denied  this  privilege  to  heretics  and  schis- 
matics. But  the  fourth  council  of  Carthage,  c.  84,  directed  that  no 
bishop  should  forbid  one,  whether  gentile,  heretic,  or  Jew  to  attend 
the  first  service — vsque  ad  missam  calecliumenorxim. 

The  portico  or  outer  court,  ngonvla,  included  the  halls  and  colon- 
nades which  constituted  the  outer  or  front  part  of  the  narthex,  and 
was  used  for  various  purposes,  analogous  to  those  of  a  modern  com- 
mittee-room and  vestry.  Here  also  the  bodies  of  the  dead  were  de- 
posited, and  vigils  kept  around  them  until  their  interment. 

The  primitive  Christians  were  accustomed  to  wash  before  enter- 
24 


186  OF  CHURCHES  AND  SACHED  PLACES. 

ing  ihe  church  as  a  symbol  of  the  purity  becoming  that  holy  place. 
For  this  purpose,  in  process  of  time,  the  vessel  or  font  of  water 
which  was  used  in  this  rite  was  introduced  into  the  narthex  or  porch. 
Formerly  it  was  situated  without.  This  vessel  of  water  was  called 
nQrivi],  cpiaXi],  (fQiUQ,  y.olvi.t3HOv,  Xsoviuqiov,  canfJtariis,  nymjphacum, 
etc.  and  is  often  mentioned  by  ancient  authors.^  The  use  of  holy 
tenter  has  been  derived  by  some  from  this  usage  of  the  primitive 
church.  This  superstition  began  at  some  time  subsequent  to  the 
ninth  century. 

The  baptismal  font  came  into  use  on  the  introduction  of  infant- 
baptism  as  baptisteries  fell  into  disuse,  and  when  the  neglect  of  stated 
seasons  of  baptism  had  rendered  the  larger  baptisteries  needless. 

The  following  extract  from  Jamieson  is  inserted  as  a  recapitula- 
tion of  the  principal  points  of  interest  connected  with  the  foregoing 
topics,  pp.  108—111. 

"  The  spot  chosen  for  the  site  of  a  new  church  was  generally  an 
•elevated  piece  of  ground,  consecrated  by  being  the  burying-place  of 
a  martyr, — the  primitive  Christians  deeming  a  church  built  over  the 
remains  of  those  who  were  faithful  unto  death,  a  more  suitable  me- 
morial of  their  excellencies,  than  a  monumental  pillar  erected  to 
their  honor.  It  accordingly  received  their  name,  which  was  inscri- 
bed on  the  front  of  the  edifice.  The  church  was  approached  through 
a  spacious  area,  in  the  middle  of  which  was  a  fountain,  in  which 
every  one,  as  he  entered,  washed  his  hands — an  act  intended  for  a 
significant  memorial  of  the  purity  of  heart  that  alone  can  constitute 
an  acceptable  worshipper.  The  entrance  was  formed  by  a  longitu- 
dinal porch,  within  which  kings  laid  down  their  crowns,  soldiers  their 
arms,  and  magistrates  or  judges  the  insignia  of  their  office.  At  one 
end  of  it  stood  poor  strangers,  or  such  of  that  destitute  order  as,  from 
their  distress  being  recent  and  sudden,  were  allowed  to  make  known 
their  wants  by  asking  alms  of  their  brethren, — while  on  the  opposite 
side  were  stationed  gross  offenders,  who,  being  excommunicated, 
and  deprived  of  the  privilege  of  entering  the  church,  implored  on 
their  bended  knees,  and  with  all  the  agony  of  remorse  and  the  deep- 
est affliction,  the  prayers  and  sympathies  of  the  faithful.  The  inte- 
rior of  the  building — which  was  often  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  or  an 
eight-sided  figure,  but  most  generally  of  an  oblong  shape,  resem- 
bling that  of  a  ship, — was  divided  into  different  compartments,  cor- 
responding to  the   different  classes  of  hearers  that  composed  the 


THE  ANTE-TEMPLE.  187 

primitive  churcli.  Tlic  penitents — under  wliich  term  were  included 
all  offenders  who  had  made  some  progress  in  their  course  of  disci- 
pline,— occupied  the  first  place  on  passing  from  the  porch.  Next  to 
them  were  those  new  converts  who  were  preparing  for  baptism, — 
while  the  body  of  the  church  was  filled  by  the  congregation  of  the 
faithful, — widows  and  young  women  by  themselves, — the  men  with 
their  sons,  the  women  with  their  daughters,  sitting  apart  from  each 
other,  either  on  opposite  sides  of  the  church,  or,  as  was  frequently 
the  case,  the  male  part  of  the  audience  remained  on  the  ground  floor, 
while  the  females  had  a  gallery  appropriated  for  their  use.  At  the 
further  end,  opposite  the  main  entrance,  was  tiie  pulpit,  or  elevated 
bench,  from  which  the  minister  read  the  Scriptures  and  exhorted  the 
people ;  and  immediately  behind  this  was  the  place  set  apart  for  cele- 
brating the  communion, — the  consecrated  elements  of  which  were 
deposited  on  a  plain  moveable  table,  covered  with  a  white  cloth. 
Here  and  there  were  niches  in  the  walls,  sufficiently  large  to  hold 
one  or  two  persons,  each  of  which  was  furnished  with  a  copy  of  the 
Scriptures,  for  the  use  of  those  who  might  choose  to  retire  in  the  in- 
tervals of  public  worship,  to  read  and  to  meditate  in  these  little  re- 
cesses. Besides  this  provision,  invaluable  in  those  days,  when  books 
were  all  in  manuscript  and  costly  in  price,  texts  of  Scripture  appro- 
priate to  each  class  of  hearers  were  inscribed  on  that  part  of  the  wall 
that  lay  immediately  contiguous  to  the  place  they  occupied  in  the 
church,  and  were  so  selected,  as  to  be  perpetual  remembrancers  of 
the  temptations  incident  to  their  age,  of  the  duties  belonging  to  their 
condition,  and  the  motives  and  encouragements  to  stedfastness  in 
faith  and  virtue.  Thus,  to  let  one  example  suffice,  over  the  space 
assigned  to  the  young  women,  was  engraven  in  large  characters  this 
passage  of  Paul,  1  Cor.  7:  34  :  "  There  is  difference  between  a  wife 
and  a  virgin  ;  the  unmarried  woman  careth  for  the  things  of  the 
Lord,  that  she  may  be  holy  in  body  and  in  spirit."  For  the  benefit 
of  those  who  could  not  profit  by  such  means  of  christian  instruction, 
the  custom  was  latterly  introduced  of  decorating  the  walls  of  church- 
es with  pictures  of  the  scenes  and  characters  of  sacred  history. 
Adam  and  Eve  eating  the  forbidden  fruit, — Joseph  sold  by  his  breth- 
ren,— David  encountering  Goliah, — Solomon  dedicating  his  temple, 
Mary  and  the  infant  Jesus, — the  Saviour  expiring  on  the  cross,  were 
delineated  to  the  eye, — intended,  like  historical  paintings,  to  keep  in 
remembrance  the  persons  and  events  they  were  meant  to  represent, 


188  OF  CHURCHES  AND  SACRED  PLACES. 

and  especially  to  enable  the  illiterate  to  read  that  in  tlie  picture  which 
they  had  not  education  enough  to  do  in  the  book.  It  was  towards 
the  end  of  the  third  century  when  this  innovation  crept  into  the 
church  ;  and  although,  doubtless,  it  sprang  from  a  pious  and  well- 
meaning  zeal  for  the  instruction  of  the  ignorant,  yet  it  was  an  impru- 
dent measure,  productive  of  the  worst  consequences,  and  tending  to 
accelerate  the  superstition  which  was  then  advancing  with  gigantic 
strides  over  the  whole  christian  world.  Up  to  that  period,  the  church 
had  kept  itself  pure  and  inviolate  from  the  sanction  of  any  sensible 
representations  either  of  God  or  of  man;  and  in  the  only  instance 
recorded,  prior  to  this  date,  of  anything  approaching  to  a  human 
figure  being  hung  up  in  a  church,  the  pious  father  who  discovered  a 
painting  of  Christ  on  a  curtain  when  travelling  through  a  little  village 
of  Palestine,  got  admission  into  the  sacred  edifice,  and  tore  the  dra- 
pery in  pieces,  being  horror-struck  at  the  daring  sin." 

§  7.  Of  the  Outer  Buildings,  or  Exedrae. 

Under  this  name  were  included  all  the  appendages  belonging  to 
the  church,  such  as  courts,  side-buildings,  wings,  etc.  together  with 
all  those  separate  buildings  pertaining  to  the  main  edifice,  which 
were  situated  in  the  enclosure  of  the  church-yard.  This  enclosure 
around  the  church  was  known  by  various  names,  niQliSoXog,  aioug, 
jiEQiajoiov,  mqaatbiov,  TSTQoctnvXov,  ambitus,  peristylia,  etc.  The 
area  between  the  wall  and  the  church  was  called  atruim,  impluviuni., 
al'&giov,  etc. 

In  this  open  space  stood  the  demoniacs,  and  the  weeping  penitents, 
neither  of  whom  were  permitted  to  enter  within  the  walls  of  the 
church.  About  the  sixth  century  it  became  customary  to  use  the 
church  yard  as  a  burial  place.  In  some  instances  it  was  so  used  as 
early  as  the  fourth  century. 

But  the  most  important  of  the  exedrae  were  the  baptisteries  which 
were  erected  adjacent  to  the  cathedral  churches,  denominated  for 
this  reason,  baptismal,  and  central  churches.  They  must  be  refer- 
red to  those  times,  when  it  was  customary  for  the  bishop  himself  to 
administer  this  ordinance  only  in  these  churches,  and  at  stated  sea- 
sons. These  baptisteries  are  spoken  of  as  in  general  use  in  the  fourth 
century,  from  which  it  may  be  inferred  that  they  are  of  high  antiqui- 
ty.^     The  candidates  for  baptism  were  accustomed  to  meet  in  the 


OF  THE  OUTER  BUILDINGS.  189 

baptistery  to  receive  the  instructions  requisite  for  their  reception  to 
this  ordinance,  and,  for  this  purpose,  it  was  divided  into  separate 
apartments  for  the  accommodation  of  both  sexes.  Meetings  of  the 
whole  congregation,  and  of  synods  could  also  be  held  here,  from 
which  we  may  form  some  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  these  buildings. 
The  remains  of  these  baptisteries  are  still  extant. 

There  were  also  several  other  smaller  buildings  situated  about  the 
church,  such  as  the  vestry  or  reposUonj,  diaconicum  magnum,  in 
which  the  sacred  utensils, — the  ornaments  and  robes  of  the  clergy 
were  deposited  for  safe  keeping.  These  were  entrusted  to  the  care 
of  the  deacons  and  inferior  clergy.  It  was  also  called  utiftijltugxHov, 
ya'CocpvXuxiov,  axsvocpvXdxiov  vestiarium  mutatorium.  Here  the  cler- 
gy were  wont  to  retire  for  private  exercises  preparatory  to  their  pub- 
lic performances,  and  for  private  rehearsals  and  examination  before 
the  bishop  ;  from  whence  it  was  called  secretum,  or  secretarium.  It 
was  also  a  general  audience  room,  where  friends  and  acquaint- 
ances meet  to  exchange  their  affectionate  salutations  and  inquiries, 
hence  called  salutatoritim,  7'eceptorium,  audience  chamber,  reposito- 
ry .^  Many  are  of  opinion  that  this  building  was  also  used  as  a  pris- 
on house  for  the  confinement  of  delinquent  clergymen.  Others  sup- 
pose that  these  ecclesiastical  prisons  were  separate  edifices,  called 
decanica,  but  that  there  were  such  places  of  confinement  is  undeni- 
able.3 

There  was  another  class  of  buildings  called  pasfophoria,  but  the 
learned  are  not  agreed  respecting  the  use  of  them.  According  to 
Rosenmiiller,  they  were  a  kind  of  guard,  or  watch-house.  Others 
suppose  them  to  have  been  apartments  for  the  accommodation  of 
the  clergy. 

Libraries  were  at  a  very  early  period  collected  and  kept  in  con- 
nection with  the  churches,^  which  were  furnished,  not  merely  with 
the  scriptures  in  the  original  and  in  translations,  together  with  the 
books  necessary  for  the  church  service,  but  with  commentaries, 
homilies,  catechisms,  and  theological  works.  These  libraries  were 
of  great  importance,  and  often  were  very  extensive.  The  libraries 
of  Alexandria,  Rome,  and  Constantinople  were  kept  in  separate 
buildings,  adjacent  to  the  church.^  From  the  libraries  of  Jerusalem 
and  Caesarea,  both  Eusebius  and  Jerome  chiefly  derived  the  materials 
for  their  writings.  The  library  of  St.  Sophia  contained  120,000  vol- 
umes. 


190  OF  THE  CHURCHES  AND  SACRED  PLACES, 

Schools  were  very  early  established  in  connection  with  the  church- 
es. If  no  building  was  provided  for  this  purpose,  the  schools  were 
taught  in  the  baptistery,  and  the  vestry.  The  teachers  of  these 
schools  always  instructed  their  catechumens  privately,  and  were 
never  allowed  to  give  public  instructions.  The  sixth  general  coun- 
cil of  Constantinople  directs  the  presbyters  in  country  towns  and  vil- 
lages to  have  schools  to  teach  all  such  children  as  were  sent  to  them, 
for  which  they  should  exact  no  reward,  nor  receive  anything,  unless 
the  parents  of  the  children  thought  fit  to  make  them  a  charitable  do- 
nation by  way  of  voluntary  contribution.  From  all  which  it  is  ap- 
parent that  the  primitive  Christians  regarded  these  schools  as  having 
an  intimate  connection  with  their  churches,  and  essential  to  the  pro- 
motion of  the  same  great  end. 

The  bishops  and  clergy  had  houses  allotted  to  them  adjacent  to 
the  church,  called  olxor  ^aaiktioifi 

Bathing  houses  are  also  mentioned,  and  public  rooms,  called  ava- 
xotynTi]Qioi,  diversoria,  lodging  places,  supposed  by  some  to  be  a  kind 
of  inn, — by  oliiers  they  are  regarded  as  a  common  place  of  resort 
for  rest  and  for  recreation. 

Hospitals  for  the  poor,  and  the  sick,  were  also  maintained  in  con- 
nection with  the  churches. 

§  8.  Of  Towers,  Bells,  and  Organs. 

Towers. — These  were  entirely  unknown  in  the  first  seven  centu- 
ries. The  term  niqyoq,  which  occurs  in  the  description  of  the  an- 
cient churches,  is  used,  not  in  the  usual  sense  of  a  tower,  but  as  sy- 
nonymous with  the  /3)],uc(  or  u^8mv,  the  sanctuary,  or  the  desk.^ 
These  towers  are  first  mentioned  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne.  A 
chapel  built  for  him  in  the  year  873,  was  provided  with  two  towers 
for  bells.  A  church  of  a  cloister,  of  a  date  still  earlier,  837,  is  also 
described  as  having  a  tower  attached  to  it.^  The  same  is  true  of 
the  cathedral  church  at  Mentz,  A.  D.  978.3 

Authors  are  not  agreed  respecting  the  origin  and  use  of  these  ap- 
pendages of  the  church.  The  probable  opinion  is  that  they  were 
erected  on  the  first  introduction  of  bells,  and  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
viding a  convenient  place  for  the  suspension  of  them.  Such  the 
name  implies,  and  so  Du  Cange  explains  the  term.'*    They  were 


OF  TOWERS,  BELLS,  AND  ORGANS.  191 

then  belfries,  erected  not  for  ornament,  but  for  convenience  merely  ; 
and  often  were  separate  structures  totally  detached  from  the  church. 

The  Gothic  toioers  appear  from  the  first  to  have  been  erected  for 
ornament.  They  are  the  creation  of  the  middle  ages,  when  the 
taste  of  the  age  sought  to  depart  as  much  as  possible  from  the  style 
of  the  primitive  church.     For  further  particulars,  see  References.-^ 

jBeZ/s.^— Bells  were  unknown  to  the  Hebrews,  Greeks  and  Romans. 
Even  if  the  tiniinnahula  of  the  Romans  were  bells,  they  were  very 
inconsiderable  in  comparison  with  church-bells  of  later  date.  These 
were  not  in  use  earlier  than  the  seventh  century.  The  most  proba- 
ble opinion  is  that  which  ascribes  the  first  introduction  of  them  to 
Sabianus  bishop  of  Rome,  who  succeeded  Gregory  the  Great  in  the 
year  604.'''  In  the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries  they  were  in  com- 
mon use  in  the  churches  in  France.  Near  the  close  of  the  ninth 
century  the  church  of  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople  was  furnished 
with  bells.^  But  they  have  never  received  much  favor  in  the  East. 
The  Arabs  and  Turks,  especially,  have  always  maintained  a  settled 
aversion  to  them. 

In  the  place  of  bells,  in  the  East,  messengers  were  sent  out  to 
summon  the  people  to  worship.^  In  Egypt,  a  trumpet  was  blown. 
The  inmates  of  their  cloisters  were  summoned  to  prayers  by  knock- 
ing upon  their  cells  with  a  billet  of  wood,  as  is  still  the  custom  with 
the  Nestorian  Christians.  The  Greeks  had  two  instruments  for  this 
purpose,  which  they  called  ar,fxaviQov^  and  ayioaidtjQcov.  [These 
are  described  by  Bingham  as  consisting  of  boards,  or  plates  of  iron 
full  of  holes,  which  were  held  in  the  hand  and  struck  with  a  mallet.] 

In  the  West,  on  the  contrary,  the  bell  was  considered  as  a  sacred 
and  indispensable  appendage  of  a  church.  The  following  is  a  specimen 
of  the  inscriptions  which  were  frequently  written  upon  the  church  bell : 

"  Laudo  Deum  verum,  plebem  voco,  congrego  clerum, 
Defunctos  ploro,  nimbum  [al.  pestem]  fugo,  festaque  honoro." 

The  custom  of  consecrating  and  baptizing  bells  is  a  superstition  of 
early  date,  perhaps  as  early  as  the  eighth  century  ;  that  of  naming 
the  bells  of  churches,  dates  no  further  back  than  the  tenth  or  eleventh 
century.  When  the  enormous  bells  of  Moscow,  Vienna,  Paris,  Tou- 
louse, Milan,  etc.  were  cast,  is  not  known.  They  are  probably  the 
production  of  the  oftddle  ages.  They  harmonize  well  with  the  vast 
cathedrals  and  towers  of  that  period,  so  distinguished  for  its  massive 
and  imposing  structures. 


192  OF  CHURCHES  AND  SACRED  PLACES. 

The  tolling  of  bells  at  the  decease  of  a  person,  and  at  funerals,  was 
originally  an  expedient  of  a  superstitious  age,  to  frighten  away  de- 
mons that  were  supposed  to  be  hovering  around  to  prey  upon  the 
spirit  of  the  dead  or  dying  man.  This  superstition  was  widely  ex- 
tended during  the  dark  ages.  Bells  were  often  rung  with  violence, 
also,  during  a  tempest,  to  frighten  away  demons  and  avert  the  storms 
which  they  were  supposed  to  raise. ^^ 

Organs}^  The  organ  constituted  no  part  of  the  furniture  of  the 
ancient  churches.  The  first  instance  on  record  of  its  use  in  the 
church,  occurred  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  who  received  one  as  a 
present  from  Constantine  Michael,  which  was  set  up  in  the  church  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle.i^  The  musicians  of  this  city,  and  of  Mentz,  learned 
to  play  on  the  organ  in  Italy,  from  which  it  appears  that  they  were 
already  known  in  that  country.  We  have  authentic  accounts  of  the 
manufacture  of  this  instrument  in  Germany,  as  early  as  the  tenth 
century. ^3  England,  about  the  same  time,  distinguished  herself  by 
the  manufacture  of  organs  of  colossal  dimensions. 

The  Greek  church  have  never  favored  the  use  of  the  organ  in  the 
churches,  and  have  generally  restricted  it  to  the  theatre  and  mu- 
sical concerts.  For  this  reason  that  church  has  uniformly  been  in- 
ferior to  the  Latin  in  the  art  of  sacred  music.  But  even  in  this 
church  the  organ  was  not  received  with  universal  favor.  "  Our 
church,"  says  Thomas  Aquinas,  (A.  D.  1250)  "  does  not  use  mu- 
sical instruments,  as  harps  and  psalteries,  in  the  praise  of  God,  lest 
she  should  seem  to  judaize."  From  which  some  have  erroneously 
supposed  that  the  organ  was  not  used  in  any  churches  previous  to 
this  time. 

§  9.  Of  the  Altar. 

Pagan  nations  were  wont  to  erect  altars  in  their  sacred  groves,  on 
iheir  high  places,  in  their  houses,  by  the  way-side,  and  in  public 
places.  Towards  such  altars  the  primitive  Christians  entertained  an 
irreconcilable  aversion.  When  reproached  with  the  charge  of  hav- 
ing no  altars,  no  temples,  no  images,  they  simply  replied,  "  Shrines 
and  altars  we  have  none  :^  Delubra  et  aras  non  hahemus.''''  The 
very  name  of  an  altar  they  discarded  as  profane,  and  carefully  de- 
nominated the  sacramental  board  not  an  altar,  but  a  table,  to  which 
they  applied  a  great  variety  of  epithets,  such  as  holy,  sacred,  divine, 


DOORS  OF  THE  CHURCH.  193 

princely,  royal,  immortal,  awful,  vp.nerable,  spiritual,  emblematical., 
mystical,  etc. 

In  the  second  and  third  centuries  it  became  customary  to  erect 
tables  over  the  graves  of  martyrs  ;  but  whether  it  was  merely  an 
appropriate  memorial  of  the  deceased,  or  whether  if  had  an  allegori- 
cal meaning,  is  still  a  disputed  question.  Augustine,  in  his  eulogy 
upon  Cyprian  of  Carthage,  says,  that  "a  table  was  erected  to  God 
on  the  spot  where  his  body  was  buried,  which  was  called  Cyprian''s 
table  ;  that  Christians  there  might  bring  their  offerings  in  prayer 
where  he  himself  was  made  an  offering  to  God,  and  drink  the  blood 
of  Christ  with  solemn  interest  where  the  sainted  martyr  so  freely 
shed  his  own  blood  ;"  and  much  more  to  the  same  effect.-^  From 
this  and  other  passages  from  the  fathers,  it  would  seem  that  they 
were  wont  to  celebrate  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper  over  the 
graves  of  martyrs.  From  this  circumstance  they  were  unjusffy  ac- 
cused of  paying  divine  honors  to  their  saints. 

But  the  veneration  thus  felt  for  them  led  to  the  erection  of  monu- 
ments to  their  memory  within  the  sanctuary  of  the  church.  These 
monuments  moreover  were,  in  process  of  time,  loaded  with  relics  of 
saints,  and  became  the  occasions  of  such  superstitions  that  it  required 
the  intervention  of  ecclesiastical  councils  to  suppress  them.'^  These 
decrees,  however,  only  directed  the  overthrow  of  such  altars  as  were 
erected  to  the  memory  of  saints,  whilst  such  as  actually  covered  their 
remains  were  suffered  to  stand,  and  were  still  the  occasion  of  much 
superstition.  Religious  pilgrimages  were  often  made  to  visit  these 
sacred  relics. 

Such  altars  as  stood  in  the  open  air,  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  ele- 
ments, and  the  depredations  of  men,  were  constructed  of  the  most 
enduring  materials,  stone,  metals,  etc.  and  were  devoid  of  covering. 
Those,  on  the  other  hand,  which  were  overspread  with  ornamental 
coverings,  were  more  variable  in  their  form,  materials,  and  work- 
manship, and  gradually  received  the  name  of  altars.  In  the  Greek 
church,  but  one  altar  was  admitted.  This  had  a  fixed  position,  and 
was  consecrated  to  one  religious  use.  Whenever  they  had  occasion 
to  use  an  altar  loithout  the  church,  any  convenient  table  was  selected 
and  spread  with  the  consecrated  covering,  called  uvTifAi]v(na,  or  av- 

25 


194  ojf  churches  and  sacred  places. 

§  10.  Of  the  Books  of  the  Chukch. 

To  insure  due  secresy  in  celebrating  the  mysteries  of  their  religion, 
the  ancient  Christians  constructed  the  doors  of  their  churches  with 
peculiar  care.  As  we  have  already  seen,  they  set  apart,  by  the 
solemn  rites  of  ordination,  a  class  of  men  to  guard  the  doors,  and 
prevent  the  intrusion,  not  only  of  the  profane,  but  of  their  own  cate- 
chumens and  penitents.  Such  was  the  profound  secresy  in  which 
they  celebrated  certain  of  their  religious  rites.  In  all  this  they  imi- 
tated the  Jews;  and  the  early  fathers,  like  the  writers  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments,  from  this  usage  derived  abundant  metaphors  re- 
lating to  the  doors  of  the  church,  of  heaven,  of  the  kingdom,  etc. 
Compare  the  following  passages  of  Scripture,  among  many  others  : 
2Chron.  8:14.  Ps.  84:  11.  118:19,20.  John  10:  1.  20:19.  Acts 
14:  27.  Rev.  22:  14,  etc. 

It  was  customary,  in  the  earliest  ages  of  Christianity,  to  post  upon 
the  doors  of  the  church  the  names  of  all  excommunicated  persons. 
At  a  period  somewhat  later,  persons  intending  marriage  were  also 
published  in  the  same  manner.  This  was  also  the  place  for  posting 
,  all  proclamations  and  decisions  of  the  church,  and  public  notices  of 
every  kind. 

There  were  generally  three  main  entrances  to  the  churches,  and 
these  were  provided  with  outer  and  inner  doors,  distinguished  b3''the 
names  a(.i(f  i&vga  and  itXtvialov  ■&vqwv.  The  different  sexes  entered 
by  different  doors  ;i  these  were  made  of  the  choicest  and  most  dura- 
ble wood,  wrought  with  peculiar  care,  and  richly  ornamented  with 
arabesque,  bronze,  gold,  or  silver  plate  ;  not  unfrequently  they  were 
made  of  solid  brass  or  bronze.  Several  of  this  kind  still  remain  in 
the  different  countries  of  Europe.^ 

The  date  of  the  building  or  dedication  of  the  church,  was  usually 
inscribed  on  the  doors.  In  addition  to  this  there  were  inscriptions 
of  various  kinds,  consisting  of  a  motto,  a  doctrinal  sentiment,  a  pas- 
sage of  Scripture,  a  doxology,  or  a  prayer.  A  single  specimen  is 
here  given,  as  taken  from  an  ancient  church.     On  the  outer  side  of 

the  door : 

Fax  tibi  sit,  qiiincunque  Dei  penetralia  Christi 
Pectore  pacifico  candidus  ingrederis. 

On  the  inside  :  • 

Quisquis  ab  aede  Dei,  prrfrctis  ordine  votis, 
Egrederis,  rernea  corpori ;  cordc  inane. 


pavements  and  walls  of  the  church.  195 

'^11.  Of  the  Patements  and  Walls  of  the  Church. 

The  floor  of  the  church  consisted  of  pavement  carefully  laid,  or 
smooth  marble.  In  large  churches  the  narthex  had  a  pavement  of 
plaster ;  the  flooring  of  the  nave  was  plastering  or  boards  ;  whilst  the 
choir  was  adorned  with  mosaic.  Not  unfrequently  there  was  a  tessel- 
lated pavement  of  particolored  and  polished  marble,  constituting  a 
rich  mosaic  work.  A  curious  specimen  of  this  ancient  mosaic  was 
found  in  1805,  near  Salzburg,  delineating  the  story  of  Theseus  and 
Ariadne.  Such  decorations,  in  imitation  of  the  Jewish  temple, 
1  Kings  6:  15 — 30,  were  used  in  the  churches  so  early  as  the  fourth 
century.  From  the  seventh  to  the  tenth  century,  it  became  cus- 
tomary to  encumber  and  disfigure  the  nave  and  choir  with  the  graves 
of  the  dead,  and  from  that  period  the  floors  were  occupied  with  pali- 
sades, monuments,  and  epitaphs;  and  all  unity  and  symmetry  was 
destroyed. 

The  walls  and  the  canopy  were  also  ornamented  with  inscriptions, 
mosaics,  paintings,  and  bas-reliefs.  The  paintings  were  executed  on 
wood,  metals,  and  canvass.  The  bas-relief  was  executed  in  gyp- 
sum, mortar,  stone,  or  metal,  in  imitation  of  the  ornaments  of  the 
temple.  Votive  offerings  of  shields,  arms,  standards,  and  the  like, 
were  also  hung  upon  the  walls.  To  these  the  lights  were  attached 
and  suspended  from  the  canopy.     Vaulted  roofs  are  of  later  origin. 

§  12.  Of  the  Windows  of  the  Church. 

No  aspersion  was  ever  more  unjust  than  that  which  charged 
the  primitive  Christians  with  seeking  concealment  and  hating  the 
licrht.  In  imitation  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  1  Kings  6:  4,  they 
sought,  from  the  beginning,  to  furnish  their  churches  fully  with  light. 
It  is  customary  to  refer  the  first  use  of  glass  windows  to  the  third 
century ;  but,  in  the  opinion  of  many,  they  had  an  earlier  origin,  as 
is  shown  in  the  ruins  of  Herculaneum.  In  France,  windows,  both 
of  colored  and  of  cut  glass,  were  in  use  in  the  sixth  century.  Ve- 
nantius  Fortunatus,  a  poet  of  the  fifth,  has  a  distich  respecting  the 
cathedral  church  at  Paris,  from  which  it  would  seem  that  glass 
windows  were  then  in  use  : 

I'rima  capit,  radios  vitrcis  ncculnta  fcnestris 
Artificisque  manu  clausit  in  arcc  diem. 


196  OF  CHURCHES  AND  SACRED  PLACES. 

From  the  liistory  of  the  venerable  Bede,  on  the  other  hand,  it  would 
seem  that  these  were  not  in  use  in  England  in  the  seventh  centur}', 
but  were  introduced  from  France. 

Pliny  affirms  that  the  art  of  painting  glass  was  known  to  the  Ro- 
mans. If  so,  it  must  have  been  lost  again ;  for  no  traces  of  the  art 
are  discoverable  until  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century.  It  was 
brought  to  perfection  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  and  is 
justly  regarded  as  the  most  finished  specimen  of  the  arts  in  the  mid- 
dle ages.  After  a  slumber  of  three  hundred  years,  it  is  beginning 
to  be  again  revived  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

The  windows  of  churches  were  not  only  greater  in  number,  but 
larger  in  dimensions,  than  those  of  private  dwelling  houses.  In  ttie 
Carlovingian  dynasty,  however,  the  windows  were  small  and  round, 
and  very  far  from  affording  sufficient  light. 

It  is  but  justice  to  the  ancient  fathers,  to  remark,  that  they  were 
very  far  from  bestowing  unqualified  approbation  upon  that  style  of 
gaudy  magnificence  in  which  their  churches  were  decorated.  St. 
Ambrose  says,  "  that  whatever  Is  done  in  purity,  and  with  sincerity, 
is  commendable,  but  that  it  is  neither  praiseworthy  to  rear  superfluous 
structures,  nor  to  neglect  such  as  are  needful, — that  the  priest  ought 
especially  to  adorn  the  temple  of  God  with  becoming  graces, — that 
it  should  be  rendered  resplendent  by  acts  of  humility  and  charity  ; 
in  giving  to  the  stranger  according  to  his  necessities,  and  as  the  dic- 
tates of  humanity  require  ;  not  by  pride,  self-indulgence,  and  per- 
sonal aggrandizement,  at  the  expense  of  the  poor."^  Jerome,  in 
various  passages,  inveighs  against  the  pomp  and  pride  displayed  in 
iheir  churches,  and  in  the  attire  of  the  priesthood.^  Chrysostom  com- 
plains of  the  vanity,  superstition,  and  oppression  of  the  poor,  with 
which  their  churches  were  erected,  though  he  objects  not  to  these 
expenditures  upon  the  churches  in  themselves  considered.^  St.  Ber- 
nard rebukes  this  extravagant  folly  with  so  much  simplicity  and  fer- 
vor, that  the  reader  will  be  interested  to  hear  him  in  his  own  tongue. 
Tali  quadam  arte  spargitur  aes,  ut  multiplicetur.  Expenditur,  ut 
augeatur,  et  effiisio  copiam  parit.  Ipso  quippe  visu  sumptuosarum, 
sed  mirandarum  vanitatum,  accenduntur  homines  niagis  ad  offeren- 
dum,  quam  ad  orandum.  Sic  opes  opibus  hauriuntur,  sic  pecunia 
pecuniam  trahit  :  quia  nescio,  quo  pacto,  ubi  amplius  divitiarum 
cernitur,  ibi  offertur  libentius.  Auro  tectis  reliquiis  saginantur  oculi, 
fit  loculi  aperiuntur.     Ostenditur  pulcherrima  forma  Sancti  vel  Sa7ic- 


VENERATION  AND  PRIVILEGES  OF  SACRED  PLACES.  197 

lae  alicujus,  et  eo  creditur  sanctior,  quo  coloratior.  Currunt  homi- 
nes ad  osculandum,  invitantur  ad  donandiim  ;  et  magis  mirantur  pul- 
cra,  quam  veneranlur  sacra.  Ponuntur  dehinc  in  ecclesia  gemma- 
tae,  non  coronae,  sed  rolae,  circuinseptae  lampadibus,  sod  non  mi- 
nus fulgentes  insertis  hipidibus.  Cernimus  et  pro  candelabris  ar- 
bores  quasdam  ereclas,  multo  aeris  pondere,  miroartificis  opere  fab- 
ricatas,  nee  magis  coruscantes  superpositis  lucernis,  quam  suis  gem- 
mis.  Quid,  putas,  in  his  omnibus  quaeritur  ?  poenitentium  com- 
punctio,  an  intuentium  admiratio  r  O  vanitas  vanitatum,  sed  non 
vanior,  quam  insanior  !  Fulget  ecclesia  in  parietibus,  et  in  pauperi- 
bus  eget.  Suos  lapides  induit  auro,  et  suos  filios  nudos  deserit.  De 
sumptibus  egenorum  servitur  oculis  divitum.  Inveniunt  curiosi,  quo 
delectentur,  et  non  inveniunt  miseri,  quo  sustententur.  Utquid  sal- 
tern Sanctorum  imagines  non  reveremur,  quibus  utique  ipsum,  quod 
pedibus  conculcatur,  scalet  pavimenlum.  Saepe  spuitur  in  ore  An- 
geli,  saepe  aJicujus  Sanctorum  fades  cahibus  tunditur  transeuntium. 
Et  si  non  sacris  his  imaginibus,  cur  vel  non  parcilur  pulcris  colori- 
bus  7  Cur  decoras,  quod  mox  foedandum  est .''  Cur  depingis,  quod 
mox  necesse  est  conculcari  ?  Quid  ibi  valent  venustae  formae,  ubi 
pulvere  maculantur  assiduo  ?  Denique  quid  haec  ad  pauperes,  ad 
Monachos,  ad  spirituales  vivos  ?  Nisi  forte  et  hie  memoratum  jam 
poetae  versiculum  propheticus  ille  respondeatur :  Domine,  dilexi 
decorum  domus  iuae,  et  locum  habitationis  gloriae  tuae.  Assentio  : 
patiamur  et  haec  fieri  in  ecclesia  :  quia  etsi  noxia  sunt  vanis  et  ava. 
ris,  nontamensimplicibus  et  devotis. — 0pp.  T.  I.  p.  545.  ed.  Bened. 

The  use  of  pictures  of  saints,  martyrs,  and  Scripture-histories  in 
churches,  was  gradually  introduced  about  the  latter  end  of  the  fourth 
century. 

The  Eustathians,  Messalians,  Manichaeans,  and  other  heretics  suf- 
fered their  prejudices  to  carry  them  into  the  opposite  extreme  ;  and, 
by  the  simplicity  and  rudeness  which  they  affected,  promoted  that 
ostentation  in  the  Catholics  which  they  so  much  condemned. 

§  13.  Oe  the  Veneration  in  which  Sacred  Places  were  held, 

AND  THE  PRIVILGES  ATTACHED  TO  THEJE^ 

The  primitive  Christians  like  the  Jews,  manifested  a  profound 
veneration  for  the  house  of  God,  and  zealously  guarded  it  not  only 
against  the  intrusion  of  the  profane,  but  against  secular  and  sacrilc- 


198  OF  CHURCHES  AND  SACRED  PLACES. 

gious  uses.  Their  own  attendance  upon  its  ordinances  was  marked 
with  every  demonstration  of  religious  awe.  "  Let  both  men  and 
women,"  says  Clemens  of  Alexandria,  "  come  to  church  in  comely 
apparel,  with  a  serious  gait,  with  modest  silence,  and  love  unfeigned  ; 
chaste  both  in  body  and  mind,  so  that  they  may  be  duly  prepared  to 
offer  prayer  to  God."^  "  They  came  into  the  church  as  into  the 
palace  of  the  Great  King.  Before  going  into  the  church,  they  used 
to  wash  at  least  their  hands,  carrying  themselves  there  with  the  most 
profound  silence  and  devotion.  Nay,  so  great  was  the  reverence 
which  they  bore  to  the  church,  that  the  emperors  themselves,  who 
otherwise  never  went  without  their  guard  about  them,  when  they 
came  to  go  into  the  church,  used  to  lay  down  their  arms — to  leave 
their  guard  behind  them,  and  to  put  off  their  crowns. "^ 

The  churches,  however,  were  occasionally  the  scenes  of  disorder 
and  sacrilege  ;  especially  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  during 
the  Arian  controversy.  To  prevent  these,  Honorius  decreed,  A.  D. 
398,  the  sentence  of  scourging  and  banishment  upon  any  one  who 
should  enter  ihe  church  and  disturb  the  bishop  or  minister  in  the  dis- 
charge of  his  duties.  If  he  interrupted  the  religious  services,  or  of- 
fered violence  to  the  litany,  he  was  to  be  sentenced  to  death  by  any 
court  civil  or  military.^ 

The  following  were  some  of  the  rules  by  which  the  church  was 
guarded  from  secular  and  sacrilegious  uses,  a)  Neither  churches 
nor  any  of  their  utensils  or  implements  could  be  sold,  mortgaged  or 
assessed  for  taxes  ;  to  this  rule  however  there  were  occasional  ex- 
ceptions, b)  Churches  could  not  be  used  for  courts  of  either  civil 
or  criminal  cases,  nor  for  popular  elections,  or  legislative  assemblies, 
but  they  might  be  opened  for  the  accommodation  of  ecclesiastical 
councils,  and  for  the  coronations  of  princes,  c)  No  marketing,  or 
exchanges  in  buying  or  selling  of  any  kind  was  allowed  in  the  church, 
much  less  were  annual  fairs  permitted  in  the  neigborhood  of  a 
church,  d)  No  convivial  assemblies  were  in  any  instance  to  be 
held  in  the  churches.  And  even  the  love-feasts^  the  abuses  of  which 
in  the  Corinthian  church  were  so  severely  censured  by  the  apostle 
Paul,  1  Cor.  11:  18  seq.  were  not  allowed  in  the  churches,  e)  Nei- 
ther were  they  to  be  opened  for  the  entertainment  of  strangers  and 
travellers,  f)  It  was  also  an  high  offence  to  speak  irreverently  of  the 
house  of  God,  or  unworthily  to  engage  in  any  official  act  of  public 
worship.5 


CHURCHES  A  PLACE  OF  REFUGE.  199 

All  who  entered  into  the  church  were  first  required  to  wash  their 
hands,  and  for  this  purpose  water  was  constantly  kept  in  the  front 
part  of  the  church  as  has  been  already  stated,  §  6.  p.  185.  This  rite 
as  explained  by  Tertullian  and  others,  was  emblematical  of  that 
purity  of  heart  with  which  the  worshipper  ought  to  engage  in  his 
public  religious  duties.''  in  some  of  the  Eastern  churches,  particu- 
larly in  Abyssinia,  it  was  customary  also  for  Christians  to  put  off 
their  shoes  on  entering  the  church,  after  the  example  of  Moses, 
Exodus  3:  5.  Kings  and  princes,  and  military  commanders  reve- 
rently laid  aside  their  badges  of  honor  and  of  office  on  entering  the 
the  church,'  a  custom  which  even  Julian  the  apostate  commends  as 
worthy  of  imitation.^  It  was  moreover  an  ancient  and  very  general 
usuage  to  kiss  the  threshold  of  the  doors  and  the  altars  of  the 
churches,  as  another  token  of  reverence.^  Afterwards  it  became 
usual  to  kiss  the  paintings  and  utensils.* 

Of  the  same  general  character  were  the  numerous  directions 
given  respecting  a  quiet,  devout  and  becoming  demeanor  in  the 
church,  in  the  time  of  religious  worship,  and  during  the  celebration 
of  the  sacrament.  These  directions  required  the  worshipper  to  ap- 
pear in  decent  apparel,  to  kneel  or  stand  in  prayer,  to  keep  the  head 
uncovered,  to  fold  the  hands,  and  to  refrain  from  gazing  about.  All 
noise  and  bustle,  shrieking,  clapping,  hemming  and  spitting,  was  ex- 
pressly forbidden,  together  with  all  irreverent  gesticulation,  reading, 
and  mimicking ;  all  which  serves  to  show,  how  fully  the  christian 
church,  at  all  times  participated  in  the  sentiment  of  the  pious  Israel- 
ite, "  Lord,  I  have  loved  the  habitation  of  thy  house,  and  the  place 
where  thine  honor  dwelleth." 

§  14.  Of  the  Churches  as  a  place  of  refuge. 

The  ancient  historians  and  christian  fathers  mention  many  instan- 
ces in  which  the  church  and  the  altar  were  made  a  safe  place  of 
refuge  not  only  for  Christians,  but  for  Jews  and  pagans.  Even  by 
barbarous  nations  the  church  was  respected  as  a  sacred  asylum. 
Both  Jews  and  Gentiles  had  long  been  familiar  with  similar  usages. 
The  christian  church  therefore,  like  the  pagan  temples,  and  Jewish 

The  rite  of  kissing  the  popes  toe,  was  probably  derived  from  those  acts 
of  prostration  and  humiliation  to  which  penitents  were  subjected. 


200  OF  CHURCHES  AND  SACRED  PLACES. 

cities  of  refuge,  very  naturally  became  a  sacred  retreat,  which 
avenging  justice  feared  to  invade.  This  right  was  first  established 
under  the  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great,  and  was  confirmed  and  en- 
larged by  succeeding  emperors  ;  but  tlie  privilege  was  greatly 
abused  and  early  became  the  subject  of  complaint,  A.  D.  392,  as 
preventing  the  ends  of  justice  by  offering  a  hiding-place  for  every 
fugitive  from  justice.  Arcadius,  at  the  instigation  of  Etropius,  A.  D. 
397,  is  said  to  have  abrogated  the  right  within  his  empire.^  The  cler- 
gy were  uniformly  opposed  to  this  decree  of  Arcadius.  The  coun- 
cil of  Coletum  in  Africa,  A.  D.  449,  sent  a  delegation  to  the  em- 
peror for  its  repeal.^  Chrysostom  especially  distinguished  himself 
by  his  zeal  against  it  ;^  from  him  it  appears  that  Arcadius  did  not 
repeal  his  law.  But  this  was  done  in  relation  to  the  Western 
church  by  his  brother  Honorius,  A.  D.  414,^  which  again  was  further 
established  and  enlarged  by  his  son,  Theodosius  the  younger,  A.  D. 
4315.  The  privileges  of  this  right  were  finally  defined  by  Justinian, 
A.  D.  535,  to  this  effect, — that  the  sanctuary  should  afford  no  pro- 
tection to  murderers,  adulterers,  ravishers  of  virgins,  and  offenders 
of  the  like  character,  it  being  the  intent  of  the  privilege  not  to  give 
protection  to  such  criminals,  but  to  offer  an  asylum  to  such  as  were 
exposed  to  violence  and  abuse  from  them.  If  therefore,  any  who 
were  guilty  of  such  crimes  fled  to  the  altar  for  refuge,  they  were  to 
be  immediately  taken  thence  and  punished  according  to  law.^ 

This  law  of  Justinian,  however,  was  strenuously  opposed  by  the 
clergy  as  being  an  invasion  of  their  right  of  jurisdiction  over  the 
churches,  and,  owing  to  this  cause  and  the  barbarous  character  of 
the  times,  it  was  never  generally  observed.  The  councils  of  Orange 
A.  D.  441,  of  Orleans  A.  D.  511,  of  Aries  A.  D.  541,  of  Magon  A. 
D.  586,  of  Rheims  A.  D.  630,  of  Toledo  A.  D.  681,  etc.,  severally 
vindicated  this  right,  and  extended  protection  even  to  the  grossest 
offenders  ;  and  the  less  efficient  sovereign  acquiesced  in  their  deci- 
sions. Charlemagnehimself  fully  confirmed  these  privileges."'  They 
were  now  extended  to  the  church-yard  and  burial-ground,  and  to 
the  bishop's  house  ;  and  then  again  to  the  chapels,  to  crucifixes 
when  brought  by  the  priest  to  the  sick  ;  and  even  to  the  parsonage.^ 
The  right  was  also  claimed  for  cloisters,  though  it  was  not  often  ex- 
ercised. The  synod  of  Nemours,  A.  D.  1284,  confirmed  the  privi- 
lege even  on  public  inns  for  strangers,  and  religious  establishments 
generally.     The  right  was  also  claimed  for  the  residence  of  the  Ro- 


PRELIMINARY  REMARKS.  201 

man  cardinal,  who  also  was  the  first  to  assume  the  inviolable  rights 
of  a  public  ambassador,  ^MS  asyli  Legatorum.  This,  it  is  well  known, 
has  been  the  subject  of  much  controversy,  and  as  late  as  the  last  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  asserted  as  an  important  political 
privilege. 

To  what  extent  the  privileges  above  mentioned  were  abused  is 
evident  from  the  fact,  that  Innocent  III,  and  Gregory  IX,  were  com- 
pelled to  make  public  proclamation  that  the  church  should  offer  no 
refuge  to  murderers  and  high-way  robbers.'-^  And  the  council  of 
Cologne  decreed,  A.  D.  1280,  that  criminals  should  only  find  refuge 
in  the  church  until  due  deliberation  should  be  had  whether  they 
should  be  subjected  to  punishment,  or  receive  pardon. 

In  the  Eastern  empire,  the  right  in  question  was  the  subject  of 
similar  controversy  and  abuse.  The  famous  Tarasius,  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople  in  the  eighth  century,  was  a  zealous  defender  of  this 
right.  By  a  decree  of  the  emperor,  it  was  denied  to  murderers, 
robbers,  and  adulterers  ;'"  but  Theophilus  granted  this  right  in  favor 
of  his  daughter''s  grave  to  all  offenders.  It  is  remarkable,  that  even 
the  Turks  recognized  and  respected  the  sacred  privileges  of  the 
sanctuary.  Since  the  reformation,  these  have  been  abrogated  in  all 
evangelical  churches,  and  in  all  Catholic  countries  they  have  either 
been  wholly  abolished,  or  greatly  modified. 


CHAPTER  X. 


OF  THE  PRAYERS  AND  PSALMODY  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

§  1.  Preliminary  Remarks. 

Pythagoras  is  said  to  have  recommended  that  prayer  should  be 
audibly  expressed,  to  guard  the  suppliant  from  praying  for  those 
things  which  are  not  agreeable  to  the  will  of  God.  It  was  also  a 
common  sentiment  of  the  Jews,  that  prayer  was  of  no  avail  unless 
expressed  aloud  in  words}  Christianity,  on  the  other  hand,  teaches 
that  prayer  may  arise  acceptably  from  the  heart,  though  no  speech 
or  language  give  it  utterance.     It  looks  wholly  to  the  spirit  of  the 

26 


202  PRAYERS  AND  PSALMODY  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

suppliant,  and  is  in  its  nature  opposed  to  prescribed  forms  and  cere- 
monies. John  4:  24.  Jude  v.  20.  Clirist  and  his  apostles  taught, 
both  by  precept  and  example,  the  duty  of  prayer.  And  the  primi- 
tive Christians,  in  all  their  assemblies,  sought  to  excite  and  quicken 
their  devotional  sentiments  by  singing  and  prayer.  Several  exam- 
ples of  prayer  by  Jesus  and  his  disciples  are  recorded,  viz.  Acts  1: 
24,  4:  24—31.  9:  40.  12:  5.  20:  36,  etc.  And  it  is  worthy  of  re- 
mark, that,  with  the  exception  of  certain  forms,  such  as  Amen, 
Grace  be  unto  you,  etc.,  no  instance  occurs  of  the  repetition  of  the 
same  prayer.  This  circumstance  forhids  the  idea  of  any  prescribed 
forms  of  prayer.  Even  our  Lord's  prayer  is  recorded  with  essen- 
tial variations  by  the  evangelists  Matthew  (6:  9—13)  and  Luke  (11: 
1 — 4).  Hence  the  inference,  that  the  prayer  is  of  a  general  charac- 
ter, expressing  rather  the  subject  than  the  form  of  our  petitions 
to  God. 

And  yet  the  prayers  and  salutations  in  the  writings  of  the  New 
Testament  are  the  basis  of  all  the  forms  which  were  observed  by  the 
ancient  church.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  equally  evident  that  the 
church  drew  largely  from  the  Old  Testament,  and  freely  adapted  to 
their  own  use  the  doxologies,  psalms,  and  hymns  of  the  pious  Israel- 
ites. Besides  these,  there  are  a  multitude  of  phrases  and  forms  of 
expression  in  the  rituals  which  have  no  counterpart  in  the  Scriptures. 

Commentators  generally  agree  that  the  passage  1  Tim.  chap,  ii., 
is  given  to  explain  the  proper  subjects  of  public  prayer.^  And  the 
design  and  connection  of  this  epistle  favor  this  supposition.  So  Ter- 
tullian  evidently  understood  it.-^ 

The  psalms  and  hymns,  of  which  mention  is  made  in  the  ancient 
church,  are  evidently  none  else  than  prayers  mingled  with  ascrip- 
tions of  praise  to  God  for  his  goodness,  designed  to  promote  and  ex- 
press becoming  sentiments  of  piety.  Their  songs  were  but  joyful 
prayers,  and  as  such  were  transferred  into  the  church  from  the  syna- 
gogue and  temple  worship  of  the  Jews.  That  such  was  the  import 
of  their  sacred  music,  all  their  most  ancient  doxologies,  collects,  and 
psalms  abundantly  show.  In  perfect  accordance  with  this  sentiment 
it  was  customary,  in  the  primitive  church,  not  to  read,  but  to  chant 
the  Lord's  prayer,  the  gospels,  the  epistles,  their  litanies,  and  their 
confessions  of  faith. 

It  was  a  favorite  sentiment  of  the  fathers,  that  the  worship  of 
heaven  would  be  a  prolonged  eternal  song  of  praise.     Praise  indeed 


UNITY  AND  TRINITY  IMPLIED  IN  DEVOTION.  203 

is  the  highest  act  of  worship  both  on  earth  and  in  heaven.  This  was 
the  worship  of  the  seraplis  whom  Isaiah  in  his  vision  saw,  (6:  1 — 4.) 
And  the  redeemed  in  heaven  bring  their  sweetest  odors  with  the 
new  song  which  they  sing  to  God  and  the  Lamb.  However  prayer 
and  praise  may  vary  in  form,  they  are  essentially  one  ;  one  spirit 
pervades  and  inspires  them  both. 

§2.  The  Unity  and  Trinity  of  the  Godhead  implied  in  the 
Devotions  of  the  Ancient  Church. 

Every  prayer  and  every  song  of  praise  was  presented  by  the 
worshipper  to  one  God,  the  Maker  of  heaven  and  earth.  In  this, 
Christianity  was  directly  opposed  to  the  polytheism  of  the  age,  whilst 
it  perfectly  harmonized  with  the  doctrine  of  the  Jewish  rehgion  :  — 
"  Hear,  O  Israel !  the  Lord  our  God  is  one  God." 

At  the  same  time,  all  the  prayers  and  songs  of  the  church  were 
directed  to  the  triune  God,  or  distincdy  implied  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity.  The  church  guarded  itself  against  the  charge  of  paganism 
by  continually  asserting  that  it  rejected  all  polytheism,  and  that 
the  doctrine  of  the  trinity  bore  no  analogy  to  tritheism.  Indeed  it  is 
very  evident,  in  view  of  all  that  the  apostles  have  said,  that,  in  wor- 
shipping the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  they  did  not  worship 
three  Gods. 

The  distinction  between  the  Jews  and  Christians  on  this  point  is 
well  described  by  Tertullian,  who  says,  "  They  believed  God  to  be 
one  in  such  a  sense  that  it  is  improper  to  unhe  with  Him  the  Son 
and  Holy  Spirit.  What  can  the  distinction  be,  save  that  under  the 
new  dispensation  he  is  revealed  to  us  through  the  Son  and  the  Spirit, 
although  he  is  still  known  by  his  own  appropriate  appellations,  and 
in  his  own  person,  whilst  in  the  former  dispensation  he  is  not  re- 
vealed to  us  through  the  intervention  of  the  Son  and  the  Spirit."  ^ 
Jerome,  Augustine,  and  Cosmus,  Indicopleustes,  etc.,  express  much 
the  same  sentiments.  Ever  since  the  lime  of  the  christian  apologists, 
dogmatists,  and  polemics,  the  strife  has  been  to  detect,  in  the  creeds 
and  liturgy  of  the  Jews,  in  their  names  of  the  Deity,  doxologies,  and 
ascriptions  of  praise,  implied  evidence  of  the  trinity,  and  to  ascribe 
to  the  Jews  their  belief  in  God  as  existing  in  three  persons.^ 

The  church  has  also  had  occasion  to  defend  herself,  in  the  wor- 
ship of  the  three  persons  of  the  Godhead,  against  numerous  classes 


204  PRAYERS  AND  FSALMODY  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

of  heretics  who  are  known  under  the  general  name  of  anti-trinitari- 
ans — Patripassians,  Sabellians,  Gnostics,  Manicheans,  Arians,  etc. 
In  all  these  controversies,  the  church  has  sought  to  maintain  the  doc- 
trine of  the  trinity  in  its  integrity.  "  Our  hope,"  says  Cyril  of  Jeru- 
salem, "  is  in  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost.  We  teach,  not  the 
doctrine  of  three  Gods,  but,  with  his  Son,  and  the  Holy  Spirit,  one 
God  ;  of  necessity,  our  faith  is  undivided.  We  neither  sunder  the 
trinity,  as  do  some,  nor  confound  it,  like  the  Sabellians.  But  we  ac- 
knowledge with  piety  the  Father,  who  sent  the  Son  our  Saviour;  we 
acknowledge  the  Son,  who  promised  to  send  us  the  Comforter  from 
the  Father  ;  we  acknowledge  the  Holy  Ghost,  who  has  taught  us  by 
the  prophets,  and  who,  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  descended  in  tongues 
of  fire  upon  the  apostles,  in  Jerusalem,  the  head  of  the  church."  ^ 

Such  being  the  decided  testimony  of  the  church,  setting  forth  the 
doctrine  of  the  trinity  as  the  grand  characteristic  of  the  christian  re- 
ligion, it  is  no  matter  of  surprise  that  this  doctrine  is  so  constantly 
advanced  under  all  circumstances  ;  especially,  that  it  is  repeated  in 
their  doxologies,  psalms,  and  hymns.  They  repeated  the  doxology 
at  each  assembly  for  religious  worship,  and  at  each  rehearsal  of  the 
liturgy.  This  do.xology  was  as  follows  :  "  To  God  the  Father,  and 
his  Son  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  with  the  Holy  Spirit,  be  honor  and 
might  forever  and  ever.    Amen." 

They  were  so  minutely  careful  respecting  the  phraseology  of  these 
forms,  that  it  became  a  question,  which  Basil  the  Great  discussed  at 
length,  whether  the  preposition  eV,  ra,  or  8ia,  through,  or  crvv,  with, 
should  be  used  in  connection  with  the  Holy  Spirit.'*  From  which  we 
learn  that  in  the  fourth  century  the  same  controversies  were  had  on 
this  subject  which  were  renewed  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries  throughout  Germany,  Holland,  England,  France,  and 
Sweden. 

So  general  was  this  recognition  of  the  trinity  in  public  prayer, 
in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  that  merely  upon  the  mention  of  the 
name  of  God,  the  adoration  of  God  in  three  persons,  was,  of  course, 
presupposed  and  implied.  Nay,  it  may  be  affirmed  as  a  general 
truth,  that  any  petition  addressed  to  either  of  the  persons  of  the  God- 
head, was  directed  to  all.  To  prevent  confusion  of  mind  it  was  in- 
deed decreed  by  the  council  of  Carthage,  A.  D.  525,  that  the  prayer 
should  be  directed  to  the  Father  only,  but  this  was  distinctly  under- 
stood and  explained  to  be  a  prayer  to  the  three  persons  of  the  God- 


DIVINE  WORSHIP  PAID  TO  CHRIST.  205 

head.*  Similar  sentiments  are  found  abundantly  in  the  writings  of 
the  ancients,-''  so  that  it  is  an  undeniable  fact  that  their  prayers  and 
psalmody  were  indicted  by  zealous  trinitarians.  "  From  all  which," 
as  Bingham  very  justly  observes,  "  it  is  evident,  to  a  demonstration, 
that  the  three  persons  of  the  Holy  Trinity  were  always  the  object  of 
divine  adoration  from  the  first  foundation  of  the  primitive  church,  and 
that  the  giving  of  divine  honor  to  the  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  as  God, 
was  not  the  invention,  or  addition,  of  any  later  ages."^ 

§  3.  Divine  Worship  paid  to  Christ. 

It  is  a  peculiar  characteristic  of  the  christian  religion,  that  it  offers 
divine  honors  to  Christ.  It  teaches  not  merely  that  prayer  should  be 
offered  in  the  name  of  Jesus,  but  directly  to  Him.  Every  prayer, 
and  every  hymn,  while  it  honors  the  sacred  Trinity,  has  also  another 
design.  It  distinctly  recognizes  the  divinity  of  Christ,  and  shows 
what  views  the  christian  church  had  of  the  person  of  the  Saviour. 
Pliny  says,  A.  D.  107,  that  "  they  were  wont  to  meet  together  on  a 
stated  day  (the  Lord's  day)  before  it  was  light,  and  sing  alternately, 
among  themselves,  a  hymn  to  Christ,  as  God.  To  sing  a  hymn, 
carmen  dicere,  may  imply,  either  that  they  offered  to  him  a  sacred 
song,  or  a  prayer ;  but  in  either  case  it  was  the  offering  of  divine 
honors  to  him. 

Polycarp,  in  his  epistle  to  the  Philippians,  1:  12,  says,  "  Now  the 
God  and  Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  he  himself  who  is  our 
everlasting  High  Priest,  the  Son  of  God  even  Jesus  Christ,  build  you 
up  in  faith  and  in  truth,  and  in  all  meekness,  and  lenity."     The 

*  Si  qui  catholici  fideles  hujus  sacramenti  nunc  usque  videantur  ignari, 
deinceps  scire  debcnt,  omne  cujuslibet  honorificentiae  et  sacrificii  salutaris 
obsequiura  et  Patri  et  Filio  et  Spiritui  Sancto,  hoc  est,  sanctae  Trinitati  ab 
EcclesiacathoIica/K/r^'^erexhiberi.  Incujus  utique  uno  nomine  manifestum 
est,  sanctum  quoque  baptisnia  celebrari.  Xcque  tnim  pracjudicium  Filio  vel 
Spiritui  Sancto  comparutur,  dum  ad  Patris  personam  precalio  ab  offerenle  di- 
rigitur  :  cujus  consummnlio,  dum  Filii  et  Spiritus  S.  complectitur  nomcn,  os- 
tcndit,  nullum  esse  in  Trinitittc  discrimcn.  Quia  dum  ad  solius  Patris  perso- 
nam sermo  dirigitur,  bene  credentis  fide  tota  Trinitas  honoratur  ;  et  quum 
ad  Patrem  litantis  destinatur  intentio,  sacrificii  niunus  omni  Trinitati  uno 
eodemque  oflfertur  litantis  oflficio.  S.  Fulgent.  Rusp.  ad  Monimum  lib.  II. 
C.5.  edit.  Basil.  1621.  p.  328. 


206  PRAYERS  AND  PSALMODY  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

church  of  Smyrna,  in  their  circular  epistle  respecting  the  death  of 
Polycarp,  say,  "  Neither  is  it  possible  for  us  ever  to  forsake  Christ, 
who  suffered  for  the  salvation  of  all  such  as  shall  be  saved  through- 
out the  whole  world,  the  righteous  for  the  ungodly  ;  nor  to  worship 
any  other  besides  him.  For  him  indeed,  as  being  the  Son  of  God, 
we  adore."  ' 

Origen  against  Celsus  says,  "  All  supplications,  prayers,  and  in- 
tercessions, are  to  be  offered  up  to  the  most  high  God  through  this 
High  Priest,  who  is  above  all  angels,  who  is  the  living  Word  and 
God.''''  He  further  says,  "  we  pray  also  to  the  Word  himself,  and 
make  supplication."  This  he  vindicates  at  length  against  the 
charge,  on  the  one  hand,  of  worshipping  more  Gods  than  one  ;  and 
on  the  other,  against  the  imputation  of  worshipping  him  as  a  subor- 
dinate and  created  being,  showing  that  he  is  one  with  God,  and  our 
Mediator  and  Intercessor  with  the  Father.  He  concludes  this  discus- 
sion by  declaring,  "  We  worship  the  Father,  whilst  we  admire  and 
adore  the  Son,  who  is  his  word,  and  wisdom,  and  truth,  and  righteous- 
ness ;  and  w  iiatever  else  we  are  taught  to  believe  of  the  Son  of  God, 
begotten  of  such  a  Father."^ 

This  interesting  passage  fully  illustrates  the  sentiments  of  the 
primitive  church  on  the  subject.  A  multitude  of  other  passages,  to 
the  same  effect,  may  be  found  in  the  authors  quoted  in  the  index.^ 

§  4.  Of  the  worship  of  Martyrs,  Saints  and  Angels. ^ 

The  worship  of  these  came  into  use  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centu- 
ries. Some  few  traces  of  such  w^orship  at  earlier  periods  may  be 
found,  and  innumerable  instances  of  a  later  date.  It  has  been  a 
great  question  whether  such  were  invoked  as  direct  mediators  with 
God,  or  not ;  and  again,  whether  these  invocations  imply  the  offering 
of  such  divine  honors  as  are  paid  to  Christ  or  to  God.  This  the 
Catholic  writers  generally  deny.  Their  assertion  is,  that  these  invo- 
cations are  not  acts  of  adoration.,  but  only  a  means  of  grace  to  awa- 
ken pious  feeling  and  to  aid  us  in  rendering  due  worship  to  God. 
Non  sancti  Dei  appetunt  indebitas  laudes  sed  ut  rationabile  fiat  obse- 
quium  nostrum.^  "  The  saints  are  not  our  immediate  intercessors  with 
God  ;  but  whatever  they  obtain  for  us  from  God,  they  obtain  through 
Christ.  We  therefore  invoke  the  saints  to  the  end  that  they  may  do 
that  which  we  also  do,  and  which  they  arc  better  able  to  do  than 


AVORSHIP  OF  SAINTS  AND  ANGELS.  207 

we  are  ;  and  the  united  prayer  of  both  must  be  naore  influential  than 
that  of  us  alone.  We  only  implore  the  saints  to  intercede  with  God 
for  us,  that  the  merits  of  Christ  may  be  applied  to  us  ;  and  that 
through  him  we  may  obtain  grace  and  glory." -^ 

The  evangelical  church,  on  the  other  hand,  contend  that  all  wor- 
ship of  saints  and  images  is  idolatry.  The  primitive  church,  while 
they  scrupulously  worshipped  Christ  as  God,  rejected  with  abhor- 
rence the  worship  of  saints  and  of  images.'^ 

The  history  of  the  delusion  above  mentioned,  is  sketched  by  Gie- 
seler  in  the  following  terms  : 

"  The  notion  that  the  prayers  of  the  dead  availed  for  the  living 
was  prevalent  in  the  school  of  Origen  even  in  the  third  century,* 


*  Origines  in  Cant.  Cant.  lib.  III.  cd.  de  la  Rue,  T.  III.  p.  75 :  Sed  el  om- 
nes  sancti,  qui  de  hac  vita  decesserunt,  habentes  adhuc  charitatem  erga  eos 
qui  in  lioc  niundo  sunt,  si  dicantur  curain  gcrere  salutis coram,  etjuvare  eos 
precibus  suis  atque  interventu  suo  apud  Di.'um,non  eril  inconxeniens. — Idem 
in  libr.  Jcsu  A'avc  horn.  IG  §  5  (T.  II.  p.  437)  :  Ego  sic  aibitror,  quod  omnes 
illi,  qui  dorniierunt  ante  nos,  patres  pugnent  nobiscum  et  adjuvent  nos  ora- 
tionibus  suis.  Ita  namque  etiam  quenidam  de  senioribus  niagistris  audivi 
dicentem  in  eo  loco,  in  quo  scriptum  est  in  JS'umeris  (x.xii.  4),  quia  ablinget 
sijnagoga  ilia  lianc  syiiagogum,  sicut  ablingi.t  xitulus  lurbam  viridem  in  campo. 
Dicebat  ergo  :  Quare  hujusmodi  similitudo  assumta  est,  nisi  quia  hoc  est, 
quod  intelligendum  est  in  hoc  loco,  quod  synagoga  Domini,  quae  nos  prae- 
cessit  in  Sanctis,  ore  et  lingua  consumit  adversariam  synagogani,  i.  e.  oration- 
ibuset  precibus  adversarios  nostros  absumit  ?  — Wsm.  in  Epist.adRum.  Lib.  II. 
p.  47!1  :  Jam  vcro  si  etiam  e.xtra  corpus  positi  vel  sancti,  qui  cum  Christo 
sunt,  airunt  aliquid,  et  laborant  pro  nobis  ad  similitudinem  Angelorum,  qui 
salutis  nostrae  ministcria  procurant :  vel  rursum  peccatores  etiam  ipsi  extra 
corpus  positi  agunt  aliquid  secundum  proposituni  mentis  suae,  ad  Angelo- 
rum nihilominus  similitudinem  sinistrorum,  cum  quibus  et  in  aeternuni  ig- 
nem  mittendi  dicuntur  a  Christo:  habeatur  et  hoc  quoque  inter  occulta  Dei, 
nee  chartulae  commiltcnda  mijsteria.  Origen's  follower,  Eusebius  praep. 
Evang.  XII  c.  3,  begins  with  referring  to  Pluto  de  Legg.  lib.  XI.  and  then 
proceeds:  Kal  iv  tm  ^t^ltu  St  tojv  Maxxa^aiojv  (2  Mace.  15:  14)  Xiysvat 
IsQS^tag  6  7TQO(f7JTi]g  /ufrd  t/jv  dna)JMyi)v  zov  ^lov,  tixofievos  OQua&at  iTttQ 
Tov  )movj  oj?  (fQovTt'Sa  'noiovtisvoi  rwi'  t'jil  yfj?  dv&Qomojv.  Ju  at  cprjoi  xal 
6  W.drojv  Toizoig  TviaTSvaiv.  Hence  the  custom,  very  early,  of  asking  the 
living  martyrs  for  their  intercession  after  death.  Thus  Euseb.  de  Martyr. 
Palaest.  cap.  7,  relates  that  a  certain  Theodocia  in  Caesarea  approached  the 
martyrs  who  were  awaiting  death,  0^01":  (pi,lo(fQovovij.tvr],  y.al  oia  siy.os  itteq 
TOW  fiVTj/.iovii£iv  avryj?  Trpog  rov  xiQiov  ytvofitvov?  TiaQaxuXovoa.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  \i  as  yet  no  trace  of  prayers  to  the  dead. 


208         PRAYERS  AND  PSALMODY  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

but  had  not  yet  sufficient  authority  to  influence  directly  the  mode  of 
honoring  the  martyrs. 

"  The  more  remote  the  times  of  the  martyrs,  the  greater  the  ado- 
ration paid  to  tliem.  The  heathen  converts,  naturally  enough,  trans- 
ferred to  them  the  honors  they  had  been  used  to  pay  their  demigods, 
while  the  honor  of  creature-worship,  which  had  hitherto  operated  as 
a  check  on  the  growing  superstition,  had  been  gradually  dying  away 
since  the  extinction  of  paganism.  As  men  had  long  been  accustom- 
ed to  assemble  for  public  worship  at  the  graves  of  the  martyrs,  the 
idea  of  erecting  churches  {^iaoriQi.a,  memoria)  over  them  would 
readily  occur.  In  Egypt  the  Christians  began  to  embalm  the  bodies 
of  reputed  saints,  and  keep  them  in  their  houses.  The  communion 
with  the  martyrs  being  thus  associated  with  the  presence  of  their 
material  remains,  these  were  dug  up  from  the  graves  and  placed  in 
the  churches,  especially  under  the  altars;  and  the  popular  feeling 
havinof  now  a  visible  object  to  excite  it,  became  more  extravagant 
and  superstitious  than  ever.  The  old  opinion  of  the  efficacy  of  their 
intercession,  who  had  died  a  martyr's  death,  was  now  united  with 
the  belief  that  it  was  possible  to  communicate  with  them  directly;  a 
belief  founded  partly  on  the  popular  notion  that  departed  souls  al- 
ways lingered  around  the  bodies  they  had  once  inhabited,  and  partly 
on  the  views  entertained  of  the  glorified  state  of  the  martyrs,  a  sort 
of  omnipresence  being  ascribed  to  them.  These  notions  may  be 
traced  to  Origin,  and  his  followers  were  the  first  who  apostrophized 
the  martyrs  in  their  sermons,  and  besought  their  intercession.  But 
though  the  orators  were  somewhat  extravagant  in  this  respect,  they 
were  far  outdone  by  the  poets,  who  soon  took  up  this  theme,  and 
could  find  no  expressions  strong  enough  to  describe  the  power  and 
the  glory  of  the  martyrs.  Their  relics  soon  began  to  work  miracles, 
and  to  be  valuable  articles  of  trade.  In  proportion  as  men  felt  the 
need  of  such  intercession  they  sought  to  increase  the  number  of  the 
intercessors.  Not  only  those,  who,  on  account  of  services  rendered 
the  church,  were  inscribed  in  the  Diptycha,  but  the  pious  characters 
from  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  most  distinguished  of  the  monks, 
were  ranked  among  the  saints.  Martyrs  before  unknown  announ- 
ced themselves  in  visions,  others  revealed  the  place  of  their  burial. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  the  prayers  for  the  saints 
were  discontinued  as  unbefitting  their  glorified  state.  Christians 
were  now  but  seldom  called  upon  to  address  their  prayers  to  God  ; 


DEVOTIONAL  PECULIARITIES.  209 

tho  usual  mode  bcin";  to  pray  only  to  some  saint  fur  his  intercession. 
With  this  worsliip  oi"  the  saints  were  joined  inany  of  the  customs  of 
the  heathen.  Men  chose  their  patron  saints,  and  dedicated  churches 
to  tiicir  worship.  The  heatlien,  whom  the  Christians  used  to  re- 
proach with  worshipping  dead  men,  found  now  ample  opportunity  of 
retort. 

"  Throughout  the  fourth  century  there  was  no  peculiar  preference 
of  the  Virgin  Mary  above  other  saints.  The  ciiurch  went  as  yet  no 
further  than  to  maintain  the  doctrine  of  her  perpetual  virginity,  to 
which  the  monastic  notions  of  the  time  naturally  led.  The  opinion 
that  she  had  ever  borne  other  children  than  Jesus  was  declared  to 
be  heresy  ;  as  for  instance  by  Epiphanius,  in  the  case  of  the  ^Avzi8i- 
)coi.iaQiuvij(xi,  in  Arabia,  A.  D.  367,  by  Jerome  in  the  case  of  Helvi- 
dius  at  Rome,  A.  D.  383,  and  by  the  Macedonian  bishops  in  the  case 
of  Bonosus,  bishop  of  Sardica,  A.  D.  391,  while  it  was  shown  in  what 
way  she  gave  birth  to  our  Saviour  without  ceasing  to  be  a  virgin. 
Neither  did  the  teachers  of  the  church  in  the  fourth  century  scruple 
to  attribute  to  her  faults  ;  and  Epiphanius  includes  certain  women 
in  his  catalogue  of  heretics,  for  their  extravagant  adoration  of  the 
Virgin.  The  Nestorian  controversy  first  led  men  to  set  her  above 
all  other  saints  as  the  mother  of  God,  &soT6y.oc. 

Though  it  was  the  general  belief  that  the  angels  watched  over  men 
and  brought  their  prayers  to  God,  it  was  thought  unallowable  to  wor- 
ship them  because  of  the  passages  Col.  2:  18.  Rev.  19:  10.  22:  8,9. 
Ambrose  is  the  first  who  seems  to  recommend  such  a  worship;  and 
after  his  time  we  find  many  marks  of  adoration  paid  them ;  though 
much  fewer  than  to  the  saints." — Cunningham's  Trans.  Vol.  I.  pp. 
173—4,  282—7. 

<^  5.    A  FILIAL  AND  CONFIDING  SpiRIT  PECULIAR  TO    THE    PRAYERS  OF 

THE  Church. 

By  this  the  christian  religion  is  distinguished  from  all  others.  It 
teaches  us  to  offer  our  addresses  unto  God  as  our  Father  ;  to  come 
unto  him,  not  as  a  servant  unto  his  master,  but  as  children  to  a  pa- 
rent, confident  of  finding  audience  and  acceptance  with  him.  '  Ye 
have  not  received  the  spirit  of  bondage  again  to  fear  ;  but  ye  have 
received  the  spirit  of  adoption  whereby  we  cry  Abba,  Father.'  To 
the  Jew,  the  Lord  God  is  a  being  of  terrible  majesty,  repelling  eve- 

2.7 


210         PRAYERS  AND  PSALMODY  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

Ty  presumptuous  approach  to  him.  To  the  Christian  he  is  one  of 
endearing  kindness  and  condescension,  inviting  him  to  draw  nigh 
with  confidence.  To  the  one,  he  appears  in  stern  and  awful  sancti- 
ty ;  to  the  other,  in  tlie  mild  majesty  of  love. 

§  6.  The  simplicity  and  brevity  of  the  Devotions  of  the 
Primitive  Church. 

The  prayers  of  the  church  were  oflTered  in  language  the  most  art- 
less and  natural.  Even  the  most  learned  of  the  fathers,  who  were 
no  strangers  to  the  graces  of  diction,  refused  all  ornamental  embel- 
lishments in  their  addresses  to  the  throne  of  grace,  alleging  that  the 
kingdom  of  heaven  consists  not  in  word,  but  in  power,  1  Cor.  4:  20. 
Cwn  de  rebus  agilur  ah  oslentalione  submotis  quid  dicafur  spectan- 
dum  est,  non  quali  cum  amoenilate  dicatur  ;  nee,  quid  aures  commul- 
ceat,  sed  quas  offerat  audientibus  utiUtales.^  Their  prayers  were 
accordingly  offered  in  the  greatest  simplicity,  and  as  far  as  possible 
in  the  phraseology  of  scripture.  This  artlessness  and  elegant  sim- 
plicity appears  in  striking  contrast  with  the  ostentation  and  bombast 
of  a  later  date. 

This  contrast  appears  equally  great  also  in  the  brevity  of  these 
prayers.  It  was  a  maxim  in  the  primitive  church,  that  many  words 
should  never  be  employed  to  express  what  might  better  be  said  in  a 
few.  So  manifest  was  this  excellence,  that  Basil,  Chrysostom,  and 
Gregory  the  Great,  successively  attempted  to  abridge  the  formula- 
ries of  the  church,  and  restore  their  early  simplicity  and  brevity.^ 

§  7.  Of  the  Catholic  Spirit  of  their  devotions. 

The  church,  receiving  the  acknowledged  truth  that  in  every  place 
he  that  feareth  God  and  doeth  righteousness  is  accepted  of  Him,  re- 
stricted her  devotions  to  no  particular  tongue.  It  was  indeed  a  dis- 
puted question,  at  a  very  early  period,  in  what  language  Christ  and 
his  apostles  performed  their  devotions?  Whether  in  the  Greek,  or 
Hebrew,  or  Syro-Chaldaic.  But  it  was  not  accounted  essential 
that  the  devotions  of  the  church  should  be  performed  in  the  same 
language.  Accordingly  there  are  extant  examples  of  prayers  and 
of  spiritual  songs  which  were  uttered  in  the  vernacular  tongue  as 
early  as  the  second  and  third  centuries.     Celsus  indeed  urged  it  as 


AUDIBLE  AND  SILENT  PRAYER.  -Sll 

a  grave  objection  against  the  Christians,  that  they  introduced  into 
their  prayers  certain  strange  and  barbarous  expressions,  having  ref- 
erence probably  to  such  terms  as  Amen,  Hallelujah,  Hosanna,  etc. 
To  whicli  Origen  replied,  that  both  Greeks  and  Romans,  in  prayer, 
spoke  in  their  own  native  tongue;  each,  in  his  own  dialect,  offering 
prayer  and  praise  to  God  as  he  is  best  able.  And  the  Lord  of  all 
languages  listens  to  each  supplicant  praying  in  his  own  tongue,  but 
hears,  as  it  were,  one  voice  expressed  by  different  signs,  and  in  vari- 
ous sounds. 1     Similar  sentiments  are  expressed  by  other  writers." 

No  prescribed  time  or  place  for  prayer  was  required  by  the 
church.  Nor  was  any  rule  given  respecting  the  direction  of  the  eye, 
the  bending  of  the  knees,  or  position  of  the  hands.  Neither  was 
there  any  established  form  of  prayer  or  praise  for  general  use. 
With  the  single  exception  of  the  instructions  given  in  the  Apostolical 
Constitutions  for  the  private  use  of  the  Lord's  prayer,  there  is  no  in- 
stance of  any  synodical  decree  respecting  it  until  the  sixth  and  sev- 
enth centuries.3  Every  church,  whether  national  or  individual,  pre- 
scribed its  own  mode  of  worship.  In  many  instances,  the  prayers  of 
the  church  were  merely  submitted  to  the  examination  and  approba- 
tion of  the  bishop.  Beyond  all  question,  the  use  of  a  liturgy  and  rit- 
ual was  at  first  wholly  voluntary.  This  subject  is  discussed  at  length 
by  Bingham,  who  maintains  that  a  liturgy,  and  set  forms  of  prayer 
were  used  from  the  beginning,  but  admits  that  each  church  was  at 
liberty  to  form  their  own  liturgy,  and  that  the  prayers  were  probably 
uttered  memoriter,  and  contirtued  for  one  or  two  centuries  by  tradi- 
tion, before  they  were  committed  to  writing.^ 

Respecting  the  number  of  prayers  offered  in  public,  no  general 
rule  was  given.  It  was  customary,  however,  to  begin  and  close  re- 
ligious service  with  prayer.  Here,  as  in  other  things,  the  same  sim- 
plicity was  advocated  by  Justin  Martyr,  Tertullian,  Cyprian,  Irenaeus, 
Origen,  etc.  But  the  Latin  and  Greek  churches,  in  time,  greatly  de- 
parted from  the  spirit  and  taste  of  the  primitive  church. 

§  8.    Audible  and  Silent  Prayer. 

This  distinction  was  first  made  in  the  secret  discipline  of  the 
church.  Silent  prayer  was  restricted  to  the  mental  recital  of  the 
Lord's  prayer,  which  neither  the  catechumens,  nor  the  profane  of  any 
description,  were  allowed  to  repeat.     Professing  Christians  repeated 


212  PRAYERS  AND  PSALMODY  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

it  in  the  presence  of  such,  not  audibly,  but  silently.  But  at  the  com- 
munion, when  withdrawn  from  such  persons,  they  repeated  it  aloud, 
at  the  call  of  the  deacon. 

There  was  another  species  of  silent  prayer  which  consisted  in  pi- 
ous ejaculations  offered,  by  the  devout  Christian,  on  entering  upon 
public  worship.  This  commendable  custom  is  still  observed  in  many 
protestant  churches.  According  to  the  council  of  Laodicea,  c.  19, 
prayer  was  offered  immediately  after  the  sermon  for  catechumens, 
then  for  penitents.  Then,  after  the  imposition  of  hands,  and  the  ben- 
ediction, followed  the  prayers  of  the  believers, — the  first  in  silence  ; 
the  second  and  third,  audibly.  They  then  exchanged  the  kiss  of 
charity,  during  which  time  their  off'erings  were  brought  to  the  altar. 
The  assembly  were  then  dismissed  with  the  benediction,  Iteinpace, 
go  in  peace. 

The  primitive  church  never  chanted  their  prayers,  as  was  the  cus- 
tom of  the  Jews,  and  still  is  of  the  Mahommedans  ;  but  reverently 
addressed  the  throne  of  grace  in  an  easy,  natural,  and  subdued  tone 
of  voice. 

§  9.  Of  the  Lord's  Prayer..^ 

The  opinions  of  the  learned  even  to  the  present  day  are  greatly 
divided  respecting  the  design  of  our  Lord  in  giving  this  prayer. 
Three  several  theories  have  been  advanced  on  this  subject. 

1.  That  the  Lord  Jesus  did  not  give  this  as  a  prescribed  form. 
But  only  to  illustrate  that  spirit  of  filial  love  and  reverence  in  which 
all  prayer  should  be  offered  to  God.  It  was  given  to  teach  the  na- 
ture and  appropriate  subjects  of  prayer. 

2.  That  it  was  a  prescribed  form,  to  be  used,  not  only  by  his  dis- 
ciples, but  by  believers  in  every  age  and  country,  like  the  prescribed 
form  in  which  baptism  is  to  be  administered. 

3.  That  it  is  an  epitome  of  the  Jewish  liturgy  which  was  at  that 
time  extant.  The  several  parts  of  this  prayer  are  supposed  to  be 
the  very  words  in  which  the  several  prayers  of  the  Jewish  service 
began  ;  and  that  the  whole  was  embodied  by  our  Lord  as  a  substi- 
tute for  so  many  long  and  unmeaning  prayers. 

The  historical  facts  connected  with  the  use  of  the  Lord's  prayer, 
may  be  stated  as  follows. 

1.  It  was  not  in  use  in  the  church  in  the  age  of  the  apostles.    Not 


OF  THE  lord's  PRAYER.  213 

the  remotest  liint  is  given  in  the  history  of  the  apostles  that  this 
prayer  constituted  any  part  of  their  religious  worship.  The  apostle 
is  silent  on  this  point  even  in  1  Cor.  xiv.  where  he  is  treating  of  their 
devotions.  In  the  absence  of  written  testimony,  we  are,  indeed,  di- 
rected to  uncertain  tradition  to  supply  its  place.  But  in  every  view 
of  the  subject  the  assertion  that  this  prayer  was  used,  either  by  the 
apostles,  or  their  immediate  successors,  must  be  regarded  as  arbi- 
trary and  groundless. 

Justin  Martyr,  the  earliest  of  the  fathers,  says  that  the  presiding 
officer  offered  prayers  and  thanksgivings,  oaij  8ivaiutg  amu),  and  that 
the  people  responded.  Amen.-  By  the  oai]  Svpajxig  uvtoi  it  may  be 
understood  that  he  spoke  in  as  clear  and  audible  a  voice  as  he  could, 
"  totis  virihus^'''  or,  more  properly,  as  TertuUian  expresses  it,  ex 
proprio  ingenio^  according  to  the  best  of  his  ability.*     At  the  same 


*  The  following  are  the  remarks  of  Lord  Chancellor  King  on  this  subject: 
"  As  to  these  prescribed  forms,  there  is  not  the  least  mention  of  them  in  any 
of  the  primitive  writings,  nor  the  least  word  or  syllable  tending  thereunto 
that  I  can  find,  which  is  a  most  unaccountable  silence,  if  ever  such  there 
were,  but  rather  some  expressions  intimating  the  contrary  :  as  that  famous 
controverted  place  of  Justin  Martyr,  who,  describing  the  manner  of  the  pray- 
er before  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  supper,  says,  '  that  the  bishop  sent  up 
prayers  and  praises  to  God  with  his  utmost  ability,'  osi]  Svva/uis  {Apolog.  ii. 
p.  92),  that  is,  that  he  prayed  with  the  best  of  his  abilities,  invention,  expres- 
sion, judgment,  and  the  like.  I  am  not  ignorant  that  tliere  is  another  sense 
given  of  oat]  Si'va^ls,  or  '  according  to  his  ability.'  But  I  must  needs  say, 
that  I  generally,  if  not  always,  found  this  phrase  to  include  personal  abilities. 
Thus,  as  to  the  explanation  of  Scripture,  Origen  writes  that  he  would  ex- 
pound it,  '  according  to  his  ability,'  ho?]  Suva/uig  (Com.  in  Matth.  torn.  xvii.  p. 
487,  vol.  i.),  and  that  he  would  comment  on  that  Parable  of  the  blind  man  that 
was  healed  near  Jericho,  mentio;ied  in  Luke  18:  35  (Com.  in  Malth.  tom.  xvi. 
p.  42i^),  vol  i.)  x«rd  to  Svvarov.  And  soon  the  Parable  concerning  the  hus- 
bandmen (//!/<</,  tom.  xvii.  p.  4(j3),  }{«T«  SvyufiiP  ;  and  on  the  marriage  of 
the  kinrr's  son  (^Ibid.  tom.  xvii.  p.  474),  xard  riiv  TcaQOVcav  Oi'vauii';  and 
tiiat  he  would  search  out  the  sense  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  (^Com.  in 
Jolian.  tom.  i.  p.  5,  vol.  ii.),xara  Sivufiiv.  Now  what  doth  Origen  intend 
by  his  searching  out  the  sense  and  expounding  the  meaning  of  the  Scrip- 
tures to  the  utmost  of  his  power  and  ability  ?  Is  it  a  bare  reading  and  tran- 
scribing of  other  men's  works,  or  an  employment  of  his  own  abilities  and 
studies,  to  find  out  the  sense  and  meaning  of  them  ?  Certainly  every  one 
will  think  the  latter  to  be  most  probable.' 

"  So  as  to  the  argumentative  defence  of  the  truth,  Origen  promises  he  would 
answer  the  calumnies  of  Celsus,  accoT-dj/jo-  to  his  poicer,  y.ara  ti)v  TTUQOvaav 
Svvafiiv  {Contra  Celsnyn,  lib.  i.  p.  2) ;  and  that  he  would  defend  and  confirm 


214         PRAYERS  AND  PSALMODY  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

time  Justin,  in  several  places,  seems  distinctly  to  allude  to  the  Lord's 
prayer.  He  speaks  of  God  as  the  Father  imv  '6).mp,^  which  is  of 
similar  import  with  the  expression  :  "  Our  Father  in  heaven.'''' 

his  arguments  against  Celsus,  according  to  his  poiver,  oat]  Svva/uig  (Ibid.  lib. 
i.  p.  313),  and  demonstrate  the  reasonableness  of  the  christian  religion,  flfcor<f- 
inir  to  his  puicer,  oa?/  Svva^i?  (Ibid.  lib.  vi.  p.  2(i5),  and  dispute  against  Cel- 
sus, according  to  his  poicer,  oar/  Svva/uig  (Ibid  lib.  vii.  p.  332).  Now,  wheth- 
er Origen's  defending  the  power,  consisted  in  a  reading,  or  in  a  bare  tran- 
scribing out  of  a  book,  the  written  arguments  of  other  men,  or  in  an  employ- 
ment of  his  own  abilities,  inventions,  and  expressions,  is  no  difficult  matter 
to  determine." 

"  1  have  not  found  one  plane,  wherein  this  phrase  of  oari  Svvufiig  doth  not 
comprehend  personal  abilities;  and  several  scores  more  might  I  cite,  where 
it  is  so  to  be  understood,  which  I  shall  omit,  and  mention  only  one  more, 
spoken  by  Origen  with  respect  to  this  duty  of  prayer,  where  it  must  of  ne- 
cessity imply  personal  abilities,  and  that  is  in  his  book  De  Oratione  (§  2. 
p.  134),  where  he  prescribes  the  method  and  parts  of  prayer,  the  first  where- 
of was  doxology  ;  wherein,  says  he,  he  that  prays  must  bless  God  according 
to  his  power,i(aTd  SvVttfuv  ;  where  ttard  8 Jvu/iiiv  mast  signify  the  perform- 
er's abilities  of  judgment  and  expression,  because  it  is  not  spoken  of  prescri- 
bed words,  but  of  a  prescribed  method  of  prayer;  as  if  anyone  should  desire 
me  to  inform  him  liow,  or  in  what  method,  he  must  pray  ;  1  tell  him, as  Ori- 
gen doth  in  this  place,  that  first  he  must  begin  with  an  invocation  of  God  by 
his  titles  and  attributes  ;  then  he  must  proceed  to  praise  God  for  his  mercies 
and  benefits,  confessing  withal  his  ingratitude  and  unfruitfulness ;  then  beg 
pardon  for  past  sins,  strength  against  future,  and  conclude  all,  with  praising 
God  through  Christ,  and  that  he  must  do  all  tliis  according  to  the  utmost  of 
his  ability.  What  could  any  one  imagine  that  I  should  intend  by  this  ad- 
vice of  following  this  method  to  the  utmost  of  his  power,  but  the  exerting  of 
his  own  abilities,  understanding,  memory,  invention,  expression^  and  the  like, 
since  I  direct  him  not  to  any  prescribed  words,  but  only  to  the  observation 
of  those  general  heads  and  parts  of  prayer  .2" 

"  So  that  the  minister's  praying  oaij  Si'va/.u?,  or  according  to  the  utmost 
of  his  ability,  imports  the  exerting  his  gifts  and  parts  in  suitable  matter  and 
apt  expressions  ;  and  that  the  primitive  prayers  were  so,  appears  yet  further 
from  a  passage  in  Origen,  who  tlius  explains  that  verse  in  Matthew  vi  :  But 
when  ye  pray,  use  not  vain  repetitions  as  the  heathens  do : — '  But  when  we  pray, 
let  us  not  battologise,  that  is,  use  not  vain  repetitions,  but  theologise  :  but 
•we  battologise,  when  we  do  not  strictly  observe  ourselves,  or  the  words  of 
prayer,  which  we  express,  when  we  utter  those  things  which  are  filthy,  ei- 
ther to  do,  speak,  or  think,  which  are  vile,  worthily  reproveable,  and  aliena- 
ted from  the  purity  of  the  Lord.'  (AVm  iTQoatv'/o/A.ivoi,,  /xr)  ^aTTO?.oy7}aoj- 
fisv,  «AAm  &(oloyrj(Tb)iJ,fv  ^aiToloyov^fv  ds  ot(  /jij  fjoiftoay.onoivTfg  taviovg 
^  jovg  avant^no^irovg  Tfjg  sv^rig  luyovg  Xiyo^iv  la  ducf&txgfiiva  t^ya, »; 


OF  THE  lord's  prayer.     '        215 

Irenaeus  distinctly  quotes  from  our  Lord's  prayer,"*  but  gives  no 
intimation  of  its  being  used  in  public  worship;  and  Clemens  Alex- 

Ao/oi'c,  1]  vot'ii^ma  juTitiva  -tvyxuvovxa  zal  inikT]nxa,  itjg  u<j)&uoalug  ai- 
koTQta  rov  xv^t'ov.  Dc  Oratione,  §  10.)  Surely  lliis  caution  had  been  need- 
less, of  strictly  observing  the  words  that  they  uttered  ;  and  this  fear  had  been 
groundless,  of  expressing  themselves  undecently,  or  sinfully,  if  they  had  a 
prayer-book  to  recur  to  ;  but  that  they  had  no  such  prayer-book  appears  yet 
more  evidently  from  Tertullian,  who,  describing  their  public  prayers,  says 
tliat,  looking  up  to  heaven,  they  spread  abroad  their  hands  because  inno- 
cent; uncovered  their  heads  because  not  ashamed ;  and  witiiout  a  monitor, 
because  they  prayed  from  the  heart,  (llluc  suspicientcs  Christiani  manibus 
expansis,  quia  innocuis,  capite  nudo,  quia  non  erubcscimus,  denique  sine 
monitore,  quia  de  pectore  oramus.  .Ipolog.  c.  30,  p.  703).  JNow,  what  is  to 
be  understood  by  praying  from  the  heart  will  best  appear  from  inquiring  into 
what  is  opposed  to  it,  viz.,  the  praying  by  a  monitor.  Now,  the  praying  by 
a  monitor,  as  is  acknowledged  by  all,  was  praying  by  a  book  ;  but  thus  Tertul- 
lian affirms  the  primitive  Christians  prayed  not:  We  do  not  pray,  saith 
he,  with  a  monitor,  reading  our  prayers  out  of  a  book.  No,  but  on  the  con- 
trary, we  pray  de  pectore,  from  the  heart,  our  own  heart  and  soul  dictating 
to  us  what  is  most  proper  and  suitable  to  be  asked,  having  no  need  of  any 
other  monitor  besides." 

"  J-Ience  their  prayers  were  suited  to  their  emergencies,  and  present  cir- 
cumstances, as  Tertullian  writes,  that  '  having  premised  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
we  may  offer  up  accidental  requests  and  petitions'  (praemissa  legitima  et  or- 
dinaria  oratione,  accidentium  jus  est  desideriorum.  De  Oral.  p.  659),  of  which 
occasional  requests  we  find  some  instances,  as  in  the  16th  epistle  of  Cyprian, 
where  that  father  assures  Moses  and  Maximus,  two  Roman  confessors,  that 
he  remembered  them  in  his  public  prayers  with  his  congregation  (Et  quando 
in  sacrificiis  precem  cum  plurimis  facimus.  EpistA^,  ^  ],p.  44).  And  in 
another  epistle,  when  he  congratulates  Pope  Lucius  upon  his  return  from 
banishment,  he  assures  him  'That  he  did  not  cease  in  his  public  prayers  to 
bless  God  for  so  great  a  mercy,  and  to  pray  Him  that  was  perfect  to  keep 
and  perfect  in  him  the  glorious  crown  of  his  confession.'  (Hie  quoqiie  in 
sacrificiis  atque  in  orationibus  nostris  non  cessantes  Deo— gratias  agere,  et 
orare  pariter,  ac  petere.  utqui  perfectus  est  atqiie  perficiens,  custodiat  et  per- 
ficiat  in  vobis  confessionis  vestrae  gloriosam  coronam.  E])ist.  Iviii.  §  2,  p. 
163  )  And  so,  when  the  Church  of  Carthage  sent  a  sum  of  money  to  the 
bishops  of  Numidia  for  the  redemption  of  some  christian  captives,  they  de- 
sired those  bishops  to  '  remember  Ihem  in  their  public  prayers.'  (In  menlem 
habeatis  in  orationibus  vestris  et  eis  vicem  boni  operis  in  sacrificiis  et  preci- 
bus  repraesentetis.  Epist.  Ix.  §  4,  p.  167.)  So  that  their  prayers  could  not 
be  stinted,  invariable  forms,  because  they  could  add  new  petitions,  as  their 
occasions  and  circumstances  did  require."— King,  Sicovd  Part  of  the  Enrjui- 
rijinto  the  Constitution,  Discipline,  Unity,  and  Worship  of  the  Primitive  Church, 
chap.  2,  §  7. 


216  PRAYERS  AND  PSALMODY  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

andrinus  many  times  alludes  to  it  in  like  manner.''^  The  authority 
of  the  Apostolical  Constitutions  is  irrelevant,  as  belonging  to  a  later 
period. 

2.  Tertullian,  C}^prian,  and  Origen,  fully  concur  in  testifying  to 
the  use  of  the  Lord's  prayer  in  the  second  and  third  centuries. 

Tertullian  declares  it  to  be  not  only  a  form  prescribed  by  Christ 
for  all  ages,  but  asserts  that  it  contains  the  substance  of  all  prayer, 
and  is  an  epitome  of  the  whole  gospel.*^  Cyprian  repeats  much  the 
same  sentiments,  acknowledging  Tertullian  as  his  guide  and  in- 
structor, and  often  explaining  more  fully  the  sentiments  of  that  au- 
thor. He  calls  the  Lord's  prayer, '  Our  public  and  common  prayer.''' 
Origen  also  has  a  long  treatise  on  the  same  subject,  in  which  he 
says  that  this  was  a  prescribed  form  containing  all  that  the  true 
Christian  ever  has  occasion  to  pray  for.^  Authorities,  without  num- 
ber, to  the  same  effect  may  be  accumulated  from  writers  of  the 
fourth  and  fifth  centuries.^ 

3.  The  use  of  the  Lord's  prayer  in  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  cen- 
turies was  restricted  to  the  faithful  only,  and  was  denied  to  catechu- 
mens.i"  By  Chrysostom  it  was  styled  iv^)]  zojv  niaTuiv,  the  prayer 
of  the  faithful. 

The  reason  of  this  exclusion  was,  in  general,  that  none  but  chris- 
tian believers  had  the  true  spirit  of  adoption,  so  that  they  could  sin- 
cerely say, '  Our  Father  which  art  in  Heaven. '^^  Another  reason  was 
that  the  petition,  '  Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread,'  was  understood 
in  a  mystical  sense,  as  relating  to  spiritual  gifts,  and  appropriate 
especially  to  be  used  in  the  communion  service,  at  which  no  catechu- 
men, or  profane  person,  was  permitted,  under  any  pretext  whatever, 
to  be  present.^- 

The  ancient  liturgies  of  the  Greek  church  connect  with  the 
Lord's  prayer  a  doxology,  which  has  been  ascribed  to  Basil  and  to 
Chrysostom,  recognizing  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  as  implied  in 
the  prayer,  "Thine  is  the  kingdom,  power,  and  glory.  Father,  Son, 
and  Holy  Spirit,  both  now  and  forever,  world  without  end."  The 
doctrine  revealed  in  this  doxology,  none  but  the  faithful  were  per- 
mitted to  know.  The  doxology  which  is  given  in  Matthew,  at  the 
close  of  the  Lord's  prayer,  was  unknown  to  Tertullian,  Cyprian, 
Orio-en,  and  Cyril  of  Jerusalem.  But  it  was  extant  as  early  as  the 
middle  of  the  fourth  century.^^  Neither  this  doxology,  nor  that 
above  mentioned  is  supposed  by  writers  to  have  belonged  to  the 
original  text. 


OF  THE  RESPONSES.  217 

Believers  were  expected  to  repeat  this  prayer  tliree  times  daily.^'* 
They  who  were  baptized  were  also  rctjuired  to  repeat  it,  together 
with  the  creed,  immediately  upon  coming  out  of  the  water.'-*  It 
was  also  repeated  in  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  supper, "*  and  of 
marriages,  funerals,  ordinations,  etc. 

The  modern  custom  of  some  Protestants,  of  repeating  the  Lord's 
prayer  twice  in  the  course  of  a  sermon,  has  no  precedent  in  the 
primitive  church. 

The  most  ancient  prayers  of  the  church  which  have  come  down 
to  us  are  contained  in  the  Apostolical  Constitutions.  These  forms  may 
have  been  in  use  as  early  as  the  end  of  the  fourth  century.  Among 
these  are  prayers  for  the  catechumens,^'''  for  candidates  for  baptism,'^ 
for  penitents,'^  for  demoniacs,-**  prayers  for  them  that  sleep  [in 
death], 21  morning  and  evening  prayers,--  and  prayers  to  be  used  on 
the  sabbath  .2-'' 

As  a  single  example  of  these  forms  of  prayer,  one  is  inserted  be- 
low, which  was  offered  at  the  conclusion  of  the  Lord's  supper  : 

/Ji(T7iOTa  o  Otoq  o  navTOxgaioo,  o  narr,Q  tov  Xqiutov  aov  rov  tiXo/T]- 
Tov  nuidog,  o  tmv  /.kt  svdniiTO?  iTTiy.alovfiivwv  as  fntjyoog,  o  xal  twv 
aibiKbivxwv  fnicFTUfiivog  zug  ivriv^ng  '  iv/agiarovfjiv  aoi,  crt  xaxri^loKTug 
r]fiag  fiBtaXa^ilv  xStv  ay  lav  aov  fivaTTjolcov,  a  jiaQi<T%ov  tji/lv,  ilg  nXr/go— 
(pOQittv  Twj'  xaXhig  fyvcoafxivcov,  tig  (pvXctxijv  t?/?  fifffj^tiMC,  ilg  u(ff(nv 
Tih]^lxiXriuixTmv  on  to  ovofia  xov  Xgiaxov  aov  in ixixXr^xai  icp  ij^ag,  xal 
(TOi  7iQoao)xsioii.ied^a.  6  xoiQiantg  ijfxug  xijg  xav  oktSj^wv  xoLvoivlag,  i'vojcrov 
vfiiig  [iEXtx  xuv  xad^McriM^dvav  aoi,  (ttjjqi^ov  tij-iug  iv  xfi  uXri&ua  xjj  xov 
aylov  nviii/.iaxog  inKpotxiivn,  xa  ayvoovfitva  unoxaXvvjJov,  xa  Xilnovxa 
nqo(javmih]Q(x)(rov,  xa  iyvcaafisva  xQarvvov '  xovg  hgug  ufKUfxovg  diacpv— 
}.utov  ii'  xjj  liiXQfin  aov '  xovg  ^aatXstg  8iair,Qi]aov  iv  HQijvr],  xovg  ug- 
Xovxng  iv  dixaioaivjj,  xovg  uigag  iv  svxgaaia,  xovg  xagnovg  iv  (vcpogin, 
xov  xoafiov  iv  navaky.n  ngovoln.  xa  t&vrj  xu  nolf/jixa  ngnvvov  xa 
nmXavrifiiva  inlaxg^ipov,  xov  Xaov  aov  uyiaaov.  xovg  iv  nag&svUf  dia- 
xtigr/aov  xovg  iv  yd/joj  8iuq)vXa^ov  iv  niaxfi'  xovg  Iv  ayviln  i.vdvva- 
fiwaov  xa  V7]7iia  udgvvov  xovg  vfoxfXiig  ^i^iulmaov  '  xovg  iv  xaxrj/tjaei, 
■naldfvaov,  xal  x7jg  /.iv/jatwg  u^lovg  avddei^ov  '  xal  Tiuviag  ij^uag  intavvu- 
yayt  tig  xliv  xwv  ovguvaiv  (jaaiXdav,  iv  XgtaTu}  Jifaov  lol  xvg'm  nfjibiv  ' 
fis&  oh  aoi  do^ot,  xifii]  xal  ai^ag,  xal  xot  «;/(•»  nviv^uxi,  ilg  xovg  alwvag. 
(<uii»'.— Const.  VITT.  14.  15. 

28 


218-  JRATERS  AKD  PSAKM03Y  OF  THE  CHURCK. 


§  10.  Of  the  Ke&po-nsbs — ^Amen:,  Hae-lee^ujah,  Hosakna^^  sfsr. 

Tliese  were  either  short  ejaculations  to  God,  or  exclamatfons  de- 
signed to  enkindle  the  devotions  of  believerrs,  or  aa  inliinatioEi  ibas 
the  prayer  of  the  speaker  was  heard. 

I.  A7ne7i.  This,  in  the  phraseology  of  the  church,  is  denominateci 
oralionis  signacuhmi,  or  devotae  concionis  resfonsionem^  the  tokens 
for  prayer — the  response  of  the  worshippers.  It  intimates  that  the 
prayer  of  the  speaker  is  heard,  and  approved  by  hirr>  who  gives-  this 
response.  It  is  also  used  at  the  conclusion  of  a  doxology.  Rom.  9:  5^ 
Justin  Martyr  is  the  fii-st  ofthe  fathere  who  speaks  of  the  use  of  this 
response.  In  speaking  of  the  sacrament  he  says,  that  at  the  close  of 
the  benediction  and  prayer,  all  the  assembly  respond,  "•Amen,.'"' 
which,  in  the  Hebrew  tongue  is  the  same  as,  "  So  let  it  be."  3-  Ac- 
cording to  Tertullian,  none  but  the  faithful  were  permitted,  to  join  ira 
the  response.* 

In  the  celebration  of  the  Lord^s  supper  especially,  each  commu- 
nicant was  required  to  give  this  response  in  a  tone  of  earnest  devo- 
tion.^ Upon  the  reception,  both  ofthe  bread,  and  ofthe  wine,  each 
uittered  a  loud  'Amen  ;'  and,  at  the  close  of  the  consecration  by  the 
priest,  all  joined  in  shouting  a  loud  '  Amen.'  But  the  practice  was 
discontinued  after  the  sixth  century. 

At  the  administration  of  baptism  also,  the  witnesses  and  sponsors; 
uttered  this  response  in  the  same  manner.  In  the  Greek  church,  it 
was  customary  to  repeat  this  response  as  follows  :  "^This  servant  ofthe 
Lord  is  baptized  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  Amen  ;  and  of  the  Son, 
Amen  ;  and  ofthe  Koly  Ghost,  Amen  ;  both  now  and  forever,  world! 
without  end  ;'  to  which  the  people  responded, '^Amen.^  This  usage  is 
still  observed  by  the  Greek  church  in  Russia.  The  repetitions  were 
given  thrice,  with  reference  to  the  three  persons  ofthe  Trinity. 

2.  Hallelujah.  This  was  adopted  from  the  Jewish  psalmody, 
particularly  from  those  psalms  (cxiii — cxviii)  which  were  sung  at  the 
passover,  called  the  Great  Hillel  or  Hallel.  It  was  this  that  our  Sa- 
vior sang  with  his  disciples  at  the  institution  of  the  sacrament.  The 
word  itself  is  an  exhortation  to  praise  God,  and  was  so  understoodi 
by  Augustine,  Isiodorus,  and  others.^  The  use  of  this  phrase  was 
first  adopted  by  the  church  at  Jenisalera.,"  and  from,  this  was  re- 


■OF  THE  RESPONSES.  *'319 

<De'iv«d  by  ■other  ell urches.     But  the  use  of  it  w^^  restricted  to  the 
iifty  days  between  Easter  and  Whitsunvlay.*^ 

In  the  Greek  chiarch  it  was  expressive  of  grief,  sorrow,  and  peni- 
tence.^ In  the  Latin,  on  the  contrary,  it  denoted  a  joyful  spirit — 
Jove,  praise,  thanksgiving,  etc. 

3.  Hosannn.  The  church,  both  ancient  and  modern,  have  con- 
curred in  ascribing  to  this  v/ord,  contrary  to  its  original  import,  a 
signification  similar  to  that  of  flailelujah.  The  true  signification  of 
it  is,  "  Lord,  save,"  Ps.  118:  25,  and  was  so  understood  by  Origen, 
Jeronrae,  and  Theophylact,  ia  tlieir  commentaries  upon  Matt.  21:  15, 

Eusebius  gives  the  first  instance  on  record  of  its  use,**^  where,  at 
tlie  death  of  a  certain  mariyr,  tlie  muhilude  are  said  to  have  shouted 
*'  Hosanntj  to  the  Son  of  David."  The  use  of  it  is  prescribed  in  the 
Apostolical  Constitutions,  lib.  8.  c.  13,  in  connection  with  a  doxology 
!to  Christ.  The  first  mention  of  it  in  religious  worship  is  found  in  the 
Apostolical  Constitutions,  8.  e.  13.  It  occurs  also  in  the  liturgy  of 
Chrysostom.  By  tlic  ancients  it  was  uniformly  regarded  as  a  dox- 
ology. 

4.  O  Lord  have  mercy, — Kiqiz  ihr^aov.  There  are  many  au- 
thorities, both  sacred  and  profane,  from  which  this  phrase  may  have 
been  adopted.^''  According  to  Augustine,  Epist.  178,  it  was  in  use 
both  in  the  Syriac,  Armenian,  and  other  Oriental  languages.  The 
council  of  Vaison,  A.  D.  492,  can.  3,  ordained  that  this  reponse 
should  be  introduced  into  the  morning  and  evening  worship,  and 
into  the  public  religious  service.  Gregory  the  Great  introduced  a 
threefold  form.  1.  O  Lord.  2.  Lord  have  mercy.  3.  Christ  have 
mercy.  And  each  it  would  seem  was  to  be  thrice  repeated  with 
reference  to  the  sacred  trinity.'- 

5.  Glory ;  Glory  in  the  highest.  This  e.xclamation  was  in  use 
©n  certain  festive  occasions  in  the  iifth  century  ;  In  the  seventh,  it 
had  come  into  general  use.'"^  According  to  Meratus,  the  bishops 
alone  were  allowed  the  use  of  this  exclamation.^^ 

6.  The  Lord  he  with  yon  ;  Peace  he  loith  you.  The  council  of 
Braga,  A.  D.  561,  ordained  that  this  should  be  the  uniform  saluta- 
tion both  of  bishops  and  presbyters,  when  addressing  the  people.^'' 
The  last  mentioned  salutation  alone  was  in  use  in  the  Greek  church. 
At  first,  this  salutation  was  not  allowed  to  excommunicated  per- 
sons, or  to  penitents,  or  even  to  catechumens  ;  but  only  to  the  faith- 
ful. Examples  of  the  scrupulous  observance  of  prescribed  forms  of 
.salutation  are  cited  in  the  index."' 


220  PRAYERS  AND  PSALMODY  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

7.  Let  us  pray  ;  Lift  up  your  hearts,  etc. ;  or  emus,  dtridw^ev  ;  sur- 
sum  corda.  In  tlie  ancient  service  of  the  church,  it  was  the  duty  of 
the  deacon  to  summon  each  class  of  worshippers  separately  to  en- 
gage in  prayer  by  saying, '  Let  us  pray.'  Whether  they  were  to  pray 
in  silence  or  audibly,  they  received  a  similar  intimation  from  the 
deacon.  This  was  followed  by  another  injunction  to  kneel ;  and  at 
the  conclusion,  he  also  directed  them  to  arise.  There  were  various 
forms  of  announcing  the  time  of  prayer  besides  the  one  above  men- 
tioned, such  as 'Give  audience  ;'  'Attend  ;'  'Lift  your  hearts  on  high, 
pray,  pray  earnestly,'  etc.  To  which  the  congregation  replied,  'Our 
heart  is  unto  the  Lord,'  etc.''' 

Cyprian  is  the  first  who  distinctly  mentions  this  mode  of  announ- 
cing prayer,  but  he  speaks  of  it  as  a  familiar  and  established  usage. ^^ 
Cyril  of  Jerusalem  says,  that  at  this  awful  summons,  the  whole  soul 
should  be  fixed  upon  God,  and  no  unworthy  or  earthly  thought 
should  be  allowed  to  intrude.  Much  more  to  the  same  effect  is  said 
by  him,  and  by  the  authors  quoted  in  the  index. ^^  During  the  mid- 
dle ages,  this  custom  was  perverted  to  the  maintenance  of  the  doc- 
trine of  transubstantiation, — the  elevation  of  the  host,  etc.  In  the 
English  church,  it  continued  unchanged  until  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. In  the  Lutheran  church  a  similar  usage  remains  to  the 
present  time. 

"  The  long  prayer  which,  in  the  missa  fidelimn,  the  service  de- 
signed for  the  faithful  alone,  usually  followed  the  sermon,  was  intro- 
duced as  follows.  The  deacon  first  commanded  silence  and  atten- 
tion by  exclaiming, '  Let  us  pray  ;'  the  officiating  minister  then  ad- 
dressed the  assembly  in  these  words :  '  The  peace  of  God  be  with 
you  all  ;'  to  which  the  assembly  responded,  'And  with  thy  spirit.' 
Then  said  the  deacon,  '  Salute  ye  one  another  with  an  holy  kiss  ;' 
upon  which  the  clergy  saluted  the  bishop,  and  one  another  ;  and  the 
laity  of  both  sexes,  saluted  those  of  their  own  sex.  During  this  time, 
some  of  the  deacons,  and  subdeacons  are  occupied  in  preserving 
order.  One  of  the  latter  brings  water  for  the  officiating  minister  to 
wash  his  hands  in  token  of  the  purity  of  mind  which  is  accepta- 
ble to  God.  The  deacon  then  says, '  Let  no  catechumen,  disciple,  or 
unbeliever,  or  any  of  Caesar's  party  remain  ;  all  you  who  have  at- 
tended the  first  service  retire  ;  mothers  withdraw  whh  your  infant 
children  ;  let  no  one  cherish  enmity  in  his  heart  towards  another ; 
let  there  be  no  hypocrisy  in  any  ;  let  us  set  our  hearts  with  fear  and 


PSALMODY  OF  THE  CHURCH.  221 

trembling  to  bring  our  offerings.'  These  offerings  are  then  laid  up- 
on the  altar  by  the  deacon,  while  the  minister,  with  the  elders,  stands 
before  it  praying  for  himself,  and  with  a  white  cloth,  crossing  him- 
self upon  the  breast.  After  this  he  says  to  the  assembly, '  The  grace 
of  Almighty  God,  the  love  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  fellow- 
ship of  the  Holy  Spirit  be  with  you  all,  Amen  ;'  to  which  the  people 
respond,  'And  with  thy  spirit.'  He  then  says, '  Lift  up  your  hearts  on 
high.'  "  Our  heart  is  unto  the  Lord."  Let  us  bless  the  Lord,  says 
the  minister.  "  It  is  meet  and  right."  He  that  leads  their  devo- 
tions then  prays  at  great  length,  and  the  solemn  service  is  closed  by 
a  doxology."* 

§  11.  Of  the  Psalmody  of  the  Church.' 

The  sacred  canon  of  the  Jews  consisted  of  the  Law  and  the 
Prophets.  The  Psalms  were  a  collection  of  sacred  songs,  and  were 
used  in  their  temple  service,  like  our  modern  collections  of  Psalms 
and  Hymns.  The  use  of  sacred  music  in  religious  worship  was  de- 
rived from  the  Jews,  and  the  Psalms  of  the  sacred  Scriptures  were 
uniformly  used  by  the  primitive  Christians  as  songs  to  be  sung. 
Some  one  or  more  lead  the  singing,  and  the  whole  congregation 
united  their  voices  in  the  chorus.-  Sometimes  they  constituted  two 
divisions,  and  sung  responses  to  each  other,  and  at  other  times,  it  is 
probable  that  all  sung  in  unison.  Their  worship  was  conducted  by 
the  reading  of  the  Scriptures,  and  singing  of  the  Psalms  alternately.-^ 
Certain  Psalms  were  sung  also  on  certain  occasions.  There  were 
accordingly  morning  and  evening  Psalms,  and  Psalms  prescribed 
by  the  bishops  to  be  sung  on  the  several  religious  festivals.^ 

it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  earliest  christian  fathers  make  no 
mention  of  Psalms  and  Hymns  as  a  part  of  religious  worship.  These 
were  classed  with  the  p^raijers  and  thanksgivings  of  the  church.  Ori- 
gen  is  the  first  author  who  distinctly  mentions  them.  "  We,"  says 
he,  "  sing  hymns  to  God  who  is  over  all,  and  to  his  only  begotten 
[Son]  the  Word  and  God."^t  Eusebius  also  says  that  the  Psalms 
and  Hymns  of  the  brethren,  written  at  the  beginning  by  the  faithful, 
do  set  forth  the  praises  of  Christ  the  Word  of  God,  and  attribute  di- 

*  Seigel,  Alter.  Vol.  11.  Art.  Gebet. 

t  The  genuineness  of  the  last  phrase,  is  called  in  question  by  some 
writers. 


222  PRAYERS  AND  PSALMODY  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

vinity  to  him.*     From  aU  which,  we  have  historical  evidence  that 
the  divinity  of  Christ  was  a  doctrine  of  the  primitive  church. 

The  circumstance  that  none  of  the  Psalms  and  Hymns  of  the 
primitive  church  have  come  down  to  us,  may  be  ascribed  to  various 
causes.  They  were  comparatively  few  in  number,  consisting  only 
of  a  few  hymns  to  be  committed  to  memory  by  the  young  people,  and 
by  all  those  who  could  not  afford  the  expense  of  a  manuscript  copy. 
They  must  have  been  carefully  destroyed  in  the  times  of  persecu- 
tion. They  were  a  part  of  the  secret  service^  which  was  never 
taught  to  any  but  believers.  And  the  church  were  greatly  d^ivided 
in  opinion  respecting  this  part  of  their  worship,  often  revising  their 
collections  of  psalmody.  The  various  sects  of  heretics  especially, 
adapted  their  psalmody  to  their  peculiar  sentiments  ;  and  generally, 
the  ancient  psalmody  was  of  a  decidedly  doctrinal  character,  subject 
to  change  from  age  to  age,  with  the  ever  varying  sentiments  of  the 
church.  Like  their  creeds  and  catechisms,  their  psalmody  also  was 
expected  to  contain  a  summary  o(  the  christian  faith.  The  music 
by  which  it  was  accompanied  consisted  merely  of  a  {e\v  easy  and 
simple  melodies. 

§  12.  Attitude  and  Gesture  in  Singing,  and  in  Prayer.^ 

1.  Standing.  In  the  Eastern  church  it  was  customary,  as  it  still 
is  with  Mohammedans,  Arabians,  and  the  Parsees  of  Persia,  to  stand 
m  prayer.^  Many  examples  of  this  custom  occur  also  in  the  Scrip- 
tures :  Gen,  18:  22,  19:  27.  2  Chron.  20:  13.  1  Sam,  1:  26.  Job  30: 
20,  Luke  IS:  11,  13.  Matt.  6:  5.  Mark  11:  25.3  And  from  the 
writings  of  Basil,  Chrysostom,  and  the  Apostolical  Ck)nstitutions,  it 
would  seem  that  this  was  the  usxial  attitude,  and  not  an  exception  to 
tihe  general  rule,  as  has  often  been  asserted.  To  kneel  in  prayer, 
during  the  entire  season  of  pentecost,  was  expressly  forbidden.'*  Ac- 
cording to  Origen,  the  eyes  and  the  hands  should  be  lifted  up  to  hea- 
ven, that  the  body  may  indicate  the  elevation  of  the  soul.  But  lie  al- 
lows exceptions  in  case  oi  infirmity,  and  according  to  circumstances.^ 
He  also  insists  that  it  is  necessary  for  one  to  kneel  when  he  prays  for 
the  forgiveness  of  his  sins.  But  he  is  here  speaking  not  of  public, 
but  of  private  prayer.  The  author  of  Questions  and  Answers  to  the 
Orthodox,  which  some  erroneously  have  ascribed  to  Justin  Martyr, 
awserls  that  the  custom  which  is  observed  through  the  days  of  pente- 


ATTITUDE.  AND  GESTUKE.  223 

cost  was  of  apostolic  origm,  and  refers  to  a  passage  from  Irenaetis, 
which  is  lost,  in  proof  of  the  assertion.  Epiphanius,  Jerome,  AogiJs- 
line,*^  and  Basii,"^  also  concur  in  sanctioning  the  custom  of  standing  in 
prayer.  And  it  is  particularly  worthy  of  rennark,  that  penitents  were 
denied  this  privilege,  it  being  the  prerogative  and  right  only  of  be- 
lievers and  consistent  professors  of  religion. 

In  singing,  this  was  regarded  as  the  only  proper  and  beeotniifig  at- 
titude.^ 

2.  Kneeling.  Abundant  authority  for  this  is  also  fotind  in  the 
Scriptures  :  Gen.  17:  3,  17.  Num.  16:  22.  Josh.  5:  14.  2Chron.20: 
18.  Luke  22:  41.  Acts  7:  59,  60.  9: 40,  21:  5.  Epb.  3:  14.  The 
act  of  kneeling  was  thought  peculiarly  to  indicate  humility  before 
God  ;  to  exhibit  a  sinner  who  had  fallen  away  from  hin^,  an^  ira 
need  of  divine  grace  and  mercy.  Accordingly  it  was  unifornr>ly  re- 
quired of  all  who  had  fallen  under  censure  of  the  church  for  their 
offences,  as  an  indispensable  condition  of  their  restoration  to  their 
former  covenant  relations.  Basil  denominates  it  the  less  pencmce, 
in  distinction  from  pr&straiioiij  which  was  called  the  greater  penemce. 

It  must  indeed  be  admitted  that  it  was  very  common  both  to  kneel 
and  to  stand  in  prayer.  But  the  assertion  that  kneeling  was  the  uni- 
form posture  in  prayer,  in  all  acts  of  worsl)ip  except  on  the  sabbath 
and  festive  occasions,  is  an  unwarranted  assumption.  The  most 
important  authorities  from  the  fathers  are  given  in  the  index.^ 

3.  Bowing  the  head.  This  was-  a  kind  of  intermediate  attitude 
between  standing  and  kneeling.  Occasionally  the  inclination  of  the 
body  is  also  mentioned.  The  bowing  of  the  head  was  especially  re- 
quired in  connection  with  intercessory  prayers  and  the  receiving  of 
the  benediction.'^ 

4.  Prostration  upon  the  ground.  This.is  occasionally  mentioned, 
but  was  not  required  as  a  rule  of  worship.  It  was  chiefly  appropri- 
ate to  deep  humiliations  and  expressions  of  shame  or  sorrow  upon 
some  very  remarkable  occasion,  but  was  not  the  general  practice  of 
the  church.!^ 

Sitting  in  prayer,  according  to  Bingham,  was  never  allowed  in  the 
ancient  church.  It  was  universally  regarded  as  an  irreverent  and 
heathenish  posture  in  these  devotions 

5.  The  lifting  up  of  the  hands.  This  was  a  common  rite  in  pa- 
gan worship,  but  with  the  christian  fathers  it  was  peculiarly  signifi- 
cant as  an  emblem  of  the  cross,  designed  to  assist  them  in  holding 


224  PRAYERS  AiND  PSALMODY  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

in  lively  remembrance  Christ  crucified.  Occasionally  the  hands  were 
clasped  together  in  prayer. 

In  regard  to  the  covering  of  the  head,  the  church  strictly  observed 
the  rule  given  by  the  apostle,  1  Cor.  xi,  requiring  the  men  to  be  un- 
covered, and  the  women  to  wear  their  appropriate  covering  in  prayer. 
In  this  their  custom  was  directly  opposed  to  that  of  both  Jews  and 
Gentiles.  With  them,  to  appear  with  the  head  covered,  denoted 
freedom  and  independence.  But  the  Christian,  as  the  servant  of  the 
Lord,  appeared  uncovered^  in  token  of  his  humility  and  dependence. 

From  the  period  of  the  second  century  it  was  customary,  both  in 
the  Eastern  and  Western  church  to  pray  facing  towards  the  easl^ 
contrary  to  the  custom  of  the  Jews  who  prayed  towards  the  west, 
1  Kings  8:  4.  2  Chron.  29:  6.  Dan.  6:  10.  The  altars  of  the  chris- 
tian churches  were  situated  towards  the  east,  and  the  dead  were 
buried  so  that  the  eye  might  be  turned  in  the  same  direction.  The 
reason  for  all  this  seems  to  have  been  derived  from  the  ceremonies 
of  baptism,  in  which  they  were  accustomed  to  turn  towards  the  west 
as  the  region  of  darkness,  where  the  prince  of  darkness  might  be 
supposed  to  dwell  and  solemnly  to  renounce  the  devil  and  his  works  ; 
and  then  to  turn  about  to  the  east  and  enter  into  covenant  with 
Christ.  They  might,  therefore,  very  naturally  suppose  that  in 
prayer  they  ought  to  direct  themselves  to  God  in  the  same  manner 
in  which  they  first  entered  into  covenant  with  him.^^ 

Of  the  time  for  prayer.  Christ  and  his  apostles  give  no  specific 
instructions,  but  generally,  to  pray  at  all  times,  and  in  every  place. 
But  it  became,  in  the  second  and  third  centuries,  a  prevalent  senti- 
ment in  the  church,  that  every  Christian  ought  to  pray  three  times 
a  day  ;  at  the  third,  sixth  and  ninth  hour,  corresponding  to  the  hours 
of  nine,  twelve  and  three  o'clock.  For  the  observance  of  these 
hours  they  had  certain  mystical  reasons  drawn  from  the  doctrine  of 
the  trinity.  The  third  being  emblematical  of  the  trinity,  and  the 
sixth  and  ninth  being  formed  by  repetitions  ofthree.^'^  But  Tertul- 
lian  and  Cyprian  both  urge  the  propriety  of  morning  and  evening 
prayer,  at  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun,  in  remembrance  of  the 
sun  of  righteousness  whose  absence  we  have  so  much  occasion  to 
deplore,  and  in  whose  light  we  must  rejoice.  The  Apostolical  Con- 
stitutions also  prescribe  the  offering  of  prayers  five,  six,  and  even 
seven  times  a  dav.^^ 


ANCIENT  PSALMODY. 


22£ 


As  a  specimen  of  the  ancient  psalmody  of  the  church,  the  follow- 
ing hymn  from  Ambrose  is  inserted,  with  bishop  Mant's  version  of 
it.— 0pp.  T.  II.  H.  8. 


Aetenia  Cfiristi  munera 
Et  niartyniin  victorias, 
Laurles  ferentes  debitas, 
Laetis  canatmis  ineutibus. 

Ecclesiarum  principes, 
Belli  trill mphales  duces, 
Caelestis  auiae  tnilites, 
Et  vera  nnuidi  lumina. 

Terrore  victo  saecuii 
Spretisque  poenis  corporis. 
Mortis  sacrae  compendio, 
Vitam  beatam  possident. 

Traduntur  igni  martyres, 
Et  bestiarum  dentibus, 
Armata  saevit  unguJis 
Tortoris  insani  manus. 


Nudata  pendent  viscera, 
Sanguis  sacratus  funditur, 
Sed  permanent  inimobiles 
Vilae  percnnis  gratia. 

Devota  sanctorum  fides, 
Invicta  spes  credentium  ; 
Perfecta  Christi  caritas, 
Mundi  triumpbat  principem. 

In  his  paterna  gloria, 
In  his  voluntas  filii, 
Exsultat  in  his  Spiritus, 
Caelum  repletur  gaudiis. 

Te  nunc,  redemtor,  quaesumus, 
Ut  ipsorum  consortio 
Jungas  precantes  servuios, 
In  sempiterua  saecula.     Amen. 


Bishop  Manfs  Version. 

Lord,  who  didst  bless  thy  chosen  band. 
And  forth  commissioned  send. 

To  spread  thy  name  from  land  to  land, 
To  thee  our  hymns  ascend. 

The  princes  of  thy  church  were  they. 

Chiefs  unsubdued  by  fight. 
Soldiers  on  earth  of  heaven's  array. 

The  world's  renewing  light. 

Theirs  the  firm  fiiith  of  holy  birth. 
The  hope  that  looks  above. 

And,  trampling  on  the  powers  of  earth, 
Their  Saviour's  perfect  love. 
29 


226 


PRAYERS  AND  PSALMODY  OF  THE  CHURCH. 


In  them  the  heavens  exulting  own 

The  Father's  might  revealed, 
Thy  triumph  gaiuM,  begotten  Son, 

Thy  Spirit's  influence  sealed. 

Tlien  to  thy  Father,  and  to  Thee, 

And  to  thy  Spirit  blest, 
All  praise  for  these  thy  servants  be 

By  all  thy  church  addrest. 

The  most  ancient  hymn  of  the  primitive  church  extant,  is  that  of 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  which  is  given  below. 


^To^iov  TTcolcov  aduojv, 
JJjfQov  oQvi&cov  unXavojv, 
Ola$  ftjnlcov  aiQixrjg, 
Iloifiijv  agvwv  (Saailiy.ixjv  ' 
Tovg  aovg  acpsXiig 
naldctg  aysiQov, 
Alvsiv  uyiwg, 
T^ivtiv  adolwg, 
Axaxoig  azofiuaiv 
Ilaldwv  7jyrjtogu  Xgiaiov. 
StxaiXsv  tt/mv, 
ytoys  navSanuTmq 
natgog  viplajov, 
Soqilag  Tigvrttvi,, 
Szi'igiy^a  novav 
Aioivoxage;, 
Bgotiag  ysvEug 
^wreg  Irjaov, 
noip]v^  agoTijQ, 

Utsgov  ovguviov 
JJavayovg  noi^vrig  ' 
AXitv  [isgonoiv 
Tav  (Tw^oiiiveav^ 
IlsXayovg  xaxiag 
'iX&vg  uyvovg 
KvfiUTog  fj^^^oi' 


Fraenum  pullorum  indocilium, 

Penna  vohicrum  non  errantium, 

Verus  clavus  infantium, 

Pastor  agnorum  regalium, 

Tuos  simplices. 

Pueros  congrega, 

Ad  sancte  laudandum  : 

Sincere  canendum 

Ore  innoxio 

Christum  puerorum  ducem. 

Rex  sanctorum, 

Verbum,  qui  domas  omnia, 

Patris  altissimi, 

Sapientiae  rector, 

Laborum  sustentaculum, 

Aevo  gaudens, 

Humani  generis 

Servator  Jesu, 

Pastor,  arator, 

Clavus,  fraenum, 

Penna  coelestis 

Sanctissimi  gregis. 

Piscator  hominum, 

Qui  salvi  fiunf, 

Pelagi  vitii 

Pisces  castos 

Unda  ex  infesta 


ANCIENT  HYMN. 


227 


'Hyov,  ngo^draiv 
AoyiKwv  notfiijV 
"Ayu  tjyov 

BaaiXsv  naldiov  ocPEnucpoiV. 
"lyvia  Xoiaiov, 
^Odog  oiQtxvla, 
Aoyoq  uevaog, 

AloiV  anXsTog, 

fpaig  u'idiov, 
^EUovg  nriyi], 
'^Pmji]Q  uQiTi]g' 

2t[ivi}  /5(0Tj) 

Oiov  vuvovvTMV,  Xqiote   rr,(Tov, 

Fala  ovQixviov 

Maaiwv  yXvxfnwv 

Nvpcfvig  yagiiav, 

2ocf)iag  t»j$  (T^?  ix&Xi^o^nvov. 

Oi  vrjTiiaxoi 

'AtttXolg  ai6p.a(nv 

'AnTaXX6[j,n'oi, 

OrjXijg  Xoyixyjg 

JIViV^iaTL  8qo(ti§i<j 

^E/xTiinXixi^iEVOi, 

Al'vovg  MqpfAfis, 

"Tfivovg  aTQExtlg, 

BaaiXil  Xqktjoj, 

MicF&ovg  oaiovg 

Zarjg  didayi'ig, 

MiXnansv  ofiov, 

3'IiXnoiniV  anXcog^ 

JJaiSa  xgaregoV 

XoQog  HQi'ivTig 

Ol  XgiaTO'/ovoi, 

Aabg  crucpQbiv, 

H'aX()iHtv  ofxov  Oiov  elg/jvrjg. 


Dulci  vita  iticscans. 

Sis  dux,  ovimn 

Rationalium  pastor  : 

Sancte,  sis  dux, 

Rex  puerorum  intactoruni. 

Vestigia  Christi, 

Vita  coelestis, 

Verbum  pcrenne, 

Aevuin  infinitum, 

Lux  aeterna, 

Fons  misericordiae, 

Operatrix  viitutis, 

Honesta  vita, 

Deum  laudantium  Ciiriste  Jesu: 

Lac  coelesle 
Dulcibus  uberibus 
Nymphae  Gratiarum, 

Sapientiae  tuae  expressum, 

Infantuli 

Ore  tenero 

Enutriti, 

Mammae  rationalis 

Roscido  spiritu 

Impleti, 

Laudes  simplices, 

Hymiios  veraces, 

Regi  Christo, 

Mercedes  sanctas 

Vitae  doctrinae, 

Cananius  simtil. 

Canaaius  simpliciter 

Puerum  valentem, 

C/iorus  pacis, 

Ciiristo  geniti, 

Populus  modestus, 

Psaiiamus  simul  Deum  pacis. 

Paed.  Lib.  HI. 


228  USE  OF  THE  HOLY  SCRIPTURES. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

THE  USE  OF  THE  HOLY   SCRIPTURES  IN   RELIGIOUS    WORSHIP. 

<^  1.  Preliminary  Remarks. 

The  christian  church  at  first  adopted,  without  essential  variation, 
the  Jewish  form  of  worship  in  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures,  which, 
after  the  Babylonish  captivity,  constituted  an  important  part  of  re- 
ligious service.  The  books  of  Moses  were  divided  into  fifty-four 
sections,  corresponding  to  the  sabbaths  in  a  year,  one  being  allowed 
for  their  intercalated  years,  in  which  there  might  be  fifty-four  sab- 
baths. These  sections  were  read  successively,  one  on  each  sabbath. 
When  a  less  number  of  sabbaths  occurred  in  a  year,  two  sections 
were  read  together  as  one  on  the  last  sabbath,  so  that  the  reading  of 
the  whole  might  be  completed  every  year. 

Selections  were  also  made  from  the  historical  and  prophetical 
books,  which  were  denominated  the  Prophets.  One  of  these  selec- 
tions was  read  every  sabbath  day  in  connection  with  the  correspond- 
ing portion  of  the  law.  This  custom  originated  from  the  persecution 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  who  forbade  the  Jews  the  reading  of  their 
law  on  the  sabbath.  They  accordingly  selected  from  the  prophets 
certain  portions  which  they  read  successively,  in  the  place  of  like 
portions  of  the  laio.  And  after  the  persecution,  they  continued  to 
read  both  in  connection.  Paul,  at  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  stood  up  to 
preach  after  the  reading  of  the  laio  and  the  prophets^  Acts  13: 15. 

The  Psalms  and  other  devotional  parts  of  the  Scriptures,  which 
with  the  Jews  constituted  a  third  division,  were  probably  not  read 
at  all  on  the  sabbath.  They  were  the  Psalter  of  the  Jewish  syna- 
gogue, and  were  sung  or  chanted  whenever  introduced  into  religious 
worship. 

Justin  Martyr  is  the  first  who  mentions  the  reading  of  the  Gospels 
and  of  the  Acts  together  with  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament.^ 
According  to  this  author,  they  were  read  in  public  assembly  on  the 
sabbath,  by  a  reader  appointed  for  the  purpose  ;  and  after  the  read- 
ing, an  exhortation  and  exposition  was  delivered  by  the  minister. 


PRELIMINARY  REMARKS.  229 

Tertullian  also  insists  upon  ilie  reading  of  the  Scriptures  both  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament  as  an  important  part  of  public  worship.^ 

Both  Tertullian  and  Cyprian  speak  of  the  Reader,  as  an  officer  in 
the  church,  the  latter  of  whom  particularly  describes  the  ordination 
of  two  Readers  to  this  office.'' 

The  Apostolical  Constitutions  enjoin  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures 
as  the  most  important  part  of  public  worship.  And  Origen  and 
Chrysostom  insist  upon  this  as  the  foundation  of  all  correct  religious 
service.^  To  these  authorities,  again,  may  be  added  those  of  various 
councils,  on  the  same  subject.^ 

As  a  general  rule  none  but  the  books  which  were  received  as  ca- 
nonical were  allowed  to  be  read  in  public  worship.  The  reading  of 
other  books  in  private  was  recommended  for  personal  edification, 
but  not,  like  the  Scriptures,  as  being  of  divine  authority.'''  As  in 
different  provinces  the  church  was  divided  in  opinion  respecting  the 
true  character  of  certain  books,  so  they  differed  in  regard  to  the 
propriety  of  permitting  the  same  to  be  read  in  religious  worship. 
The  apocryphal  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  Antilegomena 
of  the  New,  were  chiefly  the  subject  of  dispute.  The  diligent  peru- 
sal of  the  apocryphal  books  was  recommended  to  catechumens,  but 
their  authority  was  seldom  or  never  allowed  in  doctrinal  discussions. 
These  books  were  held  in  higher  repute  by  the  church  in  Africa 
than  by  any  other. 

The  controversy  relating  to  the  Antilegomena,  in  a  great  measure 
ceased  in  the  fourth  century.  The  authority  of  the  Apocalypse 
was,  however,  still  controverted  ;  and  the  churches  of  Constantinople, 
Antioch,  and  others,  continued  to  refuse  it  a  place  in  the  sacred 
canon.^  Ephraim  of  Syria,  Athanasius,  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  Pseu- 
do-Dionysius,  and  Leontius  of  Byzantium,  were  apparently  the  first 
to  remove  the  prejudice  against  this  book.^ 

No  distinction  was  made  between  the  books  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament,  but  both  were  regarded  as  of  equal  authority,  and  in  re- 
ligious worship  selections  from  each  were  read  in  connection.  On 
sacramental  occasions,  however,  the  Romish  church,  in  the  primitive 
ages  of  Christianity,  omitted  the  lessons  from  the  Old  Testament  and 
the  Psalms,  and  confined  the'mselves  to  the  Gospels  and  the  Epistles. 
Whilst  both  the  Jewish  and  the  christian  sabbath  continued  to  be  ob- 
served, it  was  customary  on  the  former  occasion  to  read  the  Old 
Testament;  and  on  the  latter,  the  Ne\v.^° 


230  USE  OF  THE  HOLY  SCRIPTURES. 

The  controverted  portions  of  Scripture  above  mentioned,  and  other 
religious  works,  were  frequently  read  in  public  on  certain  occasions  ; 
such  as  the  Epistles  of  Peter,  the  Apocalypse,  the  Doctrines  of  the 
Apostles,  the  Shepherd  of  Hermas,  the  first  epistle  of  Clemens  Ro- 
manus  to  the  Corinthians,  the  Homilies  of  the  celebrated  fathers, 
Public  Symbols  and  Rules  of  Faith,  and  Memoirs  of  Martyrs  and 
Saints,  ii 

§2.  Of  the  Order  in  which  the  Scriptures  were  read. 

At  first  there  was  no  established  order  for  the  reading  of  them. 
Before  the  canon  of  the  New  Testament  was  completed,  the  Law 
and  the  Prophets  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures  were  read  according  to 
their  divisions.  Afterwards  the  bishop  appointed  the  lessons.  Even 
as  late  as  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  instances  occur  of  such  ap- 
pointments by  the  bishop.'  In  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  church, 
usage  had  a  great  influence.  The  traditions  of  the  apostles,  and 
especially  usages  established  by  them,  were  very  carefully  observed. 
Ever}'  innovation  was  regarded  with  jealousy  proportionate  to  the 
antiquity  of  the  usage  which  it  would  supersede. 

The  earliest  division  of  the  New  Testament  was  into  the  Gospels 
and  the  Apostles,  corresponding  to  the  Law  and  the  Prophets  of  the 
Jewish  Scriptures.  This  division  appears  in  the  writings  of  Tertul- 
lian  and  Irenaeus,^  and  must,  accordingly,  have  been  anterior  to 
their  time.  The  reading  was  directed  according  to  this  division,  one 
lesson  from  each  being  read  alternately.  Between  the  reading  of 
these,  Psalms  were  sung,  or  selections  from  the  Old  Testament  were 
read.  When  there  was  nothing  peculiar  to  direct  the  reading,  the 
Scriptures  were  read  consecutively  according  to  their  established 
order ;  but  this  order  was  interrupted  on  their  festivals,  and  other 
occasions.3  ^^  Easter,  the  account  of  the  resurrection  was  read 
from  each  of  the  evangelists  successively.'*  The  season  of  Pentecost, 
from  Easier  to  Whitsuntide,  was  set  apart  for  the  reading  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles.^  The  Western  church  connected  with  this  the 
reading  of  the  Epistles  and  of  the  Apocalypse.^  During  Lent,  Gene- 
sis was  read  ;  and,  as  early  as  the  third  century,  the  book  of  Job  was 
read  in  Passion- Week.  In  a  word,  though  we  have  no  complete  or- 
der of  the  lessons  read,  through  the  year,  it  is  to  be  presumed  that 


DIVISIONS  AND  LESSONS.  231 

the  reading  was  directed  by  an  established  rule  and  plan,  especially 
on  all  the  principal  festivals  and  solemnities  of  the  church. 

At  the  close  of  the  lesson,  the  assembly  kneeled  and  prayed  for 
pardon  of  the  sins  of  which  they  might  have  been  guilty  in  the  read- 
ing ;  saying, '  Lord  have  mercy  upon  us.'  Instead  of  this  prayer, 
however,  other  forms  were  frequently  used  ;  such  as, '  Thus  suith  the 
Lord,'  etc.  The  reading  at  the  burial  service,  was  ended  with  the 
exclamation, '  Blessed  are  the  dead  that  die  in  the  Lord.' 

<§  3.  Mode  of  designating  the  Divisions  and  Lessons. 

In  many  manuscripts,  these  divisions  are  denoted  by  certain 
marks  like  the  masoreiic  notes  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  These, 
however,  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  of  necessity  the  most  ancient 
divisions,  for  none  of  the  manuscripts  themselves  have,  in  the 
opinion  of  critics,  a  higher  antiquity  than  the  fifth  and  sixth  cen- 
turies, and  most  of  them  are  of  an  origin  much  later.  But  it  is  wor- 
thy of  remark  that  the  ancient  vesions,  which  date  back  to  a  much 
higher  antiquity  than  any  manuscripts  now  extant,  and  from  which, 
almost  without  exception,  the  lessons  were  read  are  also  divided  in 
the  same  manner.  Such  for  example  are  the  divisions  of  the 
Syriac  Peshito.  From  all  which,  it  is  probable  that  these  divisions 
were  made  as  early  as  the  second  century.  According  to  this 
method,  the  New  Testament  was  divided  into  two  kinds  of  chapters, 
some  longer,  and  some  shorter.  The  divisions  however  were  not 
uniform  in  the  different  churches,  and  were  subject  to  revision  from 
time  to  time.' 

To  prevent  misunderstanding,  it  was  customary  to  refer  to  texts 
of  Scripture  by  quoting  a  few  words  of  the  passage  in  question,  or 
by  a  description  of  it,  thus  :  As  it  is  said  in  the  parable  of  the  sower, 
— or,  As  it  is  written  in  the  passage  relating  to  the  woman  that  had 
an  issue,  etc. 

These  divisions  continued  to  be  general  in  the  Eastern  and  West- 
ern churches  until  the  thirteenth  century,  when  cardinal  Hugo  de 
Sancto  Caro  introduced  the  chapters  now  in  use.  The  divisions 
into  verses  first  appeared  in  an  edition  of  the  Scriptures,  published 
by  Robert  Stephens,  A.  D.  155L 


232  USE  OF  THE  HOLY  SCRIPTURES. 


§  4  Of  the  manner  in  which  the  Scriptures  were  read,  and 
OF  other  exercises  in  connection. 

Certain  portions  of  the  Scriptures,  as  has  been  ah'eady  remarked, 
were  sung,  others  were  recited,  or  read.  The  Psalms  were  uni- 
formly sung,  and  from  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great,  the  same  was 
true  of  the  gospels,  and  the  epistles.  All  other  parts  of  the  Scrip- 
tures were  read  ;  but  the  mode  of  reading  was  very  unlike  that  in 
common  use  ;  it  was  indeed  a  recitative  or  chant ;  each  syllable  was 
uttered  with  a  measured  cadence  and  modulation,  in  a  style  and 
manner  midway  between  that  of  singing  and  ordinary  reading.  In 
the  East  especially  was  this  art  of  chanting  greatly  cultivated  ;  and 
the  Koran  to  this  day  is  thus  read. 

It  was  a  prevailing  sentiment  of  the  Oriental  church,  that  the  words 
of  the  Most  High  ought  to  be  pronounced  in  a  higher  and  more 
joyful  strain  than  that  of  common  conversation  and  reading.  On 
this  interesting  point  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  so  little  is  known.  The 
ancient  art  of  chanting  the  Scriptures  was  perpetuated  by  tradition, 
and  only  some  slight  traces  of  it  can  now  be  observed  in  the  Greek, 
Roman,  and  Protestant  churches. 

Augustine,  the  great  rhetorician  and  musician  of  the  ancient 
church,  contends  earnestly  for  an  easy,  simple,  and  unstudied  style 
of  psalmody,  and  commends  highly  the  singing  of  Athanasius, 
bishop  of  Alexandria,  which  more  resembled  the  performance  of  a 
reader  than  of  a  singer.^  In  accordance  with  this  author,  the  ap- 
proved style  of  conducting  the  services  of  the  church  seems  to  have 
been  to  conform  the  e.xercise  of  singing  as  nearly  as  possible  to  that 
of  reading ;  and  the  reading,  to  that  of  singing.  The  style  was  much 
the  same,  both  in  the  Jewish  synagogue  and  the  Greek  church.  In 
both,  the  rehearsals  were  so  rapid,  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  deter- 
mine whether  it  most  resembled  that  of  singing,  or  of  reading. 

The  reading  was  begun  and  closed  with  a  set  form.  The  reader, 
according  to  Cyprian,  saluted  the  audience  by  saying, '  Peace  be 
with  you.'  This  prerogative  was  afterwards  denied  to  the  reader, 
as  belonging  exclusively  to  the  presbyter  or  bishop.^  Then  again, 
it  became  the  usual  salutation  at  the  opening  of  public  worship,  and 
before  the  sermon. 

Before  the  meeting  began,  the  deacon  enjoined  silence,  and  often 


MANNEK  OF  READING  THE  SCRIPTUIIES.  233 

called  aloud  again, '' 7iQoiTxoifj.iv,  allcndamus,  attentio7i  P  Then  the 
reader  proceeded  saying, '  Thus  saith  the  Lord  in  the  lesson  from 
the  Old  Testament,  or  from  the  gospels,' etc.,  or  again, '  Beloved 
brethren,  in  the  epistles  it  is  written.''  This  was  said  to  awaken  atten- 
tion and  veneration  for  the  word  read.-^ 

At  the  close  of  the  lesson,  the  people  responded  frequently  if  not 
uniformly,  by  saying,  '  Amen.'  The  purport  of  which  was,  accord- 
ing to  Alexander  Halesius, '  God  grant  us  to  continue  steadfast  in 
the  faith.'  Or  they  said,  '  We  tliank  thee.  Lord  ;'  '  We  thank  thee, 
O  Christ,' — for  the  previous  word.  Such  abuses  finally  arose  from 
this  custom,  that  the  people  were  forbidden  to  join  in  the  response, 
and  the  minister  closed  the  reading  of  the  epistles  by  saying,  '  Bles- 
sed be  God  ;'  and  that  of  the  evangelists  by  saying, '  Glory  be  to 
thee,  O  Lord.'4 

Whenever  the  deacon,  presbyter,  or  bishop  performed  the  office 
of  reader,  he  introduced  the  service  by  a  form  which  was,  substan- 
tially, the  same  as  that  which  is  still  observed  in  the  Episcopal 
service. 

At  first  the  reading  was  performed  from  the  amho,  a  pulpit  or  desk, 
prepared  for  the  purpose  ;  afterwards  the  reading  was  from  ihe  pul- 
pit, with  the  exception  of  that  of  the  gospels  and  the  epistles  which, 
out  of  reverence  for  these  parts  of  Scripture,  were  rehearsed  near 
the  allai- ;  the  former  on  the  right  hand,  and  the  latter  on  the  left, 
of  the  altar.  It  was  the  duty  of  the  suhdeacon  to  read  or  chant  the 
epistles  ;  and  of  the  deacon  to  rehearse  the  gospels. 

The  reader  was  at  all  times  required  to  stand,  in  the  discharge 
of  his  office  ;  the  people  preserved  the  same  attitude  in  the  rehear- 
sal of  the  Psalms,  and  the  reading  of  the  lessons  from  the  gospels 
and  the  epistles  at  the  celebration  of  their  festivals.  Cyprian  repre- 
sents this  to  have  been,  on  all  occasions,  the  custom  in  Africa.  The 
Apostolical  Constitutions  recommend  both  the  clergy  and  the  peo- 
ple to  stand  in  the  reading  of  the  gospels?  Augustine  urges  all 
who  are  lame,  or  afflicted  with  any  infirmity,  so  that  they  cannot 
conveniently  stand,  to  sit  and  reverently  listen  to  the  word  of  God.'' 
But  it  was  a  general  rule  of  the  ancient  church,  which  has  at  all 
limes  been  observed,  and  still  is  to  some  extent,  that  the  hearers  sat 
during  the  ordinary  reading  of  the  Scriptures,  and  arose  when  the 
gospels  were  recited.  If  in  the  delivery  of  a  sermon  the  preacher 
introduced  a  passage  from  the  gospels,  the  assembly  immediately 

30 


234  ,  USE  OF  THE  HOLY  SCRIPTURES. 

arose  ;  which  was  the  frequent  occasion  of  much  noise  and  con- 
fusion. The  reason  for  this  usage  in  relation  to  the  gospels  is  given 
by  Chrysostom  as  follows :  "  If  the  letters  of  a  king  are  read  in  the 
theatre  with  great  silence,  much  more  ought  we  to  compose  our- 
selves, and  reverently  to  arise  and  listen  when  the  letters,  not  of  an 
earthly  king,  but  of  the  Lord  of  angels. are  read  to  us."'^ 

Jerome  is  the  first  who  mentions  the  custom  of  burning  lighted 
candles  in  the  Eastern  church,  though  not  in  the  Western,  when  the 
gospels  were  read.^  But  all  antiquity  offers  no  other  authority  for 
this  senseless  superstition. 

§  5,  Of  the  Psalter. 

The  use  of  the  psalter  as  a  system  of  psalmody  is  an  imitation  of 
the  synagogue  and  temple  service.  The  usage  is  of  great  antiquity, 
and  very  general,  both  in  the  ancient  and  modern  church.  But  the 
psalter  also  partook  very  m.uch  of  the  character  of  a  symbolical  book, 
and  constituted  an  essential  part  of  the  liturgy  of  the  church.  It  con- 
tains apjjropriate  lessons  for  reading,  and  religious  formularies,  suit- 
ed to  the  capacities  of  the  youth  and  of  the  people  generally.  These, 
the  clergy  were  required  to  commit  to  memory,  and  to  explain. ^ 
Such  indeed  was  the  consideration  in  which  it  was  held,  that  it  was 
styled  the  Bible  in  miniature,  a  manual  of  all  sacred  things,  and  a 
representative  of  the  sacred  Scriptures.^  Even  in  the  dark  ages, 
when  men  were  denied  the  use  of  the  Bible,  the  psalter  was  allowed 
to  the  laity  generally." 

The  psalms  were  very  early  introduced  as  a  constituent  part  of 
religious  worship,  and  were  variously  numbered  and  divided  ;  some- 
times into  five  books,  corresponding  to  the  books  of  Moses  ;  and 
again  they  were  arranged  in  different  classes  according  to  their 
character,  as  Hallelujah,  Baptismal,  Penitential  Psalms,  and  many 
others. 


<^  6.  Of  THE  Pericopae. 

It  has  been  before  remarked  that  particular  lessons  were  set  apart 
from  the  gospels  and  epistles  to  be  read  on  certain  sabbaths  and  spe- 
cial festive  occasions.  The  custom  was  derived  from  the  Jews,  who 
were  accustomed   to  read  different  portions  of  their  Scriptures  on 


OF  THE  PERICOPAE.  235 

their  several  festivals.^  These  specific  selections  from  the  writings 
of  the  New  Testament  were  denominated  Pericopae.  When  these 
selections  were  first  made,  is  a  question  on  which  the  learned  are 
greatly  divided.  Some  contending  that  they  are  of  apostolic  ori- 
gin ;  others,  that  they  originated  in  the  fourth  century  ;  and  others 
again,  date  them  back  no  farther  than  the  eighth  century.  For  a 
discussion  of  these  several  theories,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  au- 
thor, and  the  authorities  quoted  by  him. 

[One  end  to  be  answered  by  making  these  extracts,  was  no  doubt 
to  assist  those  who  had  not  free  access  to  the  Scriptures  in  learning 
the  substance  of  what  the  Scriptures  teach.  Nothing  in  the  history 
of  the  primitive  Christians  is  more  worthy  of  admiration  than  their 
profound  reverence  for  the  word  of  God,  their  diligence  in  reading 
the  sacred  Scriptures,  and  their  surprising  familiarity  with  truths  of 
revelation.  "  At  a  time  when  the  copies  of  the  sacred  volume  were 
all  in  manuscript,  and  very  scarce, — being  so  dear  as  to  be  beyond 
the  reach  of  many  to  purchase,  and  when  multitudes  of  those  who  had 
been  converted  to  Christianity  were  unacquainted  with  the  first  ele- 
ments of  reading,  the  great  majority  of  them  were  conversant  with 
the  phraseology  and  the  matter  of  the  Word  of  life,  to  a  degree  that 
may  well  put  Christians  of  later  days  to  shame.  Those  of  the  men 
who  could  read,  never  went  abroad  without  carrying  a  Bible  in  their 
pockets — while  the  women  wore  it  hanging  about  their  necks,  and  by 
frequently  refreshing  their  memories  by  private  perusal,  and  draw- 
ing little  groups  of  anxious  listeners  around  them,  they  acquired  so 
familiar  an  acquaintance  with  the  lively  oracles,  that  there  were  few 
who  could  not  repeat  those  passages  that  contained  anything  remark- 
able respecting  the  doctrines  of  their  faith,  or  the  precepts  of  their  du- 
ty. Nay,  there  were  many  who  had  made  the  rare  and  enviable  at- 
tainment of  being  able  to  say  the  entire  Scriptures  by  heart.  One 
person  is  mentioned  among  the  martyrs  in  Palestine,  so  well  instruct- 
ed in  the  sacred  writings,  that,  when  occasion  offered,  he  could, 
from  memory,  repeat  passages  in  any  part  of  the  Scripture  as  exact- 
ly as  if  he  had  unfolded  the  book  and  read  them  ;  a  second,  being 
unacquainted  with  letters,  used  to  invite  friends  and  christian  stran- 
gers to  his  house  to  read  to  him,  by  which  means,  he  acquired  an  ex- 
tensive knowledge  of  the  sacred  oracles  :  and  another  may  be  men- 
tioned, of  whom  the  description  is  so  extraordinary,  that  we  shall  give 
it  in  the  words  of  the  historian,  Eiisebius,  who  knew  him  :    '  When» 


236  USE  OF  THE  HOLY  SCRIPTURES. 

ever  he  willed,  he  brought  forth,  as  from  a  repository  of  science,  and 
rehearsed  either  the  law  of  Moses,  or  the  prophets,  or  the  historical, 
evangelical,  and  apostolical  parts  of  Scripture.  Indeed,  I  was  struck 
with  admiration  when  I  first  beheld  him  standing  amidst  a  consider- 
able multitude,  and  reciting  certain  portions  of  holy  writ.  As  long 
as  I  could  only  hear  his  voice,  I  supposed  that  he  was  reading  ;  but 
when  I  came  close  up  to  him,  I  discovered  that,  employing  only  the 
eyes  of  his  mind,  he  uttered  the  divine  oracles  like  some  prophet.' 
— Every  day  it  was  the  practice  for  each  individual  to  commit  a  por- 
tion of  Scripture  to  memory,  and  for  the  members  of  a  family  to  re- 
peat it  to  each  other  in  the  evening.  So  much  was  this  custom  re- 
garded as  part  of  the  ordinary  business  of  the  day,  that  they  had  a 
set  time  appointed  for  conning  the  daily  lesson — an  hour  which, 
though  every  individual  fixed  it  as  suited  his  private  convenience, 
was  held  so  precious  and  sacred,  that  no  secular  duties,  however  ur- 
gent, were  allowed  to  infringe  upon  it ;  and  while  some,  who  had 
their  time  at  their  own  disposal,  laid  their  memories  under  larger 
contributions,  and  never  relaxed  their  efforts,  till  they  had  completed 
the  daily  task  they  had  imposed  on  themselves,  others  were  obliged 
to  content  themselves  with  such  shorter  passages  as  they  could  learn 
during  the  intervals  of  labor,  and  amid  the  distractions  of  other  cares. 
By  all  classes,  however,  it  was  considered  so  great  an  advantage — 
so  desirable  an  attainment  to  have  the  memory  richly  stored  with 
the  records  of  salvation — that  while  in  the  lapse  of  time  many  ancient 
practices  became  obsolete,  and  others  more  suited  to  the  taste  of  suc- 
ceeding ages  were  adopted  into  the  Church,  this  excellent  custom 
still  maintained  its  place  among  the  venerable  observances  inherited 
from  primitive  times  ;  and  the  pious  Christians  of  the  first  centuries 
would  have  regarded  it  as  a  sin  of  omission,  for  which  they  had  oc- 
casion expressly  to  supplicate  for  pardon  in  their  evening  devotions, 
if  they  were  conscious  of  having  allowed  a  day  to  pass  without  hav- 
ing added  some  new  pearls  from  the  Scriptures,  to  the  sacred  treas- 
ures their  memory  had  previously  amassed." 

To  aid  those  who  could  not  read,  pictures  of  Scripture  scenes  were 
also  hung  upon  the  walls.  In  the  idolatrous  devotion  with  which 
popish  superstition  bows  down  before  the  images  and  paintings  of  the 
sainted  dead,  the  intelligent  reader  will  easily  discover  only  a  per- 
version of  the  pure  intents  for  which  primitive  piety  first  introduced 
them  into  the  ancient  churches. — Tr.] 


GENERAL  KEMARKS.  237 

CHAPTER  XII. 

OF  HOMILIES. 

§  1.  General  Remarks,  Names,  etc. 

Every  religious  discourse,  almost  without  exception,  was  based 
on  some  text,  or  distinctly  related  to  some  passage  of  Scripture.  It 
aimed  at  nothing  more  than  to  explain  and  enforce  the  same.  In 
the  Latin  church,  instances  frequently  occur  of  sermons  without  any 
text,  but  they  had  reference  distinctly  to  the  scripture  lesson  which 
had  just  been  read,  which  is  sometimes  cited,  and  at  others,  is  passed 
over  in  silence.  But  in  either  case  the  discourse  is  a  paraphrase  or 
explanation  of  the  passage  in  question.  A  sernion,  according  to  the 
idea  of  the  ancient  church,  may  be  defined  to  be  a  rhetorical  dis- 
course upon  some  passage  of  Scripture,  having  for  its  object  the 
spiritual  edification  of  the  hearers.  It  is  an  exposition  and  applica- 
tion of  Scriplure,  not  merely  a  religious  discourse  designed  for  the 
instruction  of  the  audience. 

This  discourse  was  called  by  different  names,  as  Ao/oc,  an  oration, 
ofitXla,  a  homily.  The  latter  implies  a  more  familiar  discourse  than 
the  former.  When  the  deacon  officiated  in  the  place  of  the  bishop, 
his  discourse  was  frequently  denominated  v.i]Qvy^a.  It  was  also 
styled  didctaxccUu,  i'^ij/tjaig,  ixdiaig,  etc.  In  the  Latin  church  it  was 
styled  tractatus,  disputatio,  allocutio. 

The  modern  divisions  and  parts  of  a  sermon,  such  as  the  intro- 
duction, the  proposition,  the  illustration  and  application,  were  to- 
tally unknown,  in  form,  to  the  ancient  fathers.  The  strife  then 
was,  as  Gregory  Nazianzen  justly  observes,  not  about  terms,  but 
doctrines. 

Mosheim  asserts  that  the  sermon  was  not  at  first  a  necessary  part 
of  religious  worship.  In  answer  to  this  absurd  hypothesis  it  must  be 
admitted  that  the  discourses  of  Christ  and  his  apostles  were  not  in- 
deed homilies  like  those  of  Chrysostom  and  Augustine,  but  they  re- 
semble these  much  more  than  they  do  the  catechetical  instructions 
of  Cyril  and  Gregory  Nazianzen,  to  say  nothing  of  our  Lord's  ser- 
mon on  the  mount,  which  may  truly  be  regarded  as  a  pattern  for  a 


238  OF  HOMILIES. 

formal  discourse.  The  same  may  also  be  said  of  most  of  the  dis- 
courses of  Peter  and  Paul,  as  recorded  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 

We  may  also,  with  propriety,  refer  to  all  those  passages  which 
relate  to  the  usage  of  Jewish  worship  in  their  synagogues,  according 
to  which  that  portion  of  Scripture  which  had  been  read  was  made 
the  subject  of  discourse.  Luke  4:  16.  Matt.  4:  23.  13:  54.  Acts  13: 
15 — 27.  15:  21.  2  Cor.  3:  15,  etc.  From  all  which  it  appears  that 
a  discourse  based  on  the  Scriptures  was  an  essential  part  of  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Jews.  The  first  instance  of  this  on  record  is  in  the  eighth 
chapter  of  Nehemiah.  The  homilies  of  the  christian  church  were 
only  an  imitation  of  these  discourses  in  the  synagogue,  from  which 
they  were  derived.^  The  discourses  of  the  apostles  were  either  ba- 
sed on  some  specific  portions  of  Scripture,  or  else  they  were  an  ab- 
stract of  sacred  history.  Instances  of  the  former  class  are  found  in 
Acts  1:  15.  2:  14-36.  Of  the  latter,  Acts  7:  2—53.  17:  22—31. 
Acts  xxii.  and  .\xiii. 

For  further  illustration  we  may  refer  to  2  Tim.  3:  14 — 17,  and  to 
the  miraculous  gift  oi prophesying,  i.  e.  of  teaching  which  are  men- 
tioned in  1  Cor.  12:28,29.  Eph.  4:  11.  The  churches,  to  whom 
the  apostles  addressed  their  epistles,  were  required  to  have  them 
read  in  public,  accompanied,  no  doubt,  with  suitable  explanations 
and  applications.  Col.  4:  16.   1  Thess.  5:  27.  2  Pet.  3:  15,  16. 

Justin  Martyr  expressly  asserts,  tiiat  "  certain  selections  from  the 
prophets  and  memoirs  of  the  apostles  were  not  only  read,  but  ex- 
pJai7ied  and  enforced.''''  By  the  prophets  and  memoirs,  he  evidently 
means  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  "After  the 
reading  is  ended  the  minister  of  the  assembly  (the  bishop)  makes  an 
address  in  which  he  admonishes  and  exhorts  the  people  to  imitate  the 
virtues  which  it  enjoins."^ 

So  also  Tertullian,  in  the  second  century.  "  We  come  together 
to  acquaint  ourselves  with  the  sacred  Scriptures,  and  to  hear  what, 
according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  present  time,  may  be  applica- 
ble to  us  either  now,  or  at  any  future  time.  At  least  we  establish 
our  faith — we  encourage  our  hope,  we  assure  our  confidence,  and, 
by  the  injunctions  of  the  divine  word,  we  make  its  life-giving  power 
eflRcacious  to  our  hearts.  We  admonish  and  reprove  one  another, 
and  give  ourselves  up  to  the  teachings  of  the  divine  word.  And  this 
word  of  God  has  the  greater  weight  because  it  is  believed  by  all  to 
reflect  the  image  of  God."-"^     Who  can  doubt  that  this  extract  de- 


BY  WHOM  THE  HOMILIES  WERE  DELIVERED.  239 

scribes  the  office  of  ihe  preacher  as  an  essential  part  of  public  wor- 
shi[). 

This  duty  is  also  specified  in  the  Apostolical  Constitutions.  ''When 
the  gospel  is  read,  let  all  the  elders  and  deacons  and  the  whole  as- 
sembly, stand  in  silence.  Afterwards,  let  the  elders,  one  by  one, 
but  not  all  of  them,  exhort  the  people  ;  and  lastly,  let  the  bishop  as 
the  master,  address  them.""*  Again,  they  speak  of  the  bishop  as 
"  the  preacher  of  the  word  of  God,"  and  as  preaching  to  the  people 
the  things  pertaining  to  their  salvation.-^ 

Again  the  notes  of  Peter's  addresses  to  the  people  which  Clemens 
Romanus  has  left,  are  proof  positive  to  the  point  in  dispute,  provided 
they  are  genuine  f  but  they  are  confessedly  of  doubtful  authority. 
Enough,  however,  has  been  said  to  show  that  a  sermon  or  homiletic 
address  was,  in  the  first  and  second  centuries,  a  part  of  public  wor- 
ship. In  regard  to  this  point  at  a  later  period,  there  can  be  no  ques- 
tion. 

§  2.  By  whom  the  Homilies  were  delivered. 

Justin  Martyr  informs  us,  that  after  the  reading,  the  president  of 
the  assembly,  o  TiQsaiw;,  meaning  the  bishop,  makes  an  application  of 
the  word,  vov&iaiuv  nouliui,  and  exhorts  to  an  imitation  of  the  vir- 
tues which  it  inculcates.'  This  passage  distinctly  ascribes  to  the 
bishop  the  duty  of  explaining  and  applying  the  Scriptures  which 
were  read.  And  the  same  is  manifest  from  the  whole  history  of  the 
ancient  church.  To  preach,  or  as  Ambrose  expresses  it,  to  teach 
the  people,  was,  uniformly,  the  bishop's  duty.  The  case  of  Am- 
brose himself  is  a  clear  illustration  of  this  duty.  He  was  promoted 
from  a  civil  office  to  that  of  bishop,  without  having  even  been  bapti- 
zed as  a  catechumen,  and,  in  view  of  his  unpreparedness,  sought  in 
vain  to  excuse  himself  from  the  discharge  of  this  part  of  his  duties, 
alleging  that  he  had  need  himself  to  learn,  instead  of  teaching  others. 
But,  as  he  himself  confesses,  he  was  obliged  to  begin  to  teach,  be- 
fore he  had  himself  been  a  learner.- 

The  distinction  between  ruling  and  teaching  elders  resulted  sim- 
ply from  the  circumstance  that,  in  those  trying  times,  men  were 
sometimes  required  to  manage  the  concerns  of  the  church  who  yet 
were  not  qualified  to  act  as  preachers  ;  and  a  competent  teacher  was 
not  always  suited  to  direct  the  affairs  of  the  churcli.     But  the  office 


240  OF  HOMILIES. 

of  a  ruling  elder  who  did  not  teach,  was  uniformly  regarded  as  ai 
exception  to  a  general  rule, — as  an  extraordinary  provision  for  a  pe- 
culiar emergency,  whilst  the  office  of  preaching  was  accounted  the 
most  honorable  and  important  part  of  the  bishop's  duties.  "  Far 
from  this  seat,"  says  Chrysostom,  "  let  him  be  removed  who  knows 
not  how  to  teach  sound  doctrine  as  he  ought. "^  The  neglect  of  this 
duty  is,  by  the  apostolical  canons,  c.  58,  to  be  punished  with  sus- 
pension and  removal  from  office. 

There  is  indeed  no  case  on  record,  of  a  bishop  who  was  removed 
for  his  inability  to  teach  ;  but  there  are  many  in  which  the  bishops 
were  disregarded  and  neglected  for  this  cause.  Such  was  the  case 
of  Alexander,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  and  Atticus,  bishop  of  Constan- 
tinople.4  On  the  contrary,  they  who  excelled  in  this  duty  were  held 
in  the  highest  consideration,  as  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Chrysostom, 
Augustine,  etc. 

The  deacon  and  even  the  presbyter  officiated  only  as  substitutes 
of  the  bishop  in  case  of  his  absence  or  inability,  from  sickness  or 
other  causes.  Both  Augustine  and  Chrysostom  preached  for  their 
bishops  in  this  capacity.^  In  such  cases  the  bishop  was  held  respon- 
sible for  what  was  said  by  his  substitute,  of  which  we  have  a  striking 
instance  in  the  history  of  Nestorius,  bishop  of  Constantinople. 

From  all  this  we  are  not,  however,  to  conclude  that  the  right  to 
preach  was  restricted  under  all  circumstances,  to  the  bishops  alone. 
For  how,  in  that  case,  were  the  churches  which  had  no  bishop  to  be 
supplied  with  the  preaching  of  the  word  of  God  .''  In  all  such  cases 
the  presbyter  occupied  the  place,  and  discharged  the  duties  of  the 
bishop  ;  and  in  his  absence,  or  failure,  the  deacon  supplied  his  place  ; 
not,  lioicever,  by  delivering  an  original  discourse,  but  by  reading  one 
from  the  fathers.  The  Apostolical  Canons,  c.  58,  require  the  bishop, 
or  the  'presbyter,  to  deliver  the  sermon,  and  exact  upon  both  the  same 
penalty  for  neglect  of  duty. 

In  times  of  persecution  presbyters  and  deacons  were  entrusted  with 
the  office  of  preaching.  Still,  the  deacon  was  regarded  only  as  an 
assistant,  like  a  licenciate  or  candidate  for  the  sacred  office. 

Laymen  who  had  not  received  ordination  were  not  allowed  to 
preach,  but  there  are  instances  on  record,  notwithstanding,  of  such 
permission  being  granted  to  them  under  certain  circumstances.*^ 

But  the  apostolic  rule  forbidding  a  woman  to  teach,  was  most  cau- 
tiously observed.'''     The  Montanists  are,  indeed,  an  exception  to  this 


freq\jency  of  sermons.  241 

remark,  but  TertuHian,  himself  one  of  this  sect,  complains  of  this 
abuse.3  The  fourth  couticil  of  Carthage  forbid  both  the  laity  and 
women  to  teach  in  public.  "  Let  no  laymen  teach  in  the  presence 
of  the  clergy,"  c.  98.  "  Let  no  women,  however  learned  or  pious, 
presume  to  teach  the  other  sex  in  public  assembly,"  c.  99. 

§  3.  Of  the  Frequency  of  Sermons. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  sermon  consisted  originally  in 
an  explanation  and  application  of  the  scripture  lesson  which  had  just 
been  read.  Sermons  were  therefore,  as  a  general  rule,  as  frequent 
as  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures.  If,  in  any  instance,  a  sermon  was 
delivered  without  any  foregoing  lesson  from  the  Scriptures,  it  was 
an  exception  to  the  general  rule.  In  some  cases,  several  sermons 
were  delivered  by  different  speakers  in  succession  at  the  same 
meeting.  At  other  times,  several  were  delivered  by  the  same 
speaker  on  the  same  day.^  Sermons  were  an  appropriate  part  of 
every  form  of  public  worship,  but  they  were  especially  designed  for 
the  catechumen  ;  and  for  this  reason  were  a  part  of  the  services  de- 
signed for  them.2  The  frequency  with  which  they  were  delivered  va- 
ried greatly  in  different  countries  and  dioceses.  They  were  ex- 
pected of  course  on  the  sabbath,  frequently  on  Saturday  ;  i.  e.  both 
on  the  Jewish  and  christian  sabbath,  especially  whilst  both  days  were 
observed  in  connection.  A  sermon  was  also  essential  to  a  due  cele- 
bration of  the  festivals  of  the  church.  During  the  fifty  festive  days 
from  Easter  to  Whitsunday,  a  sermon  from  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
was  delivered  each  day,  in  the  Oriental  churches ;  and  also  on  each 
day  of  Lent.  Afterwards  they  became  less  frequent,  but  were  still 
delivered  on  fast  days.  On  other  occasions  they  were  delivered  in 
the  afternoon.  A  sermon  was  also  delivered  at  sometime  during  the 
middle  of  the  week  ;  usually  on  Friday.  Instances  also  occur  in  the 
writings  of  the  fathers,  of  sermons  for  the  forenoon  and  for  afternoon.^ 
But  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  a  uniform  arrangement.  No  bet- 
ter evidence  of  the  consideration  in  which  this  part  of  religious  wor- 
ship was  held  can  be  given,  than  the  fact  that  Julian  the  apostate,  in 
his  endeavors  to  restore  idolatry,  recommended  the  pagan  priests  to 
imitate  the  christian  preachers  by  delivering  similar  discourses. 

31 


242  OF  HOMILIES. 


^  4.  The  Length  of  Time  allotted  for  the  Delivery  of  the 

Sermon. 

This  does  not  appear  to  have  been  determined  by  any  canon,  or 
rule  of  custom.  It  appears  rather  to  have  been  regulated  by  times 
and  circumstances.  They  were,  however,  much  shorter  in  the  Latin 
than  in  the  Greek  church.  Some  conjecture  as  to  the  length  of  time 
may  be  formed  from  the  circumstance  that  more  than  one  was  de- 
livered in  succession  ;  and  yet  it  is  remarkable  that  some  of  the 
longest  sermons  which  remain  to  us,  were  delivered  in  churches 
where  this  custom  prevailed.  Some  of  Chrysostom's  must  have  oc- 
cupied two  hours  in  the  delivery,  although  this  was  the  usual  time 
for  the  whole  service,  as  Chrysos*om  himself  asserts. ^  Bingham  is 
of  opinion  that  the  sermons  of  the  fathers  could  not  have  been  an 
hour  in  length;  most  of  the  sermons  of  the  Latin  fathers,  according 
to  him,  could  not  have  occupied  one  half  hour,  and  many  not  ten 
minutes.2 

Like  the  ancient  orators,  the  preacher  is  supposed  to  have  spoken 
by  an  hour-glass,  a  water-clock,  or  a  sand-glass. 

§  5.  Of  the  Position  of  the  Speaker. 

In  many  countries  the  speaker  habitually  occupied  an  elevated 
desk  in  the  body  of  the  house,  which  was  also  used  for  the  reading, 
and  for  various  exercises.  In  other  places  this  was  used  by  the 
speaker  occasionally,  but  not  habitually.  Chrysostom  and  Augus- 
tine were  accustomed  to  speak  from  this  place,  that  they  might  more 
easily  be  heard  by  the  immense  multitudes  that  thronged  to  listen  to 
them. 

The  custom  originally  was,  for  the  preacher  to  speak  either  from 
the  bishop's  seat,  or  from  before  the  altar  and  behind  the  lattice  that 
separated  the  sanctuary  or  shrine  from  the  body  of  the  house  ;  but 
most  frequently  from  the  former  place,  which,  as  Augustine  says, 
was  an  elevated  throne,  that  from  it  the  bishop  might  watch  his  flock, 
as  the  vintager  does  his  vineyard  from  his  watch-tower. 

At  a  later  period,  when  the  care  of  the  church  became  more 
cumbersome,  and  the  bishops  began  to  neglect  or  omit  the  duty  of 
preaching,  the  deacons  became  the  moderators  of  the  assembly,  and 


MODE  OF  DELIVERY.  243 

the  preacher  occupied  the  desk  of  the  reader.  This  position  was, 
of  necessity,  allotted  to  the  preacher  in  the  vast  Gothic  cathedrals 
which  were  erected  in  the  middle  ages. 

Sernnons  were  frequently  delivered  in  other  places  besides  the 
church ;  but  this  was  an  exception  to  the  general  rule.  The  eulo- 
gies of  the  martyrs  were  usually  delivered  in  the  exedrae,  baptiste- 
ries, cemeteries,  etc.  The  monks  frequently  preached  from  the 
trees,  and  the  top  of  a  post  or  pillar, 

^  6.  Attitude  of  the  Speaker,  Mode  of  Delivery,  Deportment 
OF  THE  Audience,  etc 

In  the  primitive  church  it  was  customary  for  the  speaker  to  sit, 
and  for  the  audience  to  stand.  As  in  attending  to  the  reading  of  the 
Scriptures  they  stood,  in  token  of  reverence  for  the  word  of  God,  so 
in  listening  to  the  sermon,  in  which  it  was  explained  and  enforced, 
for  the  same  reason  they  preserved  a  similar  attitude.  To  this, 
however,  there  were  exceptions,  and  the  usage  was  different  in  dif- 
ferent places.  In  Africa  the  custom  above  mentioned  was  observed 
with  great  care.  Augustine  insists  often  upon  it,  and  rebukes  every 
departure  from  it  except  in  cases  of  infirmity,  which  rendered  it  in- 
convenient for  the  hearer  to  preserve  this  attitude.  At  one  time  he 
iapologizes  for  the  inconvenient  length  of  his  sermon,  especially  in 
as  much  as  he  is  permitted  to  sit,  while  they  are  required  to  stand. 

The  hearers  of  Gregory  Nazianzen  and  Chrysostom  preserved 
the  same  posture.  It  is  related  even  of  Constantino  the  Great,  that 
he  did  not  resume  his  seat  during  a  long  sermon  by  Eusebius,  and 
that  all  the  assembly  followed  his  example.'  From  all  which  it  is 
fairly  inferred  that  this  was  the  prevailing  custom.  Compare  Luke 
2:  46.  4:  20.  5:  3.  John  8:  2.  Matt.  5:  1,  etc. 

The  hearers,  it  would  seem,  were  accustomed  to  take  great  liber- 
ties in  regard  to  their  attendance  upon  public  worship,  and  often  de- 
meaned themselves  very  unworthily.  At  one  time,  they  would  ab- 
sent themselves  from  the  service  except  during  the  sermon — an  ir- 
regularity against  which  Chrysostom  inveighs  with  great  spirit.^  At 
other  times,  they  treated  even  the  preaching  with  great  indifference 
and  neglect,^  complaining  bitterly  of  long  sermons,  and  even  left  the 
house  while  the  preacher  was  yet  speaking.  To  prevent  this,  the 
doors  were  ordered  to  be  fastened  after  the  reading  and  before  the 


244  OF  HOBIILIES. 

sermon,'*  as  is  still  ihe  custom  in  Sweden.  The  fourth  council  of 
Carthage,  c.  24,  forbade  this  contempt  of  the  preacher  under  pain  of 
excommunication. 

Another  impropriety  of  which  Chrysostom  complains  with  his  ac- 
customed spirit,  is  that  of  disturbing  the  preacher  by  needless  noise 
and  frivolous  conversation  :  — the  loquacity  of  the  women,  and  the 
wantonness  of  the  young  people,  are  among  his  subjects  of  complaint. 
Similar  complaints  are  made  by  others,  particularly  by  preachers  in 
the  large  cities,  Rome,  Constantinople,  Antioch,  Alexandria,  Car- 
thage, etc. 

The  indecent  custom  was  also  introduced  into  the  ancient  church 
of  applauding  the  speaker  by  acclamations,  by  clapping,  waving  of 
handkerchiefs,  and  other  similar  customs,  which  disgraced  the  an- 
cient theatres,  as  they  still  do  the  modern.  A  multitude  of  examples 
may  be  found  in  the  references;^  but  the  custom  was  severely  cen- 
sured.^ 

The  ancient  Christians  had  also  the  custom  of  taking  notes  and 
writing  out  at  length  the  sermons  which  they  heard.  To  this  lauda- 
ble custom  we  owe  many  of  the  sermons  of  the  fathers,  which  have 
come  down  to  us.  It  was  not,  however,  a  universal  practice.'''  Ser- 
mons in  which  the  hearer  took  little  interest,  he  was  not  careful  to 
retain  in  this  manner.  Some  preachers  refused  to  have  their  ser- 
mons preserved  in  this  imperfect  manner.  Origen  allowed  no  notes 
to  be  taken  of  his  sermons  until  he  was  sixty  years  of  age.^ 

'^  7.  Of  the  Construction  of  the  Sermon. 

In  the  middle  ages  it  became  customary  for  the  preacher  to  draw 
his  topics  of  discourse  from  Aristotle  ;  but  this  strange  custom  has 
not  the  least  authority  from  the  practice  of  the  early  fathers.  Not 
only  did  the  Bible  furnish  them  their  text  and  subject  of  discourse, 
but,  as  has  been  already  observed,  they  confined  themselves  strictly 
to  the  duty  of  expounding  ihe  sacred  Scriptures.  "  To  the  word 
and  the  testimony,"  says  Augustine,  "fori  perform  the  office  not 
merely  of  a  preacher,  but  of  a  reader  also  ;  so  that  this  my  discourse 
may  be  supported  by  the  authority  of  the  sacred  word.  If  my  recol- 
lection fails  me,  far  be  it  from  me  to  build  upon  the  sand  by  human 
reasoning.  Hear,  therefore,  the  gospel  according  to  John  :  "  Verily, 
verily,  1  say  unto  you,"  elc.^ 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  SERMON.  245 

Nothing  like  the  modern  division  of  a  sermon  into  separate  heads 
was  formally  practised  by  the  ancients.  This  mode  of  division  was 
borrowed  from  the  schoolmen.  But  the  ancient  fathers  confined 
themselves  strictly  to  their  text,  and  contented  themselves  with  the 
explication  of  it,  or  quickly  returned  to  it  again,  if  at  any  time  they 
allowed  themselves  in  a  digression. 

It  was  a  fundamental  principle  with  them  that  the  truths  of  Chris- 
tianity possessed  their  own  intrinsic  force,  and  needed  not  the  aid  of 
eloquence  or  of  art.  It  was  also  their  usual  custom  to  speak  extem- 
pore. And  for  this  twofold  reason  their  sermons  were  generally  de- 
void of  ornament.  The  ability  to  speak  extemporaneously  as  occa- 
sion might  require,  and  without  previous  study,  was  indispensable  to 
an  acceptable  discharge  of  the  duties  of  a  preacher.  His  popularity 
was  proportionate  to  his  success  in  this  art  of  speaking.  For  this 
reason  the  fathers  were  influenced  to  cultivate  this  art  with  so  much 
success,  that  even  as  late  as  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  they  fan- 
cied themselves  to  be  assisted  by  the  miraculous  gifts  of  the  Spirit. 
"  I  could  not  have  spoken  thus  hy  myself,''''  says  Chrysostom,  "  but 
God,  foreseeing  the  result,  tm  [.liXXovTu  nQOBiSoTog,  dictated  those 
words."  Augustine  and  Gregory  the  Great  also  express  similar 
sentiments.2  At  the  same  time  it  is  sufficiently  evident  that  they 
did  not  so  rely  upon  the  aid  of  the  Spirit  as  to  excuse  themselves 
from  careful  study,  and  from  preparation  according  to  the  best  of 
their  ability.  They  expected  his  aid  rather  as  a  blessing  upon  their 
labors  and  studies,  and  in  answer  to  their  prayers. 

Whether  the  fathers  spoke  wholly  without  notes,  it  is  not  so  easy 
to  determine.  No  general  rule  prevailed  on  this  point.  Many  ex- 
amples may  be  found  in  which  the  sermons  of  celebrated  preachers 
were  read — in  some  cases  indeed  by  the  deacon,  (on  whom  it  de- 
volved to  conduct  the  meeting  in  the  absence  of  the  regular  preach- 
er,) but  in  others,  they  were  either  read  or  dictated  by  the  author 
himself.  Augustine,  in  one  of  his  sermons,  complains  that  he  is 
embarrassed  by  his  notes,  and  entreats  the  audience  to  aid  him  by 
their  prayers  :  'Quoniam  video  disputationes  graphic,  ceraque  ligari, 
etnequaquam  sumus  idonei  lectitare,  adjuvaie  me  ipsum,  quaeso,  in- 
tercessu  vestro.'^  Gregory  the  Great  also  complains  of  the  difficulty 
of  speaking  from  his  notes,  and  of  inattention  and  want  of  interest 
on  the   part  of  his  hearers,  and  for  these  reasons  resolves  to  speak 


246  OF  HOMILIES. 

without  notes,  contrary  to  his  usual  custom.  The  prevailing  mode 
of  speaking,  however,  was  evidently  without  notes. 

The  speaker  usually  began  with  a  short  invocation  to  God  for  his 
aid,  and  closed  his  discourse  with  a  benediction  :  Peace  be  with  you, 
or  something  to  that  effect.'*  Every  address,  says  Optatus,  is  made 
to  begin  and  end  with  God.^  But  long  and  formal  prayers,  such  as 
in  modern  times  precede  and  follow  the  sermon,  were  not  oflered 
in  that  connection.  To  every  sermon  whether  in  the  Greek,  Syriac, 
or  Latin  church,  there  was  affixed  the  customary  doxology  :  To  God 
through  .lesus  Christ  his  Son,  our  Lord  who  lives  and  reigns  with 
him,  world  without  end.  Amen.  We  subjoin,  as  quoted  by  Bing- 
ham from  Ferrarius,  the  prayer  which  St.  Ambrose  was  wont  to  of- 
fer for  himself  before  rising  to  address  the  assembly. 

"  I  beseech  thee,  O  Lord,  and  earnestly  entreat  thee,  give 
me  an  humble  knowledge  which  may  edify.  Give  me  a  meek  and 
prudent  eloquence,  which  knows  not  how  to  be  puffed  up,  or  vaunt 
itself  upon  its  own  worth  and  endowments  above  its  brethren.  Put 
into  my  mouth,  I  beseech  thee,  the  word  of  consolation,  and  edifica- 
tion, and  exhortation,  that  I  may  be  able  to  exhort  those  that  are 
good  to  go  on  to  greater  perfection,  and  reduce  those  that  walk  per- 
versely to  the  rule  of  thy  righteousness,  both  by  my  word,  and  by 
my  example.  Let  the  words  which  thou  givest  to  thy  servant,  be  as 
the  sharpest  darts,  and  burning  arrows  which  may  penetrate  and  in- 
flame the  minds  of  my  hearers  to  thy  fear  and  love.''^ 

§  8.  Of  the  Subjects  of  discourse  by  the  Fathers. 

It  is  very  justly  remarked  by  Bingham,  that  their  topics  of  dis- 
course were  of  a  grave  and  serious  character.  Their  object  was  to 
instruct,  to  edify  and  to  improve  the  hearer.  The  leading  subjects 
of  their  discourses  are  described  by  Gregory  Nazianzen  and  Chry- 
sostom.  "  To  me  it  seems,"  says  Gregory,  "  to  require  no  ordina- 
ry qualifications  of  mind  rightly  to  divide  the  word  of  truth, — to  give 
to  every  one  a  portion  in  due  measure,  and  discreetly  to  discourse 
of  the  great  doctrines  of  our  faith  ;  to  treat  of  the  universe  of  worlds 
— of  matter  and  of  mind— of  the  soul  and  of  intelligent  beings,  good 
and  bad — to  treat  of  a  superintending  and  ruling  Providence,  control- 
ling with  unerring  wisdom  all  things,  both  those  that  are  within,  and 
those  that  are  above  human  comprehension — to  treat  of  the  first 


SUBJECTS  OF  DISCOURSE.  247 

formation  and  of  the  restoration  of  man,  of  the  two  covenants  and  of 
the  tvpes  of  the  Old  and  antitypes  of  tl>e  New  Testament-of  Chr.st  s 
first  ;nd  second  coming,  of  his  incarnation  and  passion,  of  the  resur- 
rection, and  of  the  end  of  the  world,  of  the  day  of  jud.mer.t,  of  the 
rewards  of  the  just,  and  the  punishment  of  the  wicked  ;  and,  above 
all,  of  the  blessed  Trinity,  which  is  the  principal  article  of  the  chris- 
tian faith."!  c    1      ^     A 
In  like  manner  Chrysostom  in  reminding  his  hearers  of  the  lead- 
ing topics  of  religious  discourse  which  all  who  frequent  the  house  of 
God  expect  and   demand,  enumerates  the  followmg :  "  The  nature 
of  the  soul,  of  the  body,  of  immortality,  of  the  kmgdom  of  heaven,  ot 
hell  and  of  future  punishment-of  the  long-suffering  of  God,  of  re- 
pentance,  baptism,  and  the  pardon  of  sin-of  the  creation  of  the 
world  above,  and  the  world  below-of  the  nature  of  men  and  of  an- 
„els-evil  spirits  and  of  the  wiles  of  Satan-of  the  constitution  of 
christian  society,  of  the  true  faith,  and  deadly  heresies.     With  these 
and  many  other  such  like  subjects  must  the  christian  minister  be  ac- 
quainted, and  be  prepared  to  speak  on  them  as  occasion  may  re- 
quire."                                                                           ■     ,    •         r  r 
The  following  extract  comprising  a  brief  recapitulation  ot  some  ot 
the  leading  facts  in  relation  to  the  devotions  of  the  primitive  Chris- 
tians in  social  and  public  worship,  may  be  acceptable  to  the  common 

reader. 

"  Under  a  conviction  that  social  meetings  held  at  the  commence- 
ment and  at  the  close  of  every  day,  would  prove  an  admirable  pre- 
paralion  for  the  duties  and  trials  of  ordinary  life,  they  adopted  the 
practice  of  having  morning  and  evening  service  daily  in  the  church. 
The  hours  were  fixed  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  routine  of  ordmary 
business.     Long  before  daylight,  they  assembled  and  opened  their 
meeting  with  the  63d  Psalm,  the  exordium  of  which, '  O  God,  thou 
art  my^God,  early  will  I  seek  thee,'  as  well  as  the  whole  strain  of 
that  pious  effusion,  made  it  an  appropriate  commencement  of  the  du- 
ties of  every  day.     They  then  united  in  prayer,  the  burden  of  which 
was  a  supplication  for  the  divine  blessing  and  favor  on  the  mem- 
hers  of  the  household  of  faith,  and  for  the  extension  of  the  Redeem- 
er's kingdom.     This  was  followed  by  the  reading  of  a  short  and  ap- 
propriate passage  of  Scripture,  after  which  they  sang  the  90th  Psalm, 
so  pathetically  descriptive  of  the  frailty  and  uncertainty  of  life,  and 
then  embodied  their  sentiments  on  this  subject  in  a  second  prayer,  in 


248  OF  HOMILIES. 

which  they  expressed  their  sense  of  dependence  on  the  care  of  the 
Ahniorhty,  and  their  gratitude  for  their  common  preservation  during 
the  previous  night.  Another  portion  of  the  Divine  Word  being  read, 
the  whole  service — scarcely,  if  ever,  exceeding  the  limits  of  an  hour 
— was  brought  to  a  close  by  the  singing  of  the  51st  Psalm,  and  a 
corresponding  prayer,  in  both  of  which  they  implored  the  divine  mer- 
cy to  pardon  the  sins  of  their  past  life,  and  the  divine  grace  to  help 
them  amid  the  exigencies  of  their  future  course. 

"  The  evening  service  was  conducted  on  the  same  plan  as  that  of 
the  antelucan  meeting,  only  diversified,  of  course,  by  a  set  of  psalms, 
and  a  strain  of  devotional  sentiments  appropriate  to  the  change  of 
time  and  circumstances.  It  began  with  the  141st  Psalm,  and  a  pray- 
er, in  which,  like  the  corresponding  one  in  the  morning  oblation,  the 
divine  love  was  supplicated  on  the  brethren,  an  extract  from  the  Gos- 
pels or  Epistles  was  read,  and  after  this,  as  the  evening  meeting 
generally  took  place  at  the  time  of  lighting  candles,  they  sung  a 
hymn  in  which  they  gave  thanks  both  for  natural  and  spiritual  light, 
and  then  prayed  a  second  time  for  a  continuance  of  the  bounty  and 
grace  of  the  Lord.  Such  were  the  pious  habits  of  the  primitive  Chris- 
tians, that  not  content  with  the  devotions  of  the  family  and  the  closet, 
they  attended  duly  as  the  season  returned,  the  celebration  of  morn- 
ing and  evening  service  in  the  church.  Nor  was  it  only  the  more 
devout  and  zealous  of  them  that  pursued  this  daily  routine  of  reli- 
gious observances.  The  place  of  worship  was  thronged  with  all  ranks 
of  the  faithful  as  much  during  the  morning  and  evening  service,  as 
during  that  of  the  Sabbath,  and  they  would  have  afforded  good  rea- 
son to  suspect  the  sincerity  of  their  religious  profession,  who  should 
in  those  days  of  christian  simplicity  and  devotedness,  have  confined 
themselves  to  the  hebdomadal  ordinance  of  the  sanctuary.  Persons 
who  from  sickness,  or  travelling,  or  confinement  in  prison,  were  pre- 
vented from  enjoying  the  privilege  of  repairing  to  the  assembly  of 
their  brethren,  carefully  observed  in  private  those  hours  of  daily 
prayer  ;  and  men,  whose  time  was  engrossed  during  the  day  with 
the  labors  of  the  field  or  the  shop — with  the  speculations  of  commerce, 
or  the  offices  of  civil  and  judicial  stations, '  rose  early  before  day,  and 
never  engaged  in  any  of  their  most  necessary  and  ordinary  worldly 
business,  before  they  had  consecrated  the  first-fruits  of  all  their  ac- 
tions and  labors  to  God,  by  going  to  church,  and  presenting  them- 
selves in  the  divine  presence.' 


lord's  day  kept  A3  A  FESTIVAL.  249 

"  Bul  the  principal  season  of  public  worship  among  the  primitive 
Christians  was  the  first  day  of  the  week.  From  the  time  of  the  apos- 
tles, it  was  customary  for  the  disciples  of  Christ,  both  in  town  and 
country,  to  meet  in  some  common  accessible  place  on  tlie  return  of 
that  day  ;  and  while  on  other  occasions,  such  as  those  we  have  de- 
scribed, it  was  left  to  every  one  to  frequent  the  assemblies  of  the 
brellu'en  as  inclination  dictated  or  convenience  allowed,  the  sanction 
of  apostolic  example  at  once  elevated  attendance  on  the  relig40us 
meetings  of  that  period  to  the  rank  of  a  sacred  duty,  and  an  invalu- 
able privilege.  The  high  and  holy  character  the  Christians  of  the 
primitive  age  attached  to  it,  is  sufficiently  indicated  by  their  styling  it 
the  Lord's  Day  ;  and,  from  the  glorious  event  of  which  it  was  the  stated 
memorial,  they  hailed  it  as  a  weekly  festival,  on  which  no  other  senti- 
ment was  becoming  or  lawful  but  that  of  unbounded  spiritual  joy. 
Hence  fasting,  wliich  was  so  frequently  practised  in  the  ancient 
church,  and  was  allowable  on  every  other  day,  was  strictly  prohibited 
on  this  ;  and  even  the  most  rigid  of  the  primitive  Christians,  who  sought 
to  aim  at  more  than  ordinary  heighlsof  virtue  by  the  practice  of  auster- 
ity and  mortification,  laid  aside  their  habitual  aspect  of  sorrow, as  in- 
consistent with  the  joyful  feelings  that  season  inspired.  With  one  ac- 
cord they  dedicated  it  to  the  worship  of  their  exalted  Redeemer,  and 
to  meditation  on  things  pertaining  to  the  common  salvation  ;  and  the 
spiritual  views  with  which  they  entered  on  its  observance,  the  conge- 
nial tempers  with  which  all  repaired  to  the  place  of  assembly,  the 
common  desire  that  animated  every  bosom  to  seek  the  Lord  there, 
if  haply  they  might  find  him,  and  to  hold  fellowship  with  the  Father, 
and  with  his  Son  Jesus  Christ,  was  at  once  an  evidence  and  a  means 
of  the  high-toned  piety  that  distinguished  them.  Early  on  the  Sat- 
urday, it  was  their  practice  to  accomplish  the  duties  of  their  house- 
hold, and  fulfil  the  necessary  demands  of  their  business,  so  that  no 
secular  care  might  disturb  the  enjoyment  of  the  sacred  day,  or  im- 
pede the  current  of  their  spiritual  affections  ;  and  severe  indeed  was 
the  indisposition,  remote  the  situation,  imperious  the  cause,  that  de- 
tained any  from  the  scenes  and  occupations  the  first  day  of  the  week 
brought  along  with  it.  So  long  as  heathenism  retained  the  ascend- 
ant, and  the  disciples  of  the  new  and  rival  religion  were  at  the  mer- 
cy of  their  pagan  masters,  it  was  only  during  the  night,  or  early  in 
tlie  morning,  they  could  enjoy  the  privileges  of  the  christian  Sab- 
bath ;  nor  could  they  observe  any  regular  order  in  their  service,  at 

'S2 


250  OF  HOMILIES. 

a  time  when  the  voice  of  psalms  was  liable  to  betray  the  secret  as- 
sembly,— and  the  ruthless  soldier  often  dispersed  the  brethren  in  the 
middle  of  their  devotions,  or  compelled  them  to  leave  a  glowing  ex- 
hortation unfinished.  But  the  moment  the  sword  of  persecution  was 
sheathed,  and  the  religion  of  Jesus  enjoyed  the  tolerant  smiles  of  a 
heathen,  or  the  paternal  auspices  of  a  Christian  emperor,  the  Chris- 
tians resumed  their  much  valued  assemblies  on  the  Lord's  day, — es- 
tablished a  certain  order  in  the  routine  of  their  service,  suited  to  the 
constitution  and  circumstances  of  the  primitive  church  ;  and  such 
was  the  happy  understanding  among  the  brethren  everywhere,  that, 
with  some  trifling  variations  required  in  particular  places,  a  beauti- 
ful uniformity  in  worship  and  discipline  maybe  said  to  have  prevail- 
ed in  all  parts  of  the  christian  world. 

"  Viewing  the  Lord's  day  as  a  spiritual  festivity,  a  season  on 
which  their  souls  were  speciallj'  to  magnify  the  Lord,  and  their  spi- 
rits to  rejoice  in  God  their  Saviour,  they  introduced  the  services  of 
the  day  with  psalmody,  which  was  followed  by  select  portions  of  the 
Prophets,  the  Gospels,  and  the  Epistles ;  the  intervals  between 
which  were  occupied  by  the  faithful  in  private  devotions.  The  men 
prayed  with  their  heads  bare,  and  the  women  were  veiled,  as  became 
the  modesty  of  their  sex,  both  standing — a  posture  deemed  the  most 
decent,  and  suited  to  their  e.xalted  notions  of  the  weekly  solemnity — 
with  their  eyes  lifted  up  to  heaven,  and  their  hands  extended  in  the 
form  of  a  cross,  the  better  to  keep  them  in  remembrance  of  Him, 
whose  death  had  opened  up  the  way  of  access  to  the  divine  presence. 
The  reading  of  the  sacred  volume  constituted  an  important  and  in- 
dispensable part  of  the  observance  ;  and  the  more  effectually  to  im- 
press it  on  the  memories  of  the  audience,  the  lessons  were  always 
short,  and  of  frequent  recurrence.  Besides  the  Scriptures,  they 
were  accustomed  to  read  aloud  several  other  books  for  the  edifica- 
tion and  interest  of  the  people — such  as  treatises  on  the  illustration 
of  christian  morals,  by  some  pastor  of  eminent  reputation  and  piety, 
or  letters  from  foreign  churches,  containing  an  account  of  the  state 
and  progress  of  the  gospel.  This  part  of  the  service, — most  neces- 
sary and  valuable  at  a  time  when  a  large  proportion  of  every  con- 
gregation were  unacquainted  with  letters,  was  performed  at  first  by 
the  presiding  minister,  but  was  afterwards  devolved  on  an  officer 
appointed  for  that  object,  who,  when  proceeding  to  the  discharge  of 
his  duty,  if  it  related  to  any  part  of  the  history  of. Jesus,  exclaimed 


ROUTINE  OF  SERVICE.  251 

aloud  to  the  people, '  Stand  up — tlio  gospels  are  going  to  be  read  ;' 
and  then  always  commenced  with,  '  Thus  saith  the  Lord.'     They 
assumed  this  attitude,  not  only  from  a  conviction  that  it  was  the  most 
respectful  posture  in  which  to  listen  to  the  counsels  of  the  King  of 
kings,  but  with  a  view  to  keep  alive  the  attention  of  the  people— an 
object  which,   in  some  churches,  was  sought  to  be  gained  by  the 
minister  stopping  in  the  middle  of  a  scriptural  quotation,  and  leaving 
the  people  to  finish  it  aloud.*     The  discourses,  founded  for  the  .most 
part  on  the  last  portion  of  Scripture  that  was  read,  were  short,  plain, 
and  extemporary  exhortations, — designed  chiefly  to  stir  up  the  minds 
of  the  brethren  by  way  of  remembrance,  and  always  prefaced  by 
the  salutation,  '  Peace  be  unto  you.'     As  they  were  very  short — 
sometimes  not  extending  to  more  than  eight  or  ten  minutes'  dura- 
tion,—several  of  them  were  delivered  at  a  diet,  and  the  preacher  was 
usually  the  pastor  of  the  place,  though  he  sometimes,  at  his  discre- 
tion, invited  a  stranger,  or  one  of  his  brethren,  known  to  possess  the 
talent  of  public  speaking,  to  address  the  assembly.     The  close  of  the 
sermon  by  himself,  which  was  always  the  last  of  the  series,  was  the 
signal  for  the  public  prayers  to  commence.     Previous  to  this  solemn 
part  of  the  service,  however,  a  crier  commanded  infidels  of  any  de- 
scription that  might  be  present  to  withdraw,  and  the  doors  being  clo- 
sed and  guarded,  the   pastor  proceeded  to  pronounce  a  prayer,  the 
burden  of  which  was  made  to  bear  a  special  reference  to  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  various  classes  who,  in  the  primitive  chi^rch,  were 
not  admitted  to  a  full  participation  in  the  privileges  of  the  faithful. 
First  of  all,  he  prayed  in  the  name  of  the  whole  company  of  believers, 
for  the  catechumens — young  persons,  or  recent  converts  from  hea- 
thenism, who  were  passing  through  a  preparatory  course  of  instruc- 
tion in  the  doctrines  and  duties  of  Christianity, — that  their  under- 
standings might  be  enlightened — their  hearts  receive  the  truth  in  the 
love  of  it — and  that  they  might  be   led  to  cultivate  those  holy  habits 
of  heart  and  life,  by  which  they  might  adorn  the  doctrine  of  God 
their  Saviour.     Next  he  prayed  for  the  penitents,  who  were  under- 
going the  discipline  of  the  church,  that  they  might  receive  deep  and 
permanent  impressions  of  the  exceeding  sinfulness  of  sin, — that  they 
might  be  filled  with  godly  sorrow,  and  might  have  grace,  during  the 

*  Augustine,  for  instance,  having  introduced  in  one  of  his  sermons  these 
words  of  Paul — Tkc  end  of  the  commandment  is  charity, — stopped;  and  the 
whole  people  immediately  cried  out— out  of  a  pure  heart. 


252  OF  CATECHETICAL  INSTRUCTION. 

appointed  term  of  their  probation,  to  bring  forth  fruits  meet  for  repen- 
tance. In  Hke  manner,  he  made  appropriate  supplications  for  other 
descriptions  of  persons,  each  of  whom  left  the  church  when  the  class 
to  which  he  belonged  had  been  commended  to  the  God  of  all  grace  ; 
and  then  the  brethren,  reduced  by  these  successive  departures  to  an 
approved  company  of  the  faithful,  proceeded  to  the  holy  service  of 
communion."* — Jamieson,  pp.  115 — 121. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


OF  THE  CATECHETICAL  INSTRUCTIONS. 

No  very  clear  distinction  can  be  drawn  between  the  homilies  and 
catechetical  lessons  of  the  fathers.  The  terms  are  applied  inter- 
changeably, in  some  instances,  to  the  same  productions.  The  cate- 
chetical lessons  were  familiar  instructions  given  to  candidates  for 
baptism,  or  to  persons  who  had  just  received  that  ordinance  ;  and 
varied  very  much  according  to  the  age,  character,  and  circumstances 
of  the  catechumens.  Sometimes  they  were  of  a  doctrinal,  and  at 
others  of  a  popular  character  ;  and  again,  they  were  adapted  more 
especially  to  the  young  ;  just  as  the  instructions  of  the  missionary 
are  necessarily  qualified  by  the  circumstances  of  the  people  to  whom 
he  goes,  or  the  particular  class  whom  he  may  chance  to  address. 
But  in  either  case  they  are  strictly  catechetical. 

The  nature  of  these  instructions  in  the  ancient  church  was  greatly 
modified  by  the  general  introduction  of  infant  baptism,  in  conse- 

*  In  the  East,  where  multitudes  of  the  Christians  were  Jews,  who  still  re- 
tained a  passionate  attachment  to  the  law  of  Moses,  Saturday  was  long  ob- 
served as  a  day  of  public  worship,  though  not  regarded  by  the  Christians  in 
the  same  light  and  of  the  same  character  with  the  first  day  of  the  week. — 
Wednesday  and  Friday  began,  at  an  early  period,  to  be  held  as  weekly  fasts, 
■which  never  terminated  till  three  in  the  afternoon.  A  number  of  public  fes- 
tivals were  also  introduced,  in  commernoraiion  of  tlie  birth,  ascension,  and 
other  events  in  the  life  of  Christ, — some  of  which,  Easter,  for  instance,  can 
boast  of  a  most  venerable  antiquity,  and  of  universal  observance. — See 
Routh's  Reliquiae  Sacrae,  vol.  iii.  p.  236 ;  and  Nelson's  Festivals. 


or  CATECHETICAL  INSTRUCTION.  25S 

quence  of  the  corresponding  change  of  tlie  relations  and  institutions 
which  attended  tliis  chanjre  in  the  ordinance. 

The  catechetical  discourses  of  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  contain  the 
most  ancient  and  authentic  summary  of  the  doctrines  of  primitive 
Christianity.  These  the  catechumens  were  expected  to  commit  to 
memory  and  habitually  to  study  as  a  compend  of  the  Scriptures, 
and  a  substitute  for  them,  to  such  as  had  not  a  Bible.  Such  was 
also  the  nature  and  interest  of  all  subsequent  formularies  of  this  kind. 
They  have  a  close  analogy  to  the  ancient  symbols  of  the  church, 
and  were  in  many  respects  the  same. 

The  principal  points  of  catechetical  instruction,  even  when  no 
catechism  in  form  was  used,  was  : 

1.  The  Decalogue.  The  fathers  in  the  church  unitedly  agreed  in 
regarding  this  as  essentially  a  summary  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
obligatory  upon  Christians.  They  were  accordingly  diligently 
taught  this  compend  of  the  moral  law.  Pliny,  in  his  famous  epistle, 
has  clearly  declared  how  faithfully  the  primitive  Christians  observed 
this  law,  and  the  same  is  known  from  many  authorities.^ 

Many  of  the  fathers  disagreed  in  the  division  of  the  law  of  the  two 
tables,  some  making  ten,  others  seven,  etc.  In  regard  to  their  dif- 
ferent views,  see  references.^ 

2.  The  Si/mhoh.^  or  Confessions  of  Faith,  particularly  that  which 
is  styled  the  Apostles'  Creed.  In  relation  to  these  which  have  been 
the  subject  of  so  much  discussion,  it  may  be  sufficient  briefly  to  re- 
mark, that  from  the  earliest  organization  of  the  church,  some  confes- 
sion and  rule  of  faith  must  evidently  have  been  necessary.^  This 
rule  of  faith  must  have  been  derived  from  the  teaching,  either  oral 
or  written,  of  the  apostles ;  and  may  have  been  earlier  than  ihe 
writings  of  the  New  Testament  in  their  present  form.  Luke  1:  1 — 4, 
Gal.  1:  11.  As  the  preaching  of  the  apostles  preceded  their  written 
instructions,  so  an  oral  confession  may  have  preceded  a  written  one, 
comprising  an  epitome  of  the  gospel.^  From  such  a  source  may- 
have  sprung  the  great  variety  of  forms  which  were  known  previous 
to  the  council  of  Nice.  The  various  creeds  and  symbols  which  have 
been  framed  since  that  period,  are  only  so  many  modifications  of  the 
apostles'  creed.*     For  a  notice  of  these  creeds  see  reference.^ 

*  The  most  ancient  creed  extant  is  that  of  Ircnaeus.  This  venerable 
document  is  here  inserted  for  the  gratification  of  the  curious  inquirer. 

"  The  church,  though  it  be  dispersed  over  all  the  world,  from  one  end  of 


254  OF  CATECHETICAL  INSTRUCTION. 

3.  The  Lorcfs  Prayer  comprised  a  part  of  the  catechetical  in- 
structions. This  was  used  in  baptism,  and,  after  Gregory  the  Great, 
at  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper.  It  was  regarded  as  a  sum- 
mary of  the  proper  topics  of  prayer. 

4.  While  the  secret  mysteries  of  the  church  were  continued,  in- 
structions respecting  the  sacrament  could  not  have  been  publicly 
given.  But  from  the  time  when  the  introduction  of  infant  baptism 
changed  the  style  of  catechetical  instructions,  they  must  have  in- 
cluded the  subjects  of  baptism,  absolution,  and  the  Lord's  supper. 


the  earth  to  the  other,  has  received  from  the  apostles  and  their  disciples  the 
belief  in  one  God  the  Father  Almighty,  maker  of  heaven  and  earth,  the  sea, 
and  all  things  in  them  :  and  in  one  Christ  Jesus,  the  Son  of  God,  who  was 
incarnate  for  our  salvation  :  and  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  who  preached  by  the 
prophets  the  dispensations  of  God,  and  the  advent  {xdg  slfvasig,  adventum, 
Jnt.  vet.),  nativity  of  a  virgin,  passion,  resurrection  from  the  dead,  and  bod- 
ily ascension  into  heaven  of  the  flesh  of  his  beloved  Son  Christ  Jesus  our 
Lord,  and  his  coming  again  from  heaven  in  the  glory  of  the  Father,  to  restore 
(dpaxs<fa?.aiojaaatynij  ad  recapitulanda  universa,  Int.  vet.)  all  things,  and 
raise  the  flesh  of  all  mankind  ;  that,  according  to  the  will  of  the  invisible 
Father,  every  knee  should  bow,  of  things  in  heaven,  and  things  in  the  earth, 
and  things  under  the  earth,  to  Jesus  Christ,  our  Lord,  and  God,  and  Sa- 
viour, and  King  ;  and  that  every  tongue  should  confess  to  him  ;  and  that  he 
may  exercise  just  judgment  upon  all,  and  may  send  spiritual  wickednesses, 
and  the  transgressing  and  apostate  angels,  with  all  ungodly,  unrighteous, 
lawless,  and  blaspheming  men,  into  everlasting  fire  ;  but  having  granted  life 
to  all  righteous  and  holy  men,  that  keep  his  commandments,  and  persevere 
in  his  love,  some  from  the  beginning,  others  after  repentance,  on  these  he 
may  bestow  tlie  gift  of  immortality,  and  invest  them  with  eternal  glory." 

The  famous  Nicene  creed,  first  framed  in  the  year  325,  and  completed 
A.  D.  381,  is  given  in  the  liturgy  of  the  Episcopal  church. 


OF  BAPTISM.  255 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


<5)  1.  Names  by  which  the  ordinance  is  designated. 

The  term  Baptism,  is  derived  from  the  Greek  |?«7itw,  from  which 
is  formed  ^umlCa),  with  its  derivations  ^auTiafio?  and  ^dmiana,  bap- 
tism. The  primary  signification  of  the  original  is  to  dip,  plunge, 
immerse  ;  the  obvious  import  of  the  noun  is  immersion.  For  a  dis- 
cussion of  this  point,  more  full  and  satisfactory  than  our  author  has 
given,  the  reader  is  referred  to  an  article  by  Prof.  Stuart,  in  Bib. 
Repos.  April,  1833. 

The  term  Xovtqov,  washing,  is  used  figuratively  to  denote  that  puri- 
fication or  sanctification  which  is  implied  in  the  profession  of  those 
who  are  received  by  baptism  into  the  church  of  Christ.  It  is  equi- 
valent to  the  washing  of  regeneration,  and  the  receiving  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  Til.  3:  5.  This  phraseology  was  familiar  to  the  ancient 
fathers.^ 

Baptism  is  also  denominated  by  them  the  water, — and  vl  fountain, 
from  whence,  according  to  Bingham,  is  derived  the  English,  fo7it, — 
an  anointing,  a  seal,  or  sign,  etc.  It  is  also  styled  an  illuminating 
or  e7ilightening  ordinance,  the  light  of  the  mind,  of  the  eye,  etc., 
sometimes  with  reference  to  that  inward  illumination  and  sanctifica- 
tion which  was  supposed  to  attend  that  ordinance,  and  sometimes, 
with  reference  to  the  instructions  by  which  the  candidates  for  this 
ordinance  were  enlightened  in  a  knowledge  of  the  christian  re- 
ligion. 

With  reference  to  ihe  secrecy  in  which,  in  the  early  ages  of  the 
church,  it  was  administered  as  a  sacred  mystery,  it  was  styled  fivairj- 
Qiov,  a  mystery.  A  multitude  of  other  names  occur  in  the  writings 
of  the  fathers,  such  as  grace,  pardon,  death  of  sin,  philactery,  re- 
generation, adoption,  access  to  God,  way  of  life,  eternal  life,  etc. 
These  terms  are  more  or  less  defined  and  explained,  in  the  authori- 
ties to  whom  reference  is  had  in  the  index.^ 


256  OF  BAPTISM. 


§  2.  Historical  Sketch. 

The  learned  of  every  age  have  generally  regarded  baptism  as  an 
independent  institution,  distinct,  alike  from  the  washings  and  conse- 
crations by  water,  so  common  among  the  pagan  nations,  and  from 
the  ceremonial  purifications  and  proselyte  baptisms  of  the  Jews. 
Neither  have  they  accounted  it  the  same  as  the  baptism  of  John. 
Even  those  who  have  contended  for  the  identity  of  the  two  institu- 
tions, have  still  concurred  with  others  in  regarding  baptism  as  a 
separate,  and  independent  ordinance. 

But  the  opinions  of  authors  are  greatly  divided  in  regard  to  the 
time  when  this  ordinance  was  instituted  by  our  Lord.  It  might  seem, 
from  the  account  given  by  Matthew  and  Mark,  to  have  been  institu- 
ted when  he  gave  his  final  commission  to  his  disciples  just  before 
his  ascension.  Such  was  the  opinion  of  Chrysostom,  Leo  the  Great, 
Theopylact,  and  others.  But  this  supposition  is  contradicted  by  John, 
3: 22.  4:  1,  2.,  from  whom  we  learn  that  Christ,  by  his  disciples,  had 
already  baptized  many,  before  hi;?  death.  Augustine  supposed  Christ 
to  have  instituted  this  ordinance  when  he  himself  was  baptized  in  Jor- 
dan ;  and  that  the  three  persons  of  the  Godhead,  were  there  dis- 
tinctly represented  ;  the  Father,  by  the  voice  from  heaven,  the  Son, 
in  the  person  of  Christ  Jesus,  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  by  the  form  of 
the  dove  descending  from  heaven. ^  Others,  without  good  reason, 
refer  the  time  of  instituting  it  to  the  conversation  of  Christ  with 
Nicodemus  ;  and  others  again,  to  the  time  when  he  commissioned 
the  twelve  to  go  forth  preaching  repentance,  and  the  approach  of 
the  kingdom  of  heaven.  Matt.  10:  7.  But  this  supposition  is  contra- 
dicted by  the  fact  that  these  same  truths  had  been  before  preached, 
and  that  those  who  duly  regarded  this  ministry,  received  John's  bap- 
tism, Matt.  4:  17.  3:  1,  2.  Luke  7:  29. 

On  this  subject,  the  truth  seems  to  be  that  our  Lord,  on  entering 
upon  his  ministry,  permitted  the  continuance  of  John's  baptism  as 
harmonizing  well  with  his  own  designs.  The  import  of  the  rite  was 
the  same,  whether  administered  by  John  himself,  or  by  the  disciples 
of  Jesus.  In  either  case,  it  implied  the  profession  of  repentance, 
and  a  consecration  to  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  To  this  baptism, 
none  but  Jews  were  admitted  ;  to  whom  the  ministry  of  John  was 
wholly  restricted.     Our  Lord  did  indeed,  at  a  later  period,  declare 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH.  257 

that  he  had  other  slicep,  not  of  that  fold,  which  must  also  be  gather- 
ed ;  but  his  disciples  understood  not  the  import  of  that  declaration, 
until  after  his  ascension  ;  and,  even  then,  were  slow  to  yield  their 
national  prejudices  so  far  as  to  receive  the  gentiles  to  participate,  in 
common  with  the  Jews,  in  the  privileges  of  the  gospel. 

The  introduction  of  christian  baptism^  strictly  so  called,  was  im- 
mediately consequent  upon  our  Lord's  ascension  ;  and  the  most  im- 
portant commission  for  receiving  it,  as  an  universal  ordinance  of  the 
church,  is  given  by  its  divine  author  in  Matt.  28:  19,  "  Go  ye  there- 
fore and  teach  all  nations,  baptizing  them  in  the  name  of  the  Father, 
and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost."  Those  who  had  been 
baptized  by  John,  now  received  christian  baptism  ;  which  was  re- 
garded by  the  fathers  rather  as  a  renewal  of  the  ordinance,  than  as 
a  distinct  right.  It  differed  from  the  former,  in  that  it  was  adminis- 
tered in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  This  was  the  sacramcntum  plenimi,  the  plenary  baptism  of 
Ambrose  and  Cyprian. 

Baptism  was  uniformly  administered  as  a  public  ordinance,  even 
to  the  end  of  the  second  century.  In  no  instance,  on  record  in  the 
New  Testament,  was  it  administered  privately  as  a  secret  rite.  Nor 
is  there  an  intimation  to  this  effect  given  by  the  earliest  authorities. 
The  apostolic  fathers  indeed  give  no  instruction  respecting  the  mode 
of  administering  this  rite.  Justin  Martyr  distinctly  intimates  that  the 
ordinance  was  administered  in  the  presence  of  the  assembly.  Fronn 
the  third  century  it  became  one  of  the  secret  mysteries  of  the  church. 
Such  it  continued  to  be,  until  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  when 
Christianity  became  so  prevalent,  and  the  practice  of  infant  baptism 
so  general,  that  the  instances  of  adult  baptism  were  comparatively 
rare.  But  during  that  period  of  time  it  was  administered  privately, 
in  the  presence  of  believers  only  ;  and  the  candidates,  without  re- 
spect to  age,  or  sex,  were  divested  of  all  covering  in  order  to  be  bap- 
tized, and  in  this  state,  received  the  ordinance. ^ 

It  was  customary  for  adults  immediately  after  baptism  to  receive 
the  sacrament.  This  usage  gave  rise  to  the  custom  of  administer- 
ing the  sacrament  also  to  children  at  their  baptism,  a  superstition 
which  continued  in  the  Western  churches  until  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries,  and  in  the  Eastern,  remains  unto  this  day.^ 

Certain  religious  sects,  contrary  to  the  established  usage  of  the 
church,   were   accustomed  to  re-baptize  ;  others  again  contended 

33 


258  OF  BAPTISM. 

that  it  must  be  thrice  administered,  to  be  valid.     Such  was  the  cus- 
tom of  the  Marcionites  and  Valentinians. 

The  Novatians  maintained  that  those  who  had  apostatized  from 
the  faith,  on  being  restored  to  the  church  ought  to  be  baptized  anew  ; 
having  lost,  by  their  apostasy,  the  benefit  of  their  former  baptism. 
Against  this  Tertullian  and  Cyprian  earnestly  contended,  alleging 
that  the  validity  of  the  ordinance,  once  rightly  administered,  could 
never  be  annulled  ;^  subsequent  writers  also  concur  with  them  in 
this  opinion. 

Baptism  by  heretics  was  early  regarded  as  null  and  void.    Clem- 
ens of  Alexandria  declared  it  strange  and  uncongenial,  'Tdwg  uXXo- 
TQiov.     Tertullian  classed  heretics  with  idolaters,  and  declared  their 
baptism  of  no  effect ;  unless  rightly  administered,  it  was  no  baptism. 
Cum  bapiisma  rite  non  habeant,  omnino  non  habentfi     Cyprian  also 
agreed   with   him,  and   generally  the  churches  of  Africa,  together 
with  that  of  Caesurea  and  Alexandria.     These  required   that  their 
converts  from   heretical  sects  should  be  re-baptized,  limiting  them- 
selves, however,  to  those  sects  who  differed  most  widely  from  the 
tVue  church.     The  churches  of  Rome,  and  France,  and   of  some 
parts  of  Asia,  on  the  other  hand,  received  such  to  their  communion 
by  prayer  and  the  imposition  of  hands,  with  the  exception  of  such  as 
disowned  the  Catholic  church,  and  of  those  who  were  not  baptized 
in  the  names  of  the  Trinity.     Baptism  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity 
even  by  heretics,  was  considered  valid,  except  some  who  were  ex 
pressly  named.'''     The  council  of  Nice  proceeded  on  the  same  prin 
ciple.     The  efficacy  of  the  rite  depended  upon  the  divine  power  ac 
companying  it,  not  upon  the  character  of  him  who  administered  it 
For  a  further  discussion  of  this  point,  see  references.^ 

§  3.  Infant  Baptism.' 

The  general  introduction  of  the  rite  of  infant  baptism,  has  so  far 
changed  the  regulations  of  the  church  concerning  the  qualifications 
of  candidates,  and  their  admission,  that  what  was  formerly  the  rule 
in  this  respect,  has  become  the  exception.  The  institutions  of  the 
church  during  the  first  five  centuries,  concerning  the  requisite  pre- 
parations for  baptism,  and  all  the  laws  and  rules  that  existed  during 
that  period,  relating  to  the  acceptance  or  rejection  of  candidates, 
necessarily  fell  into  disuse  when  the  baptism  of  infants  began  not 


INFANT  BAPTISM.  259 

only  to  be  permitted,  but  enjoined  as  a  duty  ;  and  almost  universally 
observed.  The  old  rule  which  proscribed  caution  in  the  admission 
of  candidates,  and  a  careful  preparation  for  the  rite,  was,  after  the 
sixth  century,  applicable,  for  the  most  part,  only  to  Jewish,  heathen 
and  other  proselytes.  The  discipline  which  was  formerly  requisite, 
preparatory  to  baptism,  now  followed  this  rite  as  a  needful  qualifica- 
tion for  communion. 

Christian  baptism  has  from  the  beginning  been  characterized  for 
the  universality  of  its  application.  Proselyte  baptism  was  adminis- 
tered only  to  pagan  nations.  John's  baptism  was  restricted  solely  to 
the  Jews  ;  but  christian  baptism  is  open  alike  to  all.  Proselyte  bap- 
tism included  the  children  with  the  parents  ;  John''s  baptism  excluded 
both  children  and  the  female  sex.  Christian  baptism  excludes  no  na- 
tion, or  sex,  or  age.  Comp.  Malt.  28:  19,20.  Gal.  3:  28.  1  Cor.  12: 
13,  together  with  the  authorities  of  Irenaeus,  Cyprian,  and  Tertullian, 
quoted  below.  From  all  which,  it  appears  evident  beyond  a  doubt, 
that  the  ancient  church  understood  that  christian  baptism  was  de- 
signed for  all,  nuvieg,  naviu  t«  t&vrj,  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  term, — 
that  no  nation,  or  class,  or  sex,  or  age  was  excluded.  Of  course  it 
was  understood  to  be  universal  in  the  highest  degree. 

In  his  views  respecting  infant  baptism  as  above  expressed,  Augus- 
ti,  it  is  well  known,  differs  from  many  of  his  learned  contempora- 
ries in  Germany.  In  common  with  all  who  observe  this  rite,  and 
maintain  the  doctrine  of  infant  baptism,  the  learned  in  Germany 
generally  admit,  indeed,  the  authenticity  of  the  historical  testimony 
on  which  our  author  relies.  They  admit  that  infant  baptism  was  an 
usage  of  the  primitive  church  as  early  as  the  time  of  Cyprian,  Ter- 
tullian, or  even  of  Irenaeus  ;  but  they  refuse  to  follow  us  in  the  con- 
clusion that  this  ordinance  must  have  been  instituted  by  the  authority, 
and  supported  by  the  example  of  the  apostles.  They  either  deny 
that  the  baptism  of  infant  children  was  authorized  by  Christ  and  his 
apostles,  or  they  content  themselves  with  stating  the  historical  facts 
in  relation  to  the  subject — giving  the  earliest  evidence  of  the  rite  in 
question,  without  advancing  any  theory  whatever  respecting  the  origin 
of  this  ordinance. 

For  the  gratification  of  the  common  reader,  the  views  of  some  of 
the  learned  German  scholars  on  this  vexed  question  in  theology  are 
given  below. 

Baumgarten-Crusius  supposes  that  infant  baptism  was  not  incon- 


260  OF  BAPTISM. 

sistent  with  the  views  of  the  primitive  church.  But  he  finds  no  sat- 
isfactory evidence  of  the  practice  of  the  rite  in  the  first  two  centu- 
ries. He  admits  that  it  was  practised  in  the  time  of  Cyprian,  and 
of  TertulUan,  and  that  in  the  fourth  century  it  had  become  general. 
— Dogmengeschichte  II.  Th.  III.  Abschn.  S.  1208-9. 

Hahn  contents  himself  with  the  "  assertion  that  there  is  no  clear 
example  of  infant  baptism  to  be  found  either  in  the  Scriptures  or 
during  the  first  hundred  and  fifty  years  of  the  christian  era."  He 
makes  no  comment  upon  the  examples  on  record,  nor  does  he  inform 
us  what  he  receives  as  a  clear  example.  But  he  justifies  infant 
baptism  as  a  useful  institution,  which  ought  to  be  retained.— Christli- 
chen  Glaubens,  §  123.  S.  557. 

De  Wette,  in  commenting  upon  1  Cor.  7:  14,  allows  that  in  the 
time  of  the  apostles  children  were  not  baptized,  but  alleges  this  same 
passage  as  scriptural  authority  for  receiving  them  to  this  ordinance. 
— Geschichte  der  Kindertaufe.  Th.  Stud.  u.  Kr.  1830.  S.  671. 

Neander  also  agrees  with  De  Wette  on  this  point,  Geschichte  des 
Pflantzung,  p.  141. 

According  to  Rheinwald,  p.  41,  "  traces  of  infant  baptism  appear 
in  the  Western  church  after  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  i.  e. 
within  about  fifty  years  of  the  apostolic  age ;  and,  towards  the  end 
of  this  century,  it  becomes  the  subject  of  controversy  in  Proconsular 
Africa.  Though  its  necessity  was  asserted  in  Africa  and  Egypt,  in 
the  beginning  of  the  third,  it  was,  even  to  the  end  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, by  no  means  universally  observed — least  of  all  in  the  Eastern 
church  ;  and  finally  became  a  general  ecclesiastical  institution  in  the 
age  of  Augustine."— Archaeologie,  §  111.  S.  313.  vgl.  Tafel  I.  Kirk- 
liche  Sitte. 

Gieseler  simply  says  that  in  the  first  period  of  his  history,  from 
A.  D.  117  to  193,  "the  baptism  of  infants  was  not  a  universal  cus- 
tom ;  and  was  sometimes  expressly  discountenanced."  For  his  au- 
thority he  quotes  Tertullian,  De  Baptismo,  c.  18,  as  given  in  the  se- 
quel. Kirchengeschichte,  §  52.  S.  175. 

Siegel  maintains  that  infant  baptism  is  of  apostolical  authority. — 
Handbuch  der  Christlich-Kirchen  Alterthlimen,  Bd.  IV.  476. 

Neander  concludes,  from  the  late  appearance  of  any  express  men- 
tion of  infant  baptism,  and  the  long  continued  opposition  to  it,  that  it 
was  not  of  apostolical  origin,  Geschichte  der  ch.  Kirche  durch.  die 
Apostel.  I.  Bd.  140.     Again  he  says,  "  the  ordinance  was  not  estab- 


INFANT  BAPTISM.  261 

lished  by  Christ,  and  cannot  be  proved  to  have  been  instituted  by 
the  apostles."— K.  Gesch.  B.  11.   Abth.  11.  S.  549. 

Such,  then,  are  the  views  of  some  of  the  most  distinguished  Ger- 
man scholars  of  the  present  day.  But  enough.  Authority  is  not 
argument,  nor  is  an  ostentatious  parade  of  names  of  any  avail  either 
to  establish  truth  or  refute  error.  These  authors  themselves  gene- 
rally admit  the  validity  of  the  testimony  of  the  early  fathers;  nor 
does  it  appear  that,  with  all  their  research  directed  even  by  German 
diligence  and  scholarship,  they  have  essentially  varied  the  historical 
argument  drawn  from  original  sources  in  favor  of  infant  baptism. 
Those  authorities  have  long  been  familiar  to  the  public,  and  they  are 
very  briefly  brought  together  in  this  place  as  a  concise  exhibition  of 
the  historical  evidence  in  favor  of  the  theory  that  this  ordinance  was 
instituted  by  divine  authority,  and  as  such  was  observed  by  the 
primitive  and  apostolic  church. 

We  will  begin  with  Augustine,  born  A.  D.  354,  at  which  time  the 
general  prevalence  of  infant  baptism  is  conceded  by  all.  Passages 
without  number  might  be  cited  from  this  father  to  show  that  the  ob- 
servance of  this  ordinance  was  an  established  usage  of  the  church. 
The  rite  itself  he  declares  to  be  an  apostolical  tradition,  and  by  no 
means  to  be  lightly  esteemed.  "  The  custom  of  our  mother-church, 
in  baptizing  little  children,  is  by  no  means  to  be  disregarded,  nor  ac- 
counted as  in  any  measure  superfluous.  Neither,  indeed,  is  it  to  be 
regarded  as  any  other  than  an  apostolical  tradition."  *  This  he  also 
declares  to  be  the  practice  of  the  whole  church,  not  instituted  by 
councils,  but  always  observed,  "  quod  universa  tenet  ecclesia  nee 
conciliis  institutum,  sed  semper  retentum." 

Omitting  other  authorities,  we  go  back  into  the  third  century.  In 
the  time  of  Cyprian  there  arose  in  Africa  a  question  whether  a  child 
might  be  baptized  before  the  eighth  day,  or  not,  Fidus,  a  country 
bishop,  referred  the  inquiry  to  a  council  of  sixty-six  bishops,  con- 
vened under  Cyprian,  A.  D.  253,  for  their  opinion.  To  this  inquiry 
they  reply  at  length,  delivering  it  as  their  unanimous  opinion  that 
baptism  may,  with  propriety,  be  administered  at  any  time  previous 
to  the  eighth  day.  No  question  was  raised  on  the  point  whether 
children  ought  to  be  baptized  at  all  or  not.     In  this  they  were  unani- 

*  Consuetudo  tamen  matris  ecclesiae,  in  baptizandis  parvulis  nequaquam 
spernenda  est,  neque  ullo  modo  superflua  disputanda  ;  nee  oninino  creden- 
da,  nisi  apostolica  esse  traditio. — Dc  Gencsi  ad  Liieram,  lib.  10. 


262  OF  BAPTISM, 

mously  agreed.  This  passage  is  quoted  by  Rheinvvald,^  to  show 
that  the  church  in  Africa,  in  the  third  century,  maintained  the  abso- 
lute necessity  of  infant  baptism.     It  is  given  in  the  note  below.* 

The  authority  of  Origen  brings  us  still  nearer  to  the  age  of  the 
apostles.  This  eminent  father  was  born  in  Egypt  of  christian  pa- 
rents, A.  D.  185,  and  was  himself  baptized  at  an  early  age,  if  not  in 
childhood,  or  in  infancy,  as  many  suppose.  He  resided  in  Alexan- 
dria, in  Cappadocia,  and  in  Palestine.  He  travelled  in  Italy,  Greece, 
and  Arabia,  and  must  have  been  in  correspondence  with  the 
churches  in  every  country.  He  is  equally  distinguished  for  his 
great  learning,  his  piety,  and  his  love  of  truth.  He  is  therefore  an 
unexceptionable  and  competent  witness  in  this  matter.  What  is  his 
testimony  ?  It  is,  "  that  little  children  are  baptized  agreeably  to  the 
usage  of  the  church  ;   that  the  church  received  it  as  a  tradition  from 


*  Quantum  vero  ad  causam  infantiutn  pertinet,  quos  dixisti  intra  secun- 
dum vel  tertium  diem,  quo  nati  sint,  constitutos  baptizari  non  oportere  et 
considerandani  esse  legem  circumcisionis  antiquae,  ut  intra  octavum  diem 
eum,qui  natns  eta,  baptizandum  et  sanctificandum  non  putares  j  longe  aliud 
in  concilio  nostro  omnibus  visum  est. —  Universi  judicavimus,  nulli  homini 
nato  misericordiam  Dei  et  gratiam  denegandam.  Nam  cum  Dominus  in 
evangelic  suo  dicat :  filius  hominis  non  venit  animas  hominum  perdere,  sed 
salvare,  quantum  in  nobis  est,  si  fieri  potest,  nulla  anima  perdenda  est.  — 
Nam  Deus  ut  personam  non  accipit,  sic  nee  aetatem,  cum  se  omnibus  ad 
coelestis  gratiae  consecutionem  aequalitate  librata  praebeat  patrem.  Nam 
et  quod  vestigium  infantis  in  primis  partus  sui  diebus  constituti,  mundum 
non  esse  dixisti,  quod  unusquisque  nostrum  adhuc  horreat  exosculari,  nee 
hoc  putamus  ad  coelestem  gratiam  dandam  impedimento  esse  oportere. 
Scriptum  est  enim  :  omnia  munda  sunt  mundis.  Nee  aliquis  nostrum  id 
debet  horrere,  quod  Deus  dignatus  est  facere.  Nam  etsi  adhuc  infans  a 
partu  novus  est,  non  ita  est  tamen,  ut  quisquam  ilium  in  gratia  danda 
atque  in  pace  faeienda  horrere  debeat  osculari  ;  quando  in  osculo  in- 
fantis unusquisque  nostrum  pro  sua  religione  ipsas  adhuc  recentes  Dei 
manus  debeat  cogitare,  quas  in  homine  modo  formato  et  recens  nato  quodam- 
modo  exoscularaur,  quando  id,  quod  Deus  fecit,  amplectimur. —  Ceterum  si 
homines  impedire  aliquid  ad  consecutionem  gratiae  posset,  magis  adultos  et 
provectos,  et  majores  natu  possent  impedire  peccata  graviora.  Porro  autem 
si  etiam  gravissimis  delictoribus  et  in  Deum  multum  ante  peccantibus,  cum 
postea  crediderint,  remissa  peccatorum  datur,  et  a  baptismo  atque  a  gratia 
nemo  prohibetur,  quanto  magis  prohiberi  non  debet  infans,  qui  recens  natus 
nihil  peccavit,  nisi  quod  secundum  Adam  carnaliter  natus  contagium  mortis 
antiquae  prima  nativitate  contraxit,  qui  ad  remissam  peccatorum  accipien- 
dam  hoc  ipso  facilius  accedit,  quod  illi  remittuntur,  non  propria,  sed  aliena 
peccata. — Cyprian  cp.  59  ad  Fidum. 


INFANT  BAPTISM.  263 

ihe  apostles,  that  baptism  should  be  administered  to  children."* 
Origen  lived  within  a  century  of  the  apostolic  age,  and,  according 
to  Eusebius,  lib.  6.  c.  19,  received  this  tradition  from  his  own  pious 
ancestry,  who,  of  the  second  or  third  generation  from  him,  must 
have  been  contemporary  with  the  apostles  themselves.  This  explicit 
testimony  of  Origen,  in  connection  with  that  of  Augustine  of  the  uni- 
versal practice  of  the  church,  is,  in  the  opinion  of  the  paedo-baptists, 
strong  evidence  that  infant  baptism  is  an  ordinance  established  by 
the  authority  of  the  apostles. 

We  come  ne.xt  to  Tertullian,  He  objects  strongly  to  the  hasty 
administration  of  baptism  to  children,  and  inveighs  against  the  su- 
perstition of  the  age  in  this  respect  in  such  a  manner  as  to  show, 
beyond  dispute,  the  prevalence  of  the  custom  in  his  days.  "  Accord- 
ing to  the  condition,  disposition,  and  age  of  each,  the  delay  of  bap- 
tism is  peculiarly  advantageous,  especially  in  the  case  of  little  chil- 
dren, parvulos.  Why  should  the  godfathers  [of  these  baptized  chil- 
dren] be  brought  into  danger  ?  For  they  may  fail  by  death  to  fulfil 
their  promises,  or  through  the  perverseness  of  the  child.  Our  Lord 
indeed  says, '  Forbid  them  not  to  come  unto  me.'  Let  them  come 
then  when  of  adult  age.  Let  them  come  when  they  can  learn  ; 
when  they  are  taught  why  they  come.  Let  them  become  Christians 
when  they  shall  have  learned  Christ.  Why  hastens  that  innocent 
age  to  the  forgiveness  of  sins  [by  baptism]  >  In  worldly  things  men 
observe  greater  caution,  so  that  he  is  intrusted  with  divine  things,  to 
whom  those  of  earth  are  not  confided."! 

*  Addi  his  etiam  potest,  ut  requiratur  quid  causae  sit,  cum  baptisma  eccle- 
siae  pro  remissione  peccatorum  detur  sccunduvi  ecdesiae  observanliam  etiam 
parvulis  dari  baptlsmum.   Homil.  8.  in  Levit.  Opp.  T.  VI.  p.  137.  ed.  Olerth. 

Ecclesia  ab  apostolis  traditionem  suscepit,  etiam  parvulis  baptismum  dare. 
Sciebant  enim  illi,  quibus  mysteriorum  secreta  commissa  sunt  divinorum, 
quia  essent  in  omnibus  genuinae  sordes  peccati,  quae  per  aquam  et  spiritura 
ablui  deberent:  propter  quas  etiam  corpus  ipsum  corpus  peccati  nominatur. 
—In  Rom.  L.  V.  c.  9. 

t  Pro  cujusque  personae  conditione  ac  dispositione,  etiam  aetate,  cuncta- 
tio  baptismi  utilior  est ;  praecipue  tamen  circa  parvulos.  Quid  enim  neces- 
se  est,  sponsores  etiam  periculo  ingeri  ?  Quia  et  ipsi,  per  mortalitatem  des- 
tituere  promissiones  suas  possunt,  et  proventu  make  indolis,  falli.  Ait  qui- 
dem  Dominus,  "  Nolite  illos  prohibere  ad  me  venire."  Veniant  ergo,  dum 
adolescant.  Veniant,  dum  discunt;dum,  quo  veniant,  docentur.  Fiant 
christiani  quum  Christum  nosse  potuerint.  Quid  festinat  innocens  aetas  ad 
remissionem  peccatorum?  Cautius  agitur  in  secularibus  ;  ut  cui  substan- 
tia terrena  non  creditur,  divina  credatur.— I>e  Baptisvw,  c.  18. 


264  OF  BAPTISM. 

Whatever  were  the  particular  views  of  Tertullian  on  other  reli- 
gious subjects,  he  is  sufficiently  explicit  in  opposing  infant  baptism 
as  a  prevailing  custom.  He  flourished  some  years  before  Origen, 
and  in  less  than  one  hundred  years  of  the  apostolic  age.  Within 
this  brief  period  it  appears,  therefore,  that  the  rite  of  infant  baptism 
is  observed  with  such  superstitious  care  as  to  call  forth  from  him 
these  severe  animadversions — and  that  too,  without  any  intimation 
that  his  own  church  is  peculiar  in  their  observance  of  this  rite,  or 
that  there,  was  any  example  in  favor  of  the  correction  for  which  he 
pleads.  Indeed,  it  deserves  particular  notice  that  Tertullian  neither 
refers  to  the  authority  of  Scripture,  nor  to  the  usage  of  the  church 
in  opposition  to  the  baptism  of  infant  children.  Is  it  possible  that 
this  father  of  tradition  could  have  overlooked  so  important  a  point 
had  there  been  any  authority,  usage,  or  tradition,  in  favor  of  his  own 
peculiar  views  ? 

Next  in  order,  and  at  an  age  still  nearer  to  the  apostles  lived  Ire- 
naeus,  bishop  of  Lyons.  By  some  he  is  believed  to  have  been  born 
before  the  death  of  John  the  Evangelist,  others,  perhaps  with  great- 
er probability,  assign  this  event  to  a  period  somewhat  later.  It  is 
however  agreed  that  he  lived,  in  early  life,  in  Asia  Minor,  and  en- 
joyed the  friendship,  and  received  the  instructions  of  Polycarp,  the 
disciple  of  John.  He  therefore  received  apostolical  instructions 
through  the  tradition  of  a  single  individual,  the  venerable  martyr, 
Polycarp.  What  then  does  he  say  in  relation  to  the  subject  before 
us  ? — That  Christ  "  came  to  save  all  persons  through  himself — all, 
I  say,  who  through  him  are  regenerated  unto  God ;  infants,  and  little 
ones,  and  children,  and  youth,  and  the  aged.  Therefore,  he  passed 
through  the  several  stages  of  life,  being  made  an  infant  for  infants, 
that  he  might  sanctify  infants  ;  and  for  little  ones  a  little  one,  to  sanc- 
tify them  of  that  age."* 

The  relevancy  of  this  celebrated  passage  turns  wholly  on  the 
meaning  of  the  phrase— regenerated  unto  God.  If  in  this  expression, 
the  author  has  reference  to  baptism.,  nothing  can  be  plainer  than  that 
the  passage  relates  to  infant  baptism.     It  is  indeed  a  vexed  passage. 

*  Oinne3  venit  per  semetipsum  salvare,  omnes  inquam,  qui,  per  eum,  re- 
nasmntur  in  Dcrim  ;  infantes,  et  parvulos,  et  piieros,  et  juvenes,  et  seniores. 
Ideo  per  omnem  venit  aetatem  ;  et  infantibus,  infans  factus,  sanctificans  in- 
fantes;  in  parvulis,  parvulus  ;  sanctificans  hanc  ipsam  habentes  aetatem. — 
Lib.  2.  c.  39.  (Lib.  2.  c.  22.  §  4.) 


INFANT  BAPTISM.  265 

But  it  has  been  shown  by  writers  on  this  subject,  that  this  form  of 
expression,  ?'C?Jcrsnm/?<r  in  Drum,  regenerated  unto  God,  was  famil- 
iar lo  Irenaeiis,  and  to  the  fathers  generally,  as  denoting  baptism. 
Irenaeus  himself,  in  referring  to  our  Lord's  commission  to  his  dis- 
ciples, says  :  "  When  he  gave  his  disciples  this  commission  of  regen- 
erating unto  God,  he  said  unto  them, '  Go  and  teach  all  nations,  bap- 
tizing them  in  the  name  of  the  Father  and  of  the  Son  and  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,"  Lib.  3.  c.  19.  Here  the  commission  of  regenerating 
unto  God,  is  supposed  to  relate  to  the  act  of  baptizing.  Baptism, 
according  to  the  7<5?/.? /o(/'ira(Zi  of  the  age,  was  regeneration.  This 
Neander  himself  admits  in  commenting  on  the  above  passage  from 
Irenaeus,  which  he  receives  as  valid  and  incontrovertible  proof  of 
the  practice  of  infant  baptism  at  this  early  age.  Rheinwald  also  con- 
curs with  him  in  opinion.  Neander's  opinion,  as  already  stated,  is, 
that  the  ordinance  was  not  instituted  by  Christ;  neithercan  it  be  proved 
to  have  been  instituted  by  the  apostles.  Not  proved  indeed  by  pos- 
itive testimony.  And  yet,  within  the  space  of  one  century,  it  is,  for 
aught  that  appears  to  the  contrar)',  in  general  practice  as  an  author- 
ized usage  of  the  church.  When  was  it  introduced  if  not  by  the  apos- 
tles ?  And  by  whose  authority,  if  not  by  theirs  ?  To  these  impor- 
tant inquiries  all  history  is  silent,  assigning  no  time  for  its  first  intro- 
duction, nor  revealing  the  least  excitement,  controversy,  or  opposi- 
tion to  an  innovation  so  remarkable  as  this  must  have  been  if  it  was 
obtruded  upon  the  churches  without  the  authority  of  the  apostles. 
How,  especially,  could  this  have  been  effected  in  that  age  which  ad- 
hered so  strictly,  even  in  the  smallest  things,  to  ancient  usage,  (see 
p.  230,  §  2),  and  which  was  so  near  to  the  apostles  that  their  usa- 
ges and  instructions  must  have  been  distinctly  known  by  tradition.? 
Or  how  could  the  change  have  been  effected  in  so  short  a  space  of 
time  ?  Hath  a  nation  changed  their  gods  in  a  day  ?  Have  they  in 
a  day  changed  any  cherished  institution  ?  Far  from  it.  Their  tra- 
ditionary usages  are  a  fair  record  of  their  former  institutions.  We 
have  received  by  tradition  and  usage,  aside  from  all  historical  re- 
cords, the  sentiments  and  practice  of  our  pilgrim  forefathers,  in  re- 
lation to  baptism;  whilst  the  dissent  of  Roger  Williams  is  recorded 
in  the  institutions  of  another  church,  in  lineaments  more  lasting  than 
the  perishable  records  of  the  historian,  and  yet  Tertullian,  Origen, 
and  Irenaeus  were  removed  from  the  apostolic  age  but  about  half  the 
distance  at  which  we  stand  from  tliat  of  our  forefathers. 
34 


266  OF  BAPTISM. 

There  is  yet  one  argument  that  is  strictly  historical,  and  may, 
with  propriety,  be  mentioned  in  this  place.  It  is  drawn  from  the 
practice  of  household-baptism,  as  related  in  the  Scriptures.  This 
argument  rests  not  merely  upon  the  inquiry  whether,  in  the  instan- 
ces recorded  in  the  New  Testament,  there  were  children  belonging 
to  those  particular  households.  But  upon  these  examples  which  evi- 
dently authorize  the  administration  of  the  ordinance  to  families  col- 
lexiively.  The  repeated  and  familiar  mention  of  household-baptism, 
implies  that  it  was  a  common  usage  to  administer  the  ordinance  to 
whole  families,  or  households  collectively.  Now  if  this  is  an  usage 
authorized  by  the  example  of  the  apostle,  it  is  a  valid  argument  for 
infant  baptism.  Children  usually  constitute  a  part  of  a  household  ; 
and  baptism  by  households,  of  necessity,  implies  infant  baptism. 

The  authority  of  Justin  Martyr  is  relied  on  by  many.  In  his  se- 
cond apology,  written  about  A.  D.  160,  he  says,  "There  are  many 
persons  of  both  sexes,  some  sixty,  some  seventy,  and  some  eighty 
years  old,  who  were  made  disciples  to  Christ  in  their  childhood, 
at,  iy.  naldwv  ifia&TjTBvdijaav  tw  /^iOTw.^  Some,  or  all  of  these,  were 
baptized  in  the  age  of  the  apostles,  and  several  considerations  are 
urged  from  this  author  himself,  to  show  that  the  phrase  in  naidrnv  re- 
lates strictly  to  children  in  their  infancy.  It  would,  indeed,  be  the 
appropriate  and  natural  expression  if  such  were  his  meaning,  but  it 
is  also  applicable  to  children  and  youth  of  a  greater  age. 

Other  authorities  are  sometimes  drawn  from  the  Shepherd  of  Her- 
mas,^  and  Clemens  Eomanus  ;^  but  these  are  too  equivocal,  and  in- 
volved in  too  much  uncertainty,  to  be  relied  on  in  an  argument  of 
this  kind.      Tenehris  nigrescunt  omnia  circum. 

The  foregoing  are  the  most  important  historical  authorities  in  fa- 
vor of  infant  baptism,  as  an  usage  of  the  primitive  church.  They 
have  long  been  before  the  public.  They  have  been  a  thousand  times 
summoned  and  marshalled  for  the  onset,  and  a  thousand  times  contest- 
ed, and  still  the  conflict  continues  as  undecided  as  ever.  There  they 
are,  however,  on  the  records  of  history,  unchallenged,  unimpeached, 
and  there  they  will  be  forever — the  unhappy  subject  of  controversy 
and  division  to  kindred  in  Christ  who,  else,  had  been  one  in  sentiment 
and  in  name,  as  they  still  are  in  all  other  essential  points  of  faith  and 
practice. 

From  a  very  early  period,  extravagant  notions  were  entertained 
of  the  supernatural  power  and  efficacy  of  baptism.     It  was  supposed 


LIMITATIONS  AMD  EXCEPTIONS.  267 

lobe  a  virtualregeneration— the  death  of  sin,  and  the  imprinting  of 
an  indelible  character  upon  the  soul.  Still  its  moral  tendency  was  not 
forgotten  ;  but  it  was  regarded  by  ihe  church  as  an  important  means  of 
moral  discipline.  Accordingly  the  general  rule  of  baptizing  all  ap- 
plicants was  practically  subject  to  certain  limitations  and  exceptions. 
Such  as  the  following  : 

1.  It  was  enacted  that  none  but  the  living  should  be  baptized-a 
law  which  intimates  that  this  ordinance  was  sometimes  administered 
to  the  dead.  Such  indeed  was  the  custom  of  the  church  in  Africa 
in  the  fourth  century,  as  appears  from  the  decrees  of  their  councils 
in  which  it  is  forbidden.6  it  appears  also  to  have  been  the  practice 
of  some  of  the  Cataphrygiaus  or  Montanists.^ 

2.  The  vicarious  baptism  of  the  living  for  the  dead  may  also  be 
mentioned  in  this  place.  Several  religious  sects,  particularly  the 
Marcionites,  practised  this  rite,  alleging  for  their  authority  a  mis- 
construction of  the  apostle's  language  in  1  Cor.  15:  29.  But  the  cus- 
tom is  severely  censured  by  Tertullian,^  and  by  Chrysostom,^  who 
describes  the  ceremony  as  a  ridiculous  theatrical  farce.  Epipha- 
nius,io  Theodoret,  and  others  understand  the  passage  in  question 
from  1  Cor.  15:  29,  to  relate  to  the  practice  of  baptizing  catechumens 
who  might  be  near  to  death,  before  the  completion  of  their  term  of 
probation  and  preparation. 

3.  The  offspring  of  untimely  and  monstrous  births  appear  not  to 
have  been  the  subjects  of  baptism  in  the  ancient  church.  Such  bap- 
tisms began  in  the  thirteenth  century  to  be  the  subject  of  discussion  in 
ecclesiastical  councils.' i 

4.  It  was  a  disputed  point  in  the  ancient  church,  whether  or  not 
demoniacs  and  maniacs  were  proper  subjects  of  baptism.  The  rule 
in  these  cases  seems  to  have  been  that  such  persons  should  not  re- 
ceive baptism  until  they  were  healed  of  their  malady,  although  they 
were  permitted,  in  the  meantime,  to  attend  at  the  preaching  of  the 
word,  and  at  public  prayers  under  the  superintendence  of  the  exor- 
cists ;  and  were  ranked  in  the  first  class  of  catechumens.  Cyprian 
supposed  that  evil  spirits  were  expelled  by  baptism  ;i2  but  he  ap- 
pears not  to  have  authorized  the  administration  of  the  ordinance  to 
such,  except  in  case  of  sickness,  or  of  great  bodily  weakness.  Per- 
sons in  the  near  approach  of  death  were,  in  almost  all  cases,  per- 
mitted to  receive  this  ordinance.'^  These  energumens  were,  how- 
ever, in  some  instances  permitted  to  partake  of  the  Lord's  supper. 


268  OF  BAPTISM. 

And  this  circumstance  affords  the  strongest   proof  that  they  were 
sometimes  baptized.''* 

5.  Baptism  administered  in  cases  of  extreme  sickness,  without  the 
consent  or  consciousness  of  the  patient,  was  considered  valid  ;  and 
yet  such  persons,  as  a  rebuke  to  them  for  delaying  their  duty  in  this 
respect,  if  they  recovered,  were  not  usually  eligible  to  the  highest 
offices  of  the  church.'^ 

6.  The  deaf  and  dumb  were  received  to  this  ordinance,  provided 
they  gave  credible  evidence  of  their  faith. '^ 

7.  In  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries  it  became  customary  to  com- 
pel many  Jews  and  pagans  to  receive  baptism  ;  and  some  instances 
occur  of  compulsory  baptism  of  a  date  still  earlier ;  but  such  in- 
stances of  violence  were  not  authorized  by  the  church. •'^  In  gen- 
eral, the  free  will  and  consent  of  the  individual  was  required  as  a 
condition  of  his  baptism.  In  the  case  of  infants  the  request  of  their 
parents  was  regarded  as  their  own  until  they  arrived  to  years  of  dis- 
cretion, when  they  were  expected  to  acknowledge  it  as  their  own  by 
confirmation. 

8.  Baptism  was  administered  whenever  a  reasonable  doubt  exist- 
ed as  to  its  having  been  administered. ^^ 

9.  Not  only  were  the  openly  immoral  excluded  from  baptism,  but 
generally  all  who  were  engaged  in  any  immoral  and  unlawful  pur- 
suits, such  as  those  who  ministered  to  idolatry  by  manufacturing 
images  or  other  articles  for  purposes  of  superstition,^^  stage-players,20 
gladiators,  wrestlers,  and  all  who  were  addicted  to  theatrical  exhi- 
bitions f^  astrologers,  diviners,  conjurers,  fortune-tellers,  dancing- 
masters,  strolling  minstrels,  etc^- 

The  reason  for  all  these  prohibitions  lay  in  the  immoral  and  idol- 
atrous tendency  of  the  practices  to  which  these  persons  were  addic- 
ted. Many  of  these  practices  were  immoral  and  scandalous  even 
among  the  heathen.  Tertullian  observes,  "  that  they  who  professed 
these  arts  were  noted  with  infamy,  degraded  and  denied  many  pri- 
vileges, driven  from  court,  from  pleading,  from  the  senate,  from  the 
order  of  knighthood,  and  all  other  honors  in  the  Roman  city  and 
commonwealth.  (De  Spectac.  c.  22.)  Which  is  also  confirmed  by 
St.  Austin,  who  says,  that  no  actor  was  ever  allowed  to  enjoy  the 
freedom,  or  any  other  honorable  privilege  of  a  citizen  of  Rome.  (De 
Civ.  Dei.  lib.  ii.  c.  14.)  Therefore  since  this  was  so  infamous  and 
scandalous  a  trade  even  among  the  heathen,  it  is  no  wonder  that  the 


MINISTERS  OF  BAPTISM.  269 

church  would  admit  none  of  this  calling  to  baptism,  without  obliging 
them  first  to  bid  adieu  to  so  ignominious  a  profession.  To  have 
done  otherwise,  would  have  been  to  expose  herself  to  reproach,  and 
to  have  given  occasion  to  the  adversary  to  blaspheme  ;  if  men  of 
such  lewd  and  profligate  practices  had  been  admitted  to  the  privile- 
ges of  the  church,  who  were  excluded  from  the  liberties  of  the  city 
and  the  honors  of  the  commonwealtii.  The  learned  Hieronymus 
Mercurialis,  in  his  discourse  De  Arte  Gymnaslica,  (lib  i.  cap.  ,3.  p. 
12,)  observes,  that '  the  several  sorts  of  heathen  games  and  plays 
were  instituted  upon  a  religious  account,  in  honor  of  the  gods  ;  and 
men  thought  they  were  doing  a  grateful  thing  to  them,  whilst  they 
were  engaged  in  such  exercises.'  " 

With  good  reason,  therefore,  the  church  refused  to  admit  any  of 
this  calling  to  baptism,  unless  they  first  bade  adieu  to  their  ignomini- 
ous pursuits.  To  have  done  otherwise  would  have  exposed  her  to 
reproach,  and  given  occasion  to  the  adversary  to  blaspheme.  The 
ancient  fathers  were  particularly  severe  in  their  invectives  against 
theatrical  exhibitions.  They  declared  it  incompatible  with  the  piety 
and  the  purity  of  christian  life,  either  to  engage  in  them  as  an  actor, 
or  to  attend  them  as  a  spectator.  Tertullian  in  speaking  of  a  chris- 
tian woman  who  returned  from  the  theatre  possessed  with  a  devil, 
makes  the  unclean  spirit,  on  being  asked  how  he  dared  presume  to 
make  such  an  attempt  upon  a  believer,  reply — "  that  he  had  a  good 
right  to  her,  because  he  found  her  upon  his  own  ground."^ 

The  profane  custom  of  baptizing  bells,  etc.  is  a  superstition  that 
was  unknown  to  the  primitive  church.  It  is  first  mentioned  with 
censure  in  the  Capitulars  of  Charlemagne  in  the  eighth  century,  and 
became  prevalent  in  the  latter  centuries. 

§  4.  Ministers  of  Baptism. 

Great  importance  has  ever  been  attached  to  this  ordinance  as  the 
initiatory  rite  of  admission  to  the  church.  But  the  duty  of  adminis- 
tering the  ordinance  does  not  appear  to  have  been  restricted  to  any 
officer  of  the  church.  John  the  Baptist  himself  baptized  them  that 
came  to  him.  But  our  Lord  baptized  none  but  his  disciples.  John 
4:  2.  There  is  indeed  a  tradition  that  our  Saviour  baptized  St.  Pe- 
ter,— that  Peter  baptized  Andrew,  James  and  John  ;  and  that  these 
disciples  administered  the  rite  to  others.^     To  this  tradition  Eoman 


270  OF  BAPTISM. 

Catholic  writers  attach  much  importance,  but  it  rests  on  no  good 
foundation. 

In  some  instances  recorded  in  the  New  Testament,  baptism  was 
administered  under  the  sanction,  and  by  the  immediate  order  of  the 
apostles.  But  it  is  remarkable  that  the  apostles  themselves  are  in 
no  instance  related  to  have  administered  baptism.  No  intimation  is 
given  that  Peter  assisted  in  baptizing  the  three  thousand,  nor  is  it 
probable  that  the  ordinance  could  have  been  administered  to  them  by 
himself  alone.  Acts  2:  41.  He  on\y  commanded  CorneWus  and  his 
family  to  be  baptized.  Acts  10:  48.  Paul  in  1  Cor.  1:  12—17,  and 
Peter  in  Acts  10:  36 — 48,  evidently  describes  the  administration  of 
baptism  as  a  subordinate  office,  compared  with  that  of  preaching 
peace  by  Jesus  Christ. 

On  the  whole,  we  learn  from  the  New  Testament  the  following 
particulars: — 1.  Our  Lord  himself  did  not  baptize,  but  he  intrusted 
his  aposdes  and  disciples  with  the  administration  of  this  rite.  2.  The 
apostles,  though  they  sometimes  administered  baptism  themselves, 
usually  commiticd  this  office  to  others.  3.  It  cannot  be  determined 
whether  other  persons,  either  ministers  or  laymen,  were  allowed  to 
baptize  without  a  special  commission.  4.  Phillip,  the  deacon,  bap- 
tized in  Samaria  men  and  women,  Simon  Magus,  and  the  Ethiopian 
eunuch,  although  no  mention  is  made  of  any  peculiar  commission  for 
this  purpose.  This  he  appears  to  have  received  at  his  consecration 
to  his  office  as  related  Acts  6:  3 — 7. 

Justin  Martyr,  in  his  description  of  this  ordinance,  says  nothing  of 
the  person  by  whom  it  was  administered.  But  in  speaking  of  the 
Lord's  supper  in  the  same  connection,  he  ascribes  both  the  adminis- 
tration of  that  ordinance  and  the  exposition  of  the  Scriptures  to  the 
president  of  the  brethren  ;  from  which  the  supposition  would  seem 
not  altogether  improbable  that  baptism  was  not  administered  by  the 
presiding  officer  of  the  church. 

We  have,  however,  good  evidence  that  after  the  second  century 
the  bishop  was  regarded  as  the  regular  minister  of  baptism.  Even 
Ignatius  declares  that  it  is  not  lawful  either  to  baptize  or  to  adminis- 
ter the  Lord's  supper  without  the  bishop,  x^^Q'?  ^oi^  iniay.onov,  an  ex- 
pression which  implies  the  necessity  of  the  bishop's  authority.^  Ter- 
tullian  says  expressly  that  "  the  bishop  has  the  power  of  administer- 
ing baptism ;  and  next  in  order  the  presbyters  and  deacons,  though 
not  without  the  sanction  of  the  bishop,  that  thus  the  order  and  peace 


TIMES  OF  BAPTISM. 


271 


of  the  church  may  be  preserved."*  He  adds,  that  under  other  cir- 
cumstances  the  laity  may  exercise  this  right ;  but  advises  that  it 
should  be  done  with  reverence  and  modesty,  and  only  in  cases  of 
necessity.  Women  are  utterly  forbidden  by  him  to  exercise  this 
right.  The  Apostolical  Constitutions  accords  this  right  to  bishops 
and  presbyters,  the  deacons  assisting  them  ;  but  denies  the  right  to 
readers  and  singers,  and  other  inferior  officers  of  the  church.^  It  is 
worthy  of  remark  that  here  bishops  and  presbyters  are  placed  on 
an  equality,  whilst  deacons  are  made  subordinate. 

The  sentiments  of  the  Eastern  church  were  coincident  with  those 
of  the  Western  in  relation  to  the  ministers  of  baptism. 

The  officiating  minister,  as  well  as  the  candidate,  was  expected  to 
prepare  himself  for  performing  this  service  by  fasting,  prayer,  and, 
sometimes,  washing  of  the  hands  ;  ^  and  to  be  clothed  in  white.^ 

Lay-baptism  was  undoubtedly  treated  as  valid,  by  the  laws  and 
usages  of  the  ancient  church.  It  is  equally  certain,  however,  that  it 
was'^never  authorized  as  a  general  rule,  but  only  admitted  as  an  ex- 
ception, in  cases  of  emergency. 

§  5.  Times  of  Baptism. 

The  time  of  administering  the  rite  was  subject  to  various  changes 
from  age  to  age,  of  which  the  most  important  are  given  below,  in 
their  chronological  order. 

1.  In  the  apostolic  age  the  administration  of  this  ordinance  was 
subject  to  no  limitations  either  of  time  or  place.  Acts  2:  4.  8:  38. 
9:  18.  10:  47.  16:  33. 

2.  The  account  of  Justin  Martyr  gives  no  definite  information  on 
this  point ;  but  it  would  seem  from  this  author  that  baptism  was  re- 
aarded  as  a  public  and  solemn  act,  suitable  to  be  performed  in  any 
assembly  convened  for  religious  worship.  Tertullian,  however, 
speaks  of  Easter  and  Whitsuntide  as  the  most  appropriate  seasons 
for  administering  this  rite,  and  appeals,  not  to  tradition,  but  to  argu- 
ments of  his  own,  in  confirmation  of  his  opinion.^  Other  writers  re- 
fer to  apostolical  tradition,  and  an  ancient  rule  of  the  church.^ 

3.  In  the  sixth  century,  the  whole  period  between  the  Passover 

"  Baptismum  dandi  habet  jus  summus  sacerdos,  qui  est  episcopus ;  de- 
hinc'  prcsbyteri  et  deaconi ;  non  tanien  sine  episcopi  auctoritate  propter  ec- 
clesiae  honoruin  ;  quo  salvo,  salva  pax  est.^ 


272  OF  BAPTISM. 

and  Pentecost,  and  Easter  and  Whitsuntide  above  mentioned,  were 
established  by  several  councils  as  the  regular  times  for  baptism, 
cases  of  necessity  only  being  excepted."*  The  ordinance,  however, 
was  usually  administered,  by  common  consent,  not  by  any  authority 
of  the  church,  daring  the  night  preceding  these  great  festivals. 
Easter-eve,  or  the  night  preceding  the  great  sabbath,  was  considered 
the  most  sacred  of  all  seasons.  And  this  period,  while  our  Lord  lay 
entombed  in  his  grave,  and  just  before  his  resurrection,  was  re- 
garded as  most  appropriate  for  this  solemn  ordinance,  which  was 
supposed  to  be  deliverance  from  the  power  of  sin  and  consecration  to 
newness  of  life.^    Comp.  Rom.  6:  3. 

The  illuminations  on  this  night,  which  are  mentioned  by  several 
writers,  had  special  reference  to  the  spiritual  illumination  supposed 
to  be  imparted  by  this  ordinance,  which  was  denominated  tpmiafia, 
cpaxKTiioq,  cpa)jiaT)jQLov,  iUuminalion.,  as  has  been  already  mentioned 
in  §  1.  For  similar  reasons  baptism,  which  was  considered  pecu- 
liarly the  sacrament  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  was  regarded  as  appropriate 
on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  Whitsuntide,  commemorative  of  the  descent 
of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

4.  To  the  festivals  above  mentioned,  that  of  Epiphany  was  early 
added  as  a  third  baptismal  season  ;  the  day  on  which  our  Lord  received 
baptism  being  regarded  as  peculiarly  suited  to  the  celebration  of  this 
ordinance.  It  appears  probable,  however,  from  a  sermon  of  Chrysostom 
on  this  festival,^  that  this  was  not  observed  as  a  baptismal  season  by  the 
churches  of  Antioch  and  Constantinople.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  on 
the  other  hand,  appears  to  have  been  acquainted  with  the  custom  of 
baptizing  on  this  day.  It  was  also  observed  in  the  churches  of  Je- 
rusalem and  of  Africa.     In  Italy  and  France  it  was  discountenanced. 

The  churches  of  France  and  Spain  were  accustomed  to  baptize 
at  Christmas,  and  on  the  festivals  of  the  apostles  and  martyrs. 

The  observance  of  these  days  was  not  considered  by  the  churches 
as  essential  to  the  validity  of  baptism,  or  as  an  institution  of  Christ 
or  his  apostles,  but  as  a  becoming  and  useful  regulation.  "  Every 
day  is  the  Lord's,"  says  Tertullian,  "  every  hour,  every  season,  is 
proper  for  baptism." '^ 

From  the  tenth  century  the  observance  of  stated  seasons  for  bap- 
tism fell  into  disuse,  though  a  preference  still  remained  for  the  an- 
cient seasons.  Children  were  required  to  be  baptized  within  a 
month  from  their  birth,  at  eight  days  of  age,  or  as  soon  as  possible. 


PLACE  OK  BAPTISM,  273 

Tlie  church  at  difTerent  times  manifested  a  superstitious  regard  for 
different  hours  of  the  da)^  choosing  sometimes  the  hours  of  our  Sa- 
viour's agony  on  the  cross  ;  at  another,  tlie  hours  from  six  to  twelve  ; 
and  at  another,  from  three  until  six  in  the  afternoon.  These  in  times 
fell  into  disuse.  In  protestant  churches,  no  particular  hour  or  day 
is  observed  for  the  celebration  of  baptism.  It  is,  for  the  most  part, 
administered  on  the  sabbath,  during  divine  worship,  and  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  congregation.  If  upon  another  day  of  the  week,  it, is  to 
be  attended  with  appropriate  religious  solemnities. 

§  6.  Place  of  Baptism. 

All  the  requisite  information  in  regard  to  the  appropriate  place  for 
administering  this  ordinance,  may  be  arranged  under  three  distinct 
periods  of  history.  1.  The  first  ages  of  Christianity.  2.  The 
space  of  time  during  which  baptisteries  detached  from  the  churches 
were  provided  for  this  purpose.  3.  The  period  after  the  disuse  of 
baptisteries,  and  of  stated  seasons  for  baptism. 

First  period.  No  intimation  is  given  in  the  New  Testament  that 
any  place  was  set  apart  for  the  administration  of  baptism.  John  and 
the  disciples  of  Jesus  baptized  in  Jordan,  John  3:  22.  Baptism  was 
also  administered  in  other  streams  of  water.  Acts  7:  36,  37.  16:  1 — 
16,  and  in  private  houses,  Acts  9:  18.  10:  47,  48.  16:  30—34. 
Where  the  three  thousand  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  were  baptized  is 
uncertain. 

The  same  freedom  of  choice  was  also  allowed  in  the  age  immedi- 
ately succeeding  that  of  the  apostles.  Justin  Martyr  says  that  the 
candidates  were  led  out  to  some  place  where  there  was  water,^ 
and  Clement  of  Rome  speaks  of  a  river,  a  fountain,  or  the  sea,  as  a 
suitable  place,  according  to  circumstances,  for  tlie  performance  of 
this  rite.3  Tertullian  says  that  "  it  was  immaterial  where  a  person 
was  baptized,  whether  in  the  sea,  or  in  standing  or  running  water, 
in  fountain,  lake,  or  river."  '^ 

Second  period.  The  first  baptistery,  or  place  appropriated  for 
baptism,  of  which  any  mention  is  made,  occurs  in  the  history  of  the 
fourth  century,  and  this  was  prepared  in  a  private  house. ^  Euse- 
bius  probably  speaks  of  similar  baptisteries,  though  under  another 
name.^  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  speaks  of  the  baptisteries  in  his  day  as 
divided  into  two  parts,  outer  and  iuner,'^     In  the  former  part,  prepa- 

35 


274  OF  BAPTISM. 

ration  was  made  for  baptism  ;  in  the  latter,  it  was  administered. 
Ambrose  speaks  of  a  similar  division;^  and  Augustine  of  a  part 
appropriated  to  women.^  These  baptisteries  became  general  in  the 
fifth  and  sixth  centuries.  They  were  sometimes  so  spacious  that 
ecclesiastical  councils  were  held  in  them.  Some  idea  of  their  size 
may  be  formed,  when  we  recollect  that  in  some  places,  as  Antioch, 
no  less  than  three  thousand  persons  of  both  sexes  received  baptism 
in  a  single  night.  The  laws  both  of  church  and  state  required  that 
baptism  should  be  administered  only  in  these  places. 

The  common  name  of  these  edifices  was  ^umLaTrjgiov.  It  is  also 
called  (pwiidirigiov,  aula  baptismalis,  xokv^lSti&Qa,  or  piscina,  the  font, 
etc. 

Each  diocese  had,  usually,  but  one  baptistery.  The  number, 
however,  was  sometimes  increased.  But  a  preference  was  uniformly 
given  to  the  cathedral  baptistery.  This  was  styled  the  mother  chirch, 
inasmuch  as  the  children  were  there  born  by  baptism. i*^ 

Third  period.  In  process  of  time  these  baptisteries  became 
greatly  multiplied  and  were  united  to  parish  churches,  or  rather, 
were  themselves  constituted  such.  The  precise  period  of  time  when 
this  change  took  place  cannot  be  determined.  In  general,  it  was 
after  the  prevalence  of  infant-baptism,  when  baptismal  fonts  only 
were  necessary,  when  stated  seasons  of  baptism  were  discontinued, 
and  the  right  of  administering  the  ordinance  was  conceded  to  the 
clergy  indiscriminately. 

§  7.  Element  for  baptism. 

The  church  with  great  uniformity  has  maintained  that  water  is  the 
only  appropriate  element  for  baptism.  But  several  of  the  fathers 
very  early  advanced  notions  respecting  the  actual  presence  of  the 
Spirit  in  the  water,  strikingly  analogous  to  the  modern  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation,  and  sought  out  many  fanciful  reasons,  why  water 
should  be  used  as  the  emblem  of  the  Spirit.  This  water  acquired 
in  their  opinion,  as  it  would  seem,  a  spiritual  virtue,  derived  from 
the  real  presence  of  the  Spirit  residing  in  the  water.i  In  case  of 
necessity,  baptism  with  wine  was  allowed,  but  not  in  the  earliest 
ages  of  the  church.  The  schoolmen  wearied  themselves  with  vain 
discussions  respecting  the  validity  of  baptism  with  wine,  and  milk, 
and  brandy,  and  almost  every  conceivable  element. 


MODE  AND  FORM  OF  BAPTISM,  275 

The  baptismal  water  was  exorcised,  and  consecrated  by  religious 
rites,  and  by  prayer,  before  it  was  used  in  baptism.^ 

§  8.  Mode  and  Form  of  Baptism.^ 

To  this  head  belong,  1.  The  manner  in  which  the  candidate  for 
baptism  received  the  appointed  element,  ?t'a/er.  2.  The  ceremonies 
observed  by  the  officiating  persons  in  administering  the  ordinance. 
In  regard  to  both  of  these  points,  considerable  difference  of  opinion 
and  usage  prevailed  in  the  ancient  church,  from  a  very  early  period  ; 
nor  are  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches,  to  this  day,  agreed  in 
this  matter.  This  difference,  however,  has  uniformly  been  treated 
as  of  less  importance  by  the  latter,  than  by  the  former  church. 

1.  Immersion  or  dipping.  In  the  primitive  church,  this  was  un- 
deniably the  common  mode  of  baptism.  The  utmost  that  can  -be 
said  of  sprinkling  in  that  early  period  is  that  it  was,  in  case  of  neces- 
sity, permitted  as  an  exception  to  a  general  rule.  This  fact  is  so 
well  established  that  it  were  needless  to  adduce  authorities  in  proof 
of  it.  The  reader  will  be  directed  to  them  by  reference  to  the  in- 
dex of  authorities  ;-  but  there  are  some  points  in  connection  with 
this  rite  which  require  particular  attention. 

It  is  a  great  mistake  to  suppose  that  baptism  by  immersion  was 
discontinued  when  infant  baptism  became  prevalent.  This  was  as 
early  as  the  sixth  century  ;  but  the  practice  of  immersion  continued 
until  the  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  century.  Indeed  it  has  never  been 
formally  abandoned  ;  but  is  still  the  mode  of  administering  infant 
baptism  in  the  Greek  church. 

Trine  immersion  was  early  practised  in  the  church.  The  sacra- 
mentary  of  Gregory  the  Great  directs  that  the  person  to  be  baptized 
should  be  immersed  at  the  mention  of  each  of  the  persons  of  the 
Trinity,  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost.^  Tertullian  says, 
"  We  receive  the  water  of  baptism  not  merely  once,  but  three  times, 
at  the  mention  of  each  of  the  persons  of  the  Holy  Trinity  ;"■*  and 
again,  "  We  are  plunged  thrice  in  the  water  of  baptism."  Basil  the 
Great,^  Jerome,^  and  Ambrose,"  believed  this  custom  to  have  been 
introduced  by  the  apostles,  though  no  authority  for  this  supposition  is 
found  in  the  New  Testament.  Other  of  the  fathers  supposed  the 
practice  of  trine  immersion  to  refer  not  to  the  three  persons  in  the 
Godhead,  but  to  the  three  great  events,  which  completed  the  work 
of  our  redemption, — the  death,  resurrection,  and  ascension  of  Christ.^ 


276  OF  BAPTISM. 

Single  immersion  was  at  times  considered  valid.  This  decision 
was  given  by  Gregory  the  Great,  in  a  controversy  with  the  Arians 
in  Spain,  who  maintained  that  trine  immersion  denoted  three  grada- 
tions in  the  Godhead.  Gregory,  on  the  contrary,  declared  baptism 
by  single  immersion  to  be  valid,  and  aptly  significant  of  the  xmity  of 
the  Deity .9  This  division  was  afterwards  confirmed  by  the  council 
ofToledo.io 

In  the  early  centuries,  all  persons  who  received  baptism  were  com- 
pletely undressed,  without  distinction  of  age  or  sex  ;ii  this  circum- 
stance was  thought  to  be  emblematical  of  the  putting  off  of  the  old 
man,  and  the  putting  on  of  the  new, — the  putting  away  of  the  defile- 
ments of  the  flesh,  etc.  A  sense  of  decency  at  length  prevailed 
against  this  unaccountable  superstition,  and  it  was  by  degrees  dis- 
continued. 

*2.  Aspersion  or  Sprinkling.  After  the  lapse  of  several  centuries 
this  form  of  baptism  gradually  took  the  place  of  immersion  without 
any  established  rule  of  the  church,  or  formal  renunciation  of  the 
rite  of  immersion.  The  form  was  not  esteemed  essential  to  the  va- 
lidity of  the  ordinance. 

The  Eastern  church  however,  in  direct  opposition  to  these  views, 
has  uniformly  retained  the  form  of  immersion  as  indispensable  to  the 
validity  of  the  ordinance,  and  repeated  the  rite  whenever  they  have 
received  to  their  communion  persons  who  had  been  previously  bap- 
tized in  another  manner.^^ 

In  defence  of  the  usage  of  the  Western  church,  the  following  con- 
siderations are  offered. 

1.  The  primary  signification  of  the  word  cannot  be  of  great  im- 
portance, inasmuch  as  the  rite  itself  is  typical,  and  therefore  derives 
its  importance,  not  from  the  literal  import  of  the  phrase,  but  from 
the  significancy  and  design  of  the  ordinance. 

2.  Though  no  instance  of  baptism  by  sprinkling  is  mentioned  in 
the  New  Testament,  yet  there  are  several  cases  in  which  it  is  hardly 
possible  that  it  could  have  been  administered  by  immersion,  Acts 
10:  47,  48.  16:  32,  33.  2:  41. 

3.  In  cases  of  emergency,  baptism  by  aspersion  was  allowed  at  a 
period  of  high  antiquity.  Cyprian  especially  says,  that  this  was 
legitimate  baptism  when  thus  administered  to  the  sick.  When  per- 
formed in  faith  on  the  part  of  the  minister  and  the  subject,  he  main- 


MODE  AND  FORM  OF  BAPTISM. 


277 


tains  that  the  whole  is  done  with  due  fidelity,  and  agreeably  to  the 
majesty  of  the  divine  character.* 

This  form  was  also  admitted  when  the  baptismal  font  was  too 
small  for  the  administration  of  the  rite  by  innmersion  ;'4  and,  gen- 
erally,  considerations  of  convenience,  and  of  health  and  climate  are 
mentioned  as  having  influence  in  regard  to  the  form  of  administer- 
ing the  ordinance.t 

Aspersion  did  not  become  general  in  the  West  until  the  thiiteenth 
century,  though  it  appears  to  have  been  introduced  some  time  before 
that  period,  Thomas  Aquinas  says  :  it  is  safer  to  baptize  by  im- 
mersion, because  this  is  the  general  practice.  Tutius  est  baptizare 
per  modum  immersionis,  quia  hoc  habet  communis  usus.'"^ 

For7n  of  Words  used  at  Baptism. 

From  the  time  of  Justin  Martyr  and  the  Apostolical  Constitutions 
the  liturgical  books  of  all  religious  denominations  have  retained  one 
and  the  same  form  of  words  ;  though  they  may  have  disagreed  in  iheir 
explanation  of  the  form,  they  have  still  retained  it  unaltered.  Even 
those  who  deny  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  retain  the  same  form ; 
so  that  Augustine  says  :  it  were  easier  to  find  heretics  who  do  not 
baptize  at  all,  than  any  who  do  not  use  this  form  of  words  in  their 
baptism  ;i8  namely, '  I  baptize  thee,  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  the 
Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost.' 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  earliest  fathers,  with  respect  to  this  bap- 
tismal formulary,  do  not  appeal  to  tradition  as  in  many  other  things 
relating  to  baptism  ;  but  to  the  words  prescribed  by  Christ  himself 
To  them  Justin  Martyr  evidently  refers,  though  he  does  not  mention 

*  Unde  apparet  adspersionem  quoque  aquae  instar  salutaris  lavacri  ob- 
tinere,  et  quando  haec  in  ecclesia  fierent  ubi  sit  et  accipieatiset  dantis,  fides 
Integra,  stare  omnia ;  et  consummari  ac  perfici  posse  magislate  Domini  et 
fidei  veritate.*^ 

t  Notandum  non  solum,  mergendo  virumeliam  desuper  fundendo,  multos 
baptizatos  fuisse,  et  adbuc  posse  ita  baptizari  si  necessitas  sit.  Sicut  in  pas- 
sione  S.  Laurentii  quendam,  urceo  allato,  legimus  baptizatum.  Hoc  etiam 
solet  venire  quum  prorectiorum  granditas  corporum  in  minoribus  vasis  hom- 
inem  tingi  non  patitur.'^  Quare  cum  in  ecclesia,  praesertim  locis  septen- 
tionalibus  propter  aeris  frigidilatem  teneris  infantibus  aqua  lotis  facile  noci- 
turam,  adspersio,  vel  potius  adfusio  aquae  usitata  sit;  ideo  haec  baptismi 
forma  retinenda  nee  propter  vitium  adiaphoriae  lites  cum  ecclesiae  scandalo 
movendae.'^ 


278  ■  OF  BAPTISM. 

them  as  a  prescribed  form.i^  Tertullian  represents  it  as  a  definite 
and  prescribed  formulary :  Lex  tingendi  imposita  el  forma  prae- 
scripta.-^ ;  so  also  Cyprian.^i  The  Apostolical  Constitutions  and 
canons  require  the  use  of  this  form,  under  severe  penalties.22 

Instead  of  tig  to  opof.ia,  into  the  name,  the  phrase  in  Acts  2:  38, 
is  ini  TO  ovo^a,  and  in  Acts  10:  48,  iv  to  ovojxa  in  the  name.  The 
same  phraseology  is  familiar  with  the  earliest  of  the  fathers,  as  Ter- 
tullian, and  Ambrose,  and  Cyprian.^^  It  is  also  the  rendering  of  the 
vulgate  ;  but  it  is  uncertain  whether  the  original  gave  occasion  for 
this  latter  usage,  or  whether  it  was  designed  to  be  an  interpretation 
of  the  original  slgzo  ovofia. 

It  was  an  ancient  practice  to  omit  the  word  ovo/ja  ;  but  the  omis- 
sion was  not  supposed  to  vary  the  significancy  of  the  formulary, 
both  being  used  indiscriminately  by  Jerome  and  Tertullian. 

Baptism  in  the  name  of  Christ  alone,  was  regarded  as  valid,  but 
was  discountenanced  as  an  irregularity .^'^ 

In  the  Greek  church  baptism  is  administered  in  the  third  person 
instead  of  the  first,  that  is  to  say,  the  officiating  minister,  instead  of 
saying  "  I  bapiize  thee,"  uses  the  form  "  This  person  is  baptized," 
etc. 

§  9.  Rites  connected  with  Baptism. 

a)   Ceremonies  before  Baptism. 

1.  Catechetical  instruction.  A  solemn  preparation  was  always 
required  before  the  baptism  of  adults  in  the  ancient  church.  This 
preparation  consisted,  in  part,  in  a  course  of  instruction  in  the  lead- 
ing doctrines  and  mysterious  rights  of  their  religion  ;  and  partly  in 
certain  prescribed  exercises  immediately  preceding  the  administra- 
tion of  the  sacred  rite.  The  religious  instructions  were  the  same 
that  have  been  already  detailed  in  treating  of  catechumens,  and  need 
not  be  repeated  in  this  place.  They  are  given  at  length  in  the  Apos- 
tolical Constitutions,  the  Catechism  of  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  the  Ec- 
clesiastical Hierarchy  of  the  Pseudo-Dionysius,  and  the  works  of 
Chrysostom,  Ambrose,  and  Augustine. 

2.  Covenant  or  vow.  A  subscription  to  the  creed  was  required  at 
baptism,  accompanied  with  a  seal.  The  whole  transaction  was  re- 
garded as  a  most  solemn  covenant  on  the  part  of  the  person  baptized, 
by  which  he  publicly,  and  with  many  impressive  formalities,  re- 


RITES  CONNECTED  WITH  BAFTISM.  279 

nounccd  the  world,  the  flesh,  and  the  devil,  and  gave  himself  up  to 
Christ,  to  be  his  forever,  covenanting  henceforth  to  live  in  conform- 
ity with  these  obligations.  To  this  covenant  they  thus  set  their  hand 
and  seal.  By  the  Greeks  this  was  styled  acpQuylg,  and  the  like  ;  by 
the  Latins,  foedus,  pactum,  volum,  etc.,  a  seal,  a  promise,  a  covenant, 
a  vow.  St.  Ambrose  calls  it  a  promise,  a  caution,  an  hand-writing, 
or  bond,  given  to  God,  and  registered  in  the  court  of  heaven,  be- 
cause it  is  made  before  his  ministers,  and  the  angels  who  are  witnes- 
ses to  it.     Many  others  speak  of  it  in  terms  of  similar  import. 

3.  Exorcism.^  This  was  another  preliminary  of  baptism,  derived, 
as  it  would  seem,  from  the  miraculous  powers  exercised  by  the  apos- 
tles in  healing  demoniacs,  and  from  the  words  of  Paul  in  delivering 
over  to  Satan  offending  members  of  the  Church,  1  Cor.  5:  3 — 5,  and 
1  Tim.  1:  20.  The  notions  which  the  Jews  entertained  of  them- 
selves as  a  peculiar  people,  holy  and  consecrated  unto  God,  togeth- 
er with  the  similar  ideas  of  the  putting  away  of  sin  and  Satan  by 
Christians  on  their  conversion  to  God,  had  apparently  much  influ- 
ence in  giving  rise  to  the  superstitious  exorcisms  of  the  ancient 
church. 

The  historical  facts  in  relation  to  baptismal  exorcisms  appear  to 
be  as  folllows  :  1.  In  the  first  century  there  appears  no  trace  of 
any  renunciation  of  the  Devil  in  baptism.  2.  In  the  second  and 
third  centuries,  this  practice  was  in  use,  as  appears  from  the  testimo- 
nies of  Tertullian  and  Cyprian,  as  well  as  from  later  writers  who  ap- 
peal to  tradition.  3.  In  the  fourth  century  the  fathers  speak  of  ex- 
orcism, not  as  being  absolutely  necessary,  nor  as  being  enjoined  in 
the  Scriptures,  but  highly  beneficial,  inasmuch  as  without  it  children 
born  of  christian  parents  would  not  be  free  from  the  influence  of  evil 
spirits.-^ 

Cyril  of  Jerusalem  is  the  first  writer  who  makes  mention  of  the 
form  of  exorcism.  By  him  it  is  detailed  somewhat  at  length.  The 
ceremonies  connected  with  it,  were,  with  the  exception  of  circum- 
stantial variations,  the  following  : 

1.  Preliminary  fasting,  prayers  and  genuflections.  These,  how- 
ever, may  be  regarded  as  general  preliminaries  to  baptism. 

2.  Imposition  of  hands  upon  the  head  of  the  candidate  who  stood 
with  his  head  bowed  down  in  a  submissive  posture.^ 

3.  Putting  ofT  the  shoes  and  clothing,  with  the  exception  of  an  un- 
der garment.'^ 


280  OF  BAPTISM. 

4.  Facing  the  candidate  to  the  west,  which  was  the  symbol  of 
darkness,  as  the  east  was  of  light.^  In  the  Eastern  church  he  was 
required  to  thrust  out  his  hand  towards  the  west,  as  if  in  the  act  of 
pushing  away  an  object  in  that  direction.  This  was  a  token  of  his  ab- 
horrence of  Satan  and  his  works,  and  his  determination  to  resist 
and  repel  them. 

5.  A  renunciation  of  Satan  and  his  works  thus,  "  I  renounce  Sa- 
tan and  his  works,  and  his  pomps  and  his  services,  and  all  things  that 
are  his."^     This  or  a  similar  form  was  thrice  repeated. 

6.  The  exorcist  then  breathed  upon  the  candidate  either  once,  or 
three  times,  and  adjured  the  unclean  spirit  in  the  name  of  the  Fa- 
ther, Son  and  Holy  Ghost,  to  come  out  of  hirn.^ 

This  form  of  adjuration  seems  not  to  have  been  in  use  until  the 
fourth  century  ;  and  these  several  formalities  were  apparently  in- 
troduced gradually  and  at  different  times.  The  whole  ceremony  was 
at  first  confined  to  the  renunciation  of  "  the  Devil  and  his  works"  on 
the  part  of  the  person  about  to  be  baptized. 

4.  Signing  with  the  sign  of  the  cross.  To  this  the  ancients  at- 
tached great  importance  and  ascribed  to  it  a  wonderful  efficacy.  It 
was,  moreover,  the  sign  and  seal  of  faith,  the  surrendry  of  the  can- 
didate up  to  Christ,  and  the  solemn  indication  that  he  had  passed 
from  a  state  of  sin  to  a  slate  of  grace.  It  was  given  after  the  cere- 
mony of  exorcism,  and  immediately  before  baptism,  the  officiating 
person  saying,  "  Receive  thou  the  sign  of  the  cross  upon  thy  fore- 
head and  on  thy  heart. "^ 

5.  Unction  or  anointing  xoith  oil.  There  were  two  anointings, 
one  before  and  one  after  baptism.  The  latter  was  called  by  way  of 
distinction,  chrism.  The  former  immediately  followed  the  signing  of 
the  cross.  Nothing  was  known  of  this  ceremony  until  the  third  or 
fourth  century  ;  nehher  are  writers  agreed  respecting  the  significan- 
cy  of  the  rite.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  says,  "  Men  were  anointed  from 
head  to  foot  with  this  consecrated  oil,  and  this  made  them  partakers 
of  the  true  olive  tree — Jesus  Christ.''''  Others  refer  it  to  the  ancient 
custom  of  anointing  wrestlers  for  the  combat.  Others  suppose  that 
it  assimilated  to  Christ  the  anointed  of  the  Lord  ;  others  again,  that 
it  symbolized  the  anointing  of  the  Spirit.^** 

6.  Use  of  salt,  and  milk,  and  honey.  These  were  generally  ad- 
ministered to  the  candidate,  as  emblems,  as  it  would  seem,  of  spirit- 
ual things,  with  reference  to  the  frequent  mention  of  these  things  in 


RITES  CONNECTED  WITH  BAPTISM.  281 

the  Scriptures.  The  explanations,  however,  are  somewhat  confused 
and  unsatisfactory.  The  emblems  of  milk  and  honey  were  used 
as  early  as  the  third  and  fourth  centuries — that  of  salt  was  introduc- 
ed at  a  later  period. 

(b)   Ceremonies  after  Baptism. 

1.  The  kiss  of  peace.  This  is  mentioned  as  being  usual  on  this 
occasion  as  late  as  the  fifth  century.i^  But  there  is  no  evidence  of 
the  custom  at  a  later  period.  It  was  given  both  to  infants  and  adults. 
It  appears  to  have  been  surperseded  by  the  simple  salutation.  Pax 
tecum!  Peace  be  with  you !    but  at  what  time  is  unknown. 

2.  Chrism.  This  anointing  is  still  in  use  in  the  East.  In  the 
Western  church  it  has  been  transferred  to  the  rites  of  confirmation 
at  a  later  period  after  baptism. ^^ 

3.  Clothing  in  white  apparel.  These  garments  were  worn  as 
emblems  of  purity,  the  putting  away  of  former  defilements,  etc. 
Thus  the  young  disciple  was  arrayed  in  the  white  robes,  in  which 
saints  and  angels  appear  in  heaven.  This  practice  was  in  common 
use  in  the  fourth  century.  The  dress  was  worn  by  the  newly  bap- 
tized from  Easter-eve  until  the  Sunday  after,  which  was  from  this 
circumstance  called  Dominica  in  albis — the  Sunday  in  white,  Whit- 
sunday, Whitsuntide.  These  garments  were  made  usually  of  white 
linen,  but  sometimes  of  more  costly  materials,  and  were  worn  by  the 
person  who  baptized,  as  well  as  by  the  subjects  of  baptism. ^3 

4.  The  burning  of  lighted  tapers.  These  were  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  baptized,  if  adults  ;  if  they  were  infants,  in  the  hands  of 
the  sponsors.  These  tapers  were  emblematical  of  the  illuminating 
power  of  this  ordinance. ^^ 

5.  The  washing  of  the  feet.  This  was  a  favorite  ceremony  in 
some  countries,  at  various  times,  i^ 

6.  The  giving  of  presents,  the  wearing  of  garlands  and  icreaths  of 
flowers,  public  thanksgivings,  singing  of  hymns,  and  baptismalfestivals, 
are  all  mentioned  as  festivities  and  rites  connected  with  this  ordinance. 

The  following  extract  may  be  interesting  to  the  reader,  as  pre- 
senting a  popular  view  of  the  attending  rites  of  baptism  which  have 
been  detailed  above. 

"  The  rite  of  baptism  was  originally  administered  in  a  very  simple 
manner — the  apostles  and  their  contemporaries  contenting  them- 
selves with  an  appropriate  prayer,  and  the  subsequent  application  of 

36 


282  OF  BAPTISM. 

the  element  of  water.  At  an  early  period,  however,  a  variety  of 
ceremonies  was  introduced,  with  the  pious,  though  mistaken  view,  of 
conveying  a  deeper  and  more  solemn  impression  of  the  ordinance, 
and  affording,  by  each  of  them,  a  sensible  representation  of  the 
grand  truths  and  spiritual  blessings  of  which  it  is  significant.  The 
baptismal  season  having  arrived,  those  catechumens  who  were  ripe 
for  baptism,  and  who  were  then  called  competentes,  or  elect,  were 
brought  to  the  baptistery,  at  the  entrance  of  which  they  stopped,  and 
then  mounting  an  elevated  platform,  where  they  could  be  seen  and 
heard  by  the  whole  congregation  of  the  faithful,  each,  with  an  audi- 
ble voice,  renounced  the  devil  and  all  his  works.  The  manner  in 
which  he  did  this,  was  by  standing  with  his  face  towards  the  west, 
and  wiih  some  bodily  gesture,  expressive  of  the  greatest  abhorrence, 
declaring  his  resolution  to  abandon  the  service  of  Satan,  and  all  the 
sinful  works  and  pleasures  of  which  he  is  ihe  patron  and  author. 
This  renunciation  being  thrice  repeated,  the  candidate  elect  turned 
towards  the  east — the  region  of  natural  light,  and  therefore  fit  em- 
blem of  the  Sun  of  Righteousness, — made  three  limes  a  solemn 
promise  and  engagement  to  become  the  servant  of  Christ,  and  sub- 
mit to  all  his  laws.  After  this  he  repeated  the  Creed  deliberately, 
clause  by  clause,  in  answer  to  appropriate  questions  of  the  minister, 
as  the  profession  of  his  faith.  It  was  deemed  an  indispensable  part 
of  the  ceremony,  that  this  confession  should  be  made  audibly,  and 
before  many  witnesses  ;  and  in  those  rare  and  unfortunate  instances, 
where  the  applicants  for  baptism  possessed  not  the  power  of  oral 
communication,  this  duty  was  performed  through  the  kind  offices  of 
a  friend,  who,  testifying  their  desire  to  receive  the  ordinance,  acted 
as  their  substitute.  In  ancient  history,  an  anecdote  is  told  of  an  Af- 
rican negro  slave,  who,  after  having  passed  satisfactorily  through 
the  state  of  catechumen,  and  been  entered  on  the  lists  for  baptism, 
suddenly  fell  into  a  violent  fever,  which  deprived  him  of  the  faculty 
of  speech.  Having  recovered  his  health,  but  not  the  use  of  his 
tongue,  on  the  approach  of  the  baptismal  season,  his  master  bore 
public  testimony  to  his  principles,  and  the  christian  consistency  of 
his  conduct,  in  consequence  of  which  he  was  baptized,  along  with  the 
class  of  catechumens  to  which  he  belonged.  The  profession  of  faith 
being  ended,  and  a  prayer  being  offered,  that  as  much  of  the  element 
as  should  be  employed  might  be  sanctified,  and  that  all  who  were 
about  to  be  baptized  might  receive,  along  with  the  outward  sign,  the 


raXES  CONNECTED  WITH  BAPTISM. 


283 


inward  invisible  -race,  the  minister  breathed  on  them,  symbolically 
conveying  to  them  the  influences  of  the  Holy  Spirit,— an  act  which, 
in  later  times,  was  followed  by  anointing  them  with  oil,  to  indicate 
that  they  were  ready,  like  the  wrestlers  in  the  ancient  games,  to 
fight  the  fight  of  faith.     The  preliminary  ceremonies  were  brought 
to'a  close  by  his  tracing  on  the  foreheads  of  all  the  sign  of  the  cross 
—an  observance  which,  as  was  formerly  remarked,  was  frequently 
used  on  the  most  common  as  well  as  sacred  occasions  by  the  primi- 
tive  Chrislians,-and  to  which   they    attached   a   purely  christian 
meaning,  that  of  living  by  faith  on  the  Son  of  God.     All  things  be- 
ing prepared,  and  the  person  about  to  be  baptized  having  stripped 
of?  his  garments,  the  minister  took  each  by  the  hand,  and  plunged 
him  thrice  under  the  water,  pronouncing  each  time  the  name  of  the 
three  persons  in  the  Godhead.     The  newly  baptized  having  come 
out  of  the  water,  was  immediately  dressed  by  some  attendants  m  a 
pure  white  garment,  which  signified,  that  having  put  off  his  old  cor- 
rupt nature,  and  his  former  bad  principles  and  practices,  he  had  be- 
come a  new  man.     A  very  remarkable  example  of  this  ceremony 
occurs  in  the  history  of  the  celebrated  Chrysostom.     The  conspira- 
tors who  had  combined  to  ruin  that  great  and  good  man  in  Constan- 
tinople, resolved  on  striking  the  first  blow  on  the  eve  of  an  annual 
festival,  at  the  hour  when  they  knew  he  would  be  alone  in  his  vestry, 
preparing  for  his  duty  to  the  candidates  for  baptism.     By  mistake, 
they  did  not  arrive  till  he  had  begun  the  service   in  the  church. 
Healed  with  wine,  and  goaded  on  by  their  malignant  passions,  they 
burst  into  the  midst  of  the  assembly,  most  of  whom  were  young 
persons,  in  the  act  of  making  the  usual  profession  of  their  fahh,  and 
some  of  whom  had  already  entered  the  waters  of  the  baptistery. 
The  whole  congregation  were  struck  with  consternation.     The  cate- 
chumens fled  away  naked  and  wounded  to  the  neighbouring  woods, 
fields,  or  any  places  that  promised  them  shelter  from  the  massacre 
that  was  perpetrating  in  the  city.     And  next  morning,  as  soon  as  it 
had  dawned,  an  immense  meadow  was  seen  covered  all  over  with 
white,-on  examining  which,  it  was  found  to  be  filled  with  catechu- 
mens who  had  been  baptized  the  night  before,  and  who  were  then, 
according  to  custom,  dressed  in  their  white  garments,  amounting  in 
number  to  three  thousand.     Those  white  garments,  after  being  worn 
a  week,  were  thrown  aside,  and  deposited  in  the  antechamber  of  the 
church,  where,  with  the  name  of  the  owner  inscribed  on  each,  they 


284  OF  BAPTI3BI. 

were  carefully  preserved  as  memorials  of  baptism,  ready  to  be  pro- 
duced against  them  in  the  event  of  their  violating  its  vows.  A  memo- 
rable instance  of  this  use  of  them  occurs  in  the  history  of  the  primi- 
tive age.  A  Carthaginian,  who  had  long  been  connected  with  the 
christian  church  of  his  native  city,  at  length  apostatized,  and  joining 
the  ranks  of  its  enemies,  became  one  of  the  most  violent  persecutors 
of  all  who  named  the  name  of  Christ.  Through  the  influence  of 
friends,  he  was  elevated  to  a  high  civil  station,  the  powers  of  which 
he  prostituted  to  the  cruel  and  bloody  purpose  of  persecuting  his  for- 
mer friends.  Among  those  who  were  dragged  to  his  tribunal,  was  a 
deacon,  once  an  intimate  friend  of  his  own,  and  who  had  been  pres- 
ent at  his  baptism.  On  being  put  to  the  rack,  he  produced  the  white 
garments  of  the  apostate,  and  in  words  that  went  to  the  heart  of  all 
the  by-standers,  solemnly  declared  that  these  would  testify  against 
his  unrighteousness  at  the  last  day. 

Immediately  after  the  baptism,  the  new-made  members,  in  their 
snow-white  dress,  took  their  place  among  the  body  of  the  faithful, 
each  of  whom  that  was  near,  welcomed  them  as  brethren  with  the 
kiss  of  peace  ;  and,  as  being  admitted  into  the  family  of  God,  whose 
adopted  children  alone  are  entitled  to  address  Him  as  "  Our  Father," 
they  were  permitted,  for  the  first  time,  publicly  to  use  the  Lord's 
Prayer  and  to  partake  of  the  communion." — Jamieson,  p.  142. 

§  10.  Of  Sponsors — Witnesses  and  Sureties. 

Certain  persons  were  required  to  be  present  at  the  baptism  both 
of  children  and  adults,  as  witnesses  to  the  transaction,  and  as  sureties 
for  the  fulfilment  of  the  promises  and  engagements  then  made  by 
those  who  received  baptism. 

1.  Their  naines  or  appellations.  These  persons  were  first  known 
by  the  name  of  sponsors.  Terlullian  uses  this  term  ;  but  he  uses  it 
only  with  reference  to  infant  baptism,  and  supposes  it  to  refer  both 
to  the  reply,  res/JonsMm,  which  they  gave  in  behalf  of  the  subject  who 
was  unable  to  speak  for  himself;  and  to  a  promise  and  obligation, 
on  their  part,  which  they  assumed  in  behalf  of  the  baptized  for  his  ful- 
filment of  the  duties  implied  in  this  ordinance.^  Augustine  seems 
to  limit  the  duty  of  sponsors  to  the  response  or  answer .^  They  were 
eaWed  fidejussores,Jidediciores,  sureties  ;  names  found  in  Augustine 
and  borrowed   from   Roman  law.-^    'Avadoxoi,  corresponding  to  the 


OF  SPONSORS.  285 

Latin  off'erentes  and  susceptores,  so  called  with  reference  to  the  as- 
sistance rendered  to  the  candidates  at  their  baptism.  This  service 
is  described  by  Dionysius  the  Areopajiite.'*  Chrysostom  uses  the 
word  in  the  sense  of  sureties/'  which  is  authorized  by  classical  au- 
thority.6 

MuQivQEQ,  testes,  witnesses,  a  term  unknown  to  the  ancients,  but 
familiar  in  later  times. 

JJcetEQsg,  /.trjiEQfg,  or  Tiuiigfg,  ^ii^TEQsg  inl  tov  nylov  (fonio^axog,  com- 
patres,  commatres,propatres,promat.res,patrini,  matrini,  godfathers, 
and  godmothers;  patres  spirituales, or  lustrici,s^\n\.\xi\\  fathers,  etc. 

2.  Origin  of  this  office.  It  has  no  foundation  either  in  example 
or  precept  drawn  from  the  Scriptures.  No  mention  is  made  of  the 
presence  of  any  as  witnesses  in  performing  the  rite  of  circumcision, 
nor  in  administering  household  baptism.  Neither  do  the  sacred  wri- 
ters ever  draw  a  parallel  between  circumcision  and  baptism. 

It  was  probably  derived  from  the  customs  of  Roman  law,  by 
which  a  covenant  or  contract  was  witnessed  and  ratified  with  great 
care.  Many  of  the  early  Christians  previous  to  their  conversion  had 
been  conversant  with  Roman  jurisprudence  ;  and  it  may,  very  natu- 
rally, be  supposed  that,  in  ratifying  the  solemn  covenant  of  baptism, 
they  would  require  witnesses  ;  and  adopt,  as  far  as  practicable,  the 
same  formalities  with  which  they  had  been  conversant  in  civil  trans- 
actions. 

The  common  tradition  is  that  sponsors  were  first  appointed  by 
Hyginus  or  Iginus,  a  Roman  bishop,  about  the  year  154.  The  office 
was  in  full  operation  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.  A  time  of  op- 
pression and  persecution  is  likely  to  have  given  rise  to  an  institution 
the  design  of  which  was  to  give  additional  security  and  attestation  to 
the  profession  of  the  christian  religion.  Men  who  made  their  baptis- 
mal vows  in  the  presence  of  witnesses  would  not  be  so  likely  to  deny 
their  relations  to  the  church  as  they  would  if  no  proof  of  their  pro- 
fession could  be  adduced.  On  the  other  hand,  such  sponsors  might 
be  equally  useful  in  preventing  the  introduction  of  unworthy  mem- 
bers into  the  church,  when  the  profession  of  religion  began  to  be 
desired  as  the  means  of  preferment  and  emolument. 

Another  probable  supposition  is,  that  the  office  in  question  took  its 
rise  from  the  necessity  of  having  some  one  to  respond  in  the  behalf 
of  infants,  the  sick,  the  deaf,  and  all  who  were  incapable  of  replying 
to  the  interrogatories  which  were  made  at  baptism.     Slaves  were 


286  OF  BAPTISM. 

not  received  to  baptism  without  the  the  consent  of  their  masters, 
who  in  such  cases  became  their  sponsors  or  godfathers. 

Two  or  three  of  these  witnesses  were  probably  required,  and  their 
names,  as  we  learn  from  Diouysius,  were  entered  in  the  baptismal 
register  with  that  of  the  baptized  person.''' 

3.  Duties  of  the  Sponsors.  Their  duties  were,  to  serve  as  wit- 
nesses of  the  transaction,  and  to  act  as  sureties  for  the  baptized  per- 
sons by  exercising  a  religious  supervision  over  ihem.  The  precise 
nature  and  extent  of  this  supervision  is  involved  in  much  uncertainty, 
and  appears  to  have  varied  at  different  times.  Augustine  requires 
the  godfathers  and  godmothers  to  hold  in  remembrance  their  spiritual 
children,  and  affectionalely  to  watch  over  them  ;  to  preserve  their 
morals  uncorrupted  ;  to  guard  them  from  licentiousness  ;  to  restrain 
them  from  profane  and  wanton  speech,  from  pride,  envy  and  hatred, 
and  from  indulging  in  any  magical  arts ;  to  preserve  them  from 
adopting  heretical  opinions  ;  to  secure  their  habitual  attendance  upon 
religious  worship,  and  a  profitable  hearing  of  the  word  ;  to  accustom 
them  to  acts  of  hospitality,  to  live  peaceably  with  all  men,  and  to 
render  due  honor  to  their  parents,  and  to  the  priesthood.*^ 

The  sponsors  did  not  become  chargeable  with  the  maintenance 
and  education  of  such  persons,  by  assuming  this  guardianship  of  their 
christian  character. 

4.  Persons  who  are  alloiced  to  act  as  sponsors.  On  this  head  a 
diversity  of  opinion  prevails  ;  but  it  will  be  sufficient  for  the  present 
purpose  to  mention  the  principal  rules  and  customs  which  prevailed 
in  the  church  in  relation  to  this  subject. 

1.  The  sponsor  must  himself  be  a  baptised  person  in  regular  com- 
munion with  the  church.  2.  He  must  be  of  adult  age,  and  of  sound 
mind.  3.  He  must  be  acquainted  with  the  fundamental  truths  of 
Christianity.  He  must  know  the  creed,  the  ten  commandments,  the 
Lord's  prayer,  and  the  leading  doctrines  of  faith  and  practice,  and 
must  duly  qualify  himself  for  his  duties.^^  4.  Monks  and  nuns  were, 
in  the  early  periods  of  the  church,  thought  to  be  peculiarly  qualified, 
by  their  sanctity  of  character,  for  this  office  ;'^  but  they  were  exclu- 
ded from  it  in  the  sixth  century. ^^  5.  Parents  were  disqualified  for 
the  office  of  sponsor  to  their  own  children  in  the  ninth  century  ;''* 
but  this  order  has  never  been  generally  enforced. 

The  number  of  sponsors  was  at  first  one.  This  number  was  af- 
terwards increased  to  two,  three  and  four  ;  and  then  again,  dimin- 


NAMES  GIVEN  AT  BAPTISM.  287 

ished  to  one,  or  two  at  the  most.  They  were  usually  required  to  be 
of  the  same  sex  as  those  whose  guardianship  they  assumed.  If  there 
were  three  sponsors,  two  were  of  the  same  sex  as  their  spiritual 
ward,  and  one  of  the  other.  And  this  is  the  prevailing  custom  at 
the  present  day. 

§11.  Of  Names  given  at  Baptism. ^ 

The  naming  of  a  child  has  been  esteemed  a  transaction  of  pecu- 
liar interest  by  all  people,  and  under  every  form  of  religion.  The 
onomatology  of  different  nations  opens  an  important  field  of  investi- 
gation to  the  philologist,  the  historian,  and  the  theological  inquirer, 
for  the  illustration  of  national  peculiarities.  Jews,  Mohammedans 
and  Christians,  all  indicate  the  common  origin  of  their  religion  by 
the  similarity  of  their  names,  drawn  from  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old 
Testament,  such  as  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  Joseph,  Moses,  Joshua, 
Samuel,  Daniel,  Job,  Tobias,  Sarah,  Miriam,  Rebecca,  Hannah,  Su- 
sanna, etc. 

The  Jews  derive  many  names  from  those  who  have  been  distin- 
guished among  the  Levites  and  Pharisees,  as  Levi,  Aaron,  Phineas, 
Ezra,  Nehemiab,  etc. 

Christian  nations,  on  the  contrary,  derive  their  names  from  the 
christian  virtues,  Grace,  Faith,  Temperance,  etc.  ;  also  from  the 
martyrs  and  apostles — Stephen,  Peter,  Paul,  Polycarp,  Matthew, 
Ursula,  Clara,  etc.  Again,  they  compound  names  expressive  of 
reverence  and  affection  for  God  and  for  Christ,  as  Gottlieb,  Gottlob, 
Theophilus,  Christlieb,  etc.,  Beloved  of  God,  God-loving,  etc. 

The  modern  practice  of  giving  the  names  at  baptism  probably 
originated  with  infant  baptism.  It  may  have  been  derived  from  the 
rites  of  circumcision.  No  mention,  however,  is  made  of  this  prac- 
tice either  in  the  New  Testament  or  in  the  early  ecclesiastical  wri- 
ters. Justin  Martyr,  TertuUian,  Origen,  Cyprian,  Constantine,  Am- 
brose, Augustine,  Gregory,  etc.  retained  the  same  names  after  bap- 
tism which  they  had  previously  borne.  But  there  are  not  wanting 
instances  of  a  change  of  name  at  baptism,  about  the  same  period  of 
time.  Stephanus  the  bishop  in  baptizing  two  young  people,  Adria 
and  Paulina,  changed  their  names,  giving  the  former  the  name  of 
Neo,  and  the  latter  that  of  Maria.^  Nemesius,  after  baptism  by  the 
same  person,  retained  his  original  name,  whilst  his  daughter  was 


288  OF  CONFIRMATION. 

called  by  a  new  name,  Lucilla.  Eudokia,  wife  of  Theodosius  the 
emperor,  received  that  name  at  her  baptism.^  Balsamus,  on  being 
asked  his  name,  said,  "  My  surname  is  Balsamus,  hut  my  spiritual 
name,  which  I  received  at  haptism,  is  Peter.'''' 

Whilst  the  system  of  catechetical  instruction  preliminary  to  bap- 
tism continued,  the  name  seemed  to  have  been  designated  some  time 
before  the  administration  of  that  rite  ;  as  appears  from  the  custom, 
often  mentioned  by  writers  of  that  period,  of  entering  the  names  of 
candidates  in  the  baptismal  register.^ 

The  name  was  assumed  by  the  individual  himself,  if  of  adult  age. 
Either  the  parents,  or  sponsors  conferred  the  names  upon  a  child  at 
his  baptism.  The  right  belonged,  appropriately,  to  the  parents. 
The  minister  by  whom  the  rite  was  administered  had,  also,  the  right 
of  refusing  the  names  proposed,  if  it  appeared  to  him  to  be  objec- 
tionable. 


CHAPTER  XV. 


§  1.  Whether  derived  from  apostolic  usage. 

The  controversy  between  the  Catholics  and  Protestants  relating  to 
the  rites  of  confirmation,  has  turned  on  the  inquiry,  whether  they 
are  authorizd  by  the  example  of  the  apostles.  On  this  subject  it  is 
worthy  of  remark,  that  the  aposdes  generally  conferred  imposition 
of  hands  only  upon  baptized  persons,  as  in  the  case  of  the  converted 
Samaritans,  Acts  8:  12 — 17,  and  the  disciples  of  Ephesus,  Acts  19: 
5,  6.  These  instances,  however,  have  reference  to  the  miraculous 
gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Acts  8:  18,  19.  Nothing  is  said  of  the  lay- 
ing on  of  hands  in  the  baptism  of  the  three  thousand,  or  of  Lydia, 
and  the  jailor,  with  their  households.  The  doctrine  of  the  laying  on 
of  hands  is  mentioned  in  Hebrews  6:  2,  immediately  after  that  of 
baptism  ;  but  there  is  no  intimation  that  the  two  transactions  were 
connected.  This  imposition  of  hands,  on  the  contrary,  is  supposed 
to  relate  to  that  practised  in  healing  the  sick,  or  in  ordination. 


CONNECTION  WITH  BAPTISM.  289 

Neither  can  the  unction, /()/(t//«,  of  which  we  read,  1  John  2:27. 
2  Cor.  1:  21,  be  referred  to  the  rite  of  confirmation.  It  mifi;ht  have 
related,  either  to  a  spiritual  anointing,  or  to  the  royal  and  priestly 
dignity  of  Christians,  1  Pet.  2:  9,  or  to  the  communication  of  mira- 
culous gifts. 

The  sealing  of  Christians  mentioned  in  Eph.  1:  13.  4:  30.  2  Cor. 
1:  22,  denotes,  not  their  confirmation,  but  their  conscious  assurance 
of  divine  favor. 

No  authentic  reference  to  confirmation  is  recorded  in  the  earliest 
ecclesiastical  writers.  The  authority  of  Dionysius  is  unworthy  of 
confidence,  and  the  imparting  of  the  seal  of  the  Lord,  as  quoted  by 
Eusebius,^  evidently  relates  to  baptism. 

§  2.  Confirmation  in  connection  with  Baptism. 

Tertullian  informs  us,  that  the  ceremonies  of  unction,  and  the  im- 
position of  hands,  followed  in  immediate  succession  after  baptism, 
together  with  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper.^  The  imposition 
of  hands  in  immediate  connection  with  baptism,  is  also  implied  in 
several  passages  in  Cyprian  ;'*  in  one  of  which  he  speaks  of  it  as 
a  sacrament,  sacramentum,  but  he  evidently  uses  the  term  with  ref- 
erence to  the  rite,  or  ceremony. 

To  cite  passages  from  later  writers  in  proof  of  the  connection  be- 
tween baptism  and  confirmation  would  be  quite  superfluous.^  The 
baptism  of  adults  being  regarded  as  a  solemn  compact  or  covenant, 
confirmation  might  very  naturally  be  expected  to  follow  as  the  seal 
by  which  the  covenant  was  ratified.  For  this  reason,  perhaps,  it 
was  administered,  not  by  the  baptizing  priest  or  deacon,  but  by  the 
bishop. 

At  the  stated  baptismal  seasons  the  bishop  was  chiefly  occupied 
with  the  rites  of  confirmation  ;  but  he  sometimes  administered  also 
the  rites  of  baptism  and  unction.  When  this  ordinance  was  admin- 
istered in  the  absence  of  the  bishop,  confirmation  was  solemnized  at 
some  convenient  season  afterward,  either  by  the  bishop,  or  by  his 
representative.  Accordingly  confirmation  was,  at  times,  delayed 
for  several  years  after  baptism,  especially  in  large  dioceses  ;  which 
were  seldom  visited,  either  on  account  of  their  great  extent,  or  of  the 
indolence  and  negligence  of  the  bishop. 

Even  after  the  general  introduction  of  infant  baptism,  confirma- 
37 


290  OF   CONFIRMATION. 

tion  immediately  succeeded  baptism.  In  the  Oriental  churches,  bap- 
tism, confirmation,  and  the  Lord's  supper,  are  administered  in  im- 
mediate succession  ;  which  is  strong  evidence  that  such  was  the 
ancient  custom.'' 

The  permanent  separation  of  the  rites  of  confirmation  from  those 
of  baptism  cannot  probably  be  assigned  to  an  earlier  date  than  the 
thirteenth  century. 

<§,  3.  Ministers  of  Confirmation,  etc. 

Agreeably  to  the  example  of  the  ancient  church,  and  of  general 
usage,  the  bishop  is  the  appropriate  minister  of  confirmation.  In  de- 
fence of  this  custom,  Chrysostom  and  Augustine  refer  to  the  case  of 
the  Samaritan  converts,  who  were  baptized  by  Phillip,  but  received 
the  imposition  of  hands  from  an  apostle,''  Acts  8:  12 — 17.  Several 
canons  deny  to  the  other  orders  of  the  clergy,  the  right  of  consecra- 
ting f  but  presbyters  were,  in  certain  cases,  authorized  to  adminis- 
ter the  rite ;  such  as  the  absence  of  the  bishop,  or,  in  his  presence 
by  express  permission, — on  the  conversion  of  a  heretic,  if  he  was 
nigh  unto  death  and  the  bishop  were  absent.  Deacons  exercised  the 
same  prerogatives  until  absolutely  forbidden  by  the  council  of  Tole- 
do, A.  D.  400. 

In  the  Latin  church,  after  the  separation  of  baptism  from  con- 
firmation, a  series  of  preliminary  religious  exercises  was  requisite 
for  this  rite,  similar  to  those  which  had  been  previously  required  for 
baptism. 

Names  given  in  baptism  were  sometimes  changed  at  confirma- 
tion. This,  however,  was  merely  an  occasional  practice  of  the  later 
centuries. 

Sponsors,  or  god-fathers,  or  god-mothers,  were  also  required  as  in 
baptism  formerly.  These  might  be  the  same  as  the  baptismal  spon- 
sors, or  others  might  be  substiiuted  in  their  place. 

A  separate  edifice  for  solemnizing  this  rite  was  in  some  instances 
prowded,  caWed  co7isignatoriu7n,  albatorum,  and  chrismarium.  Af- 
ter the  disuse  of  baptisteries,  both  baptism  and  confirmation  were  ad- 
ministered in  the  church,  and  usually  at  the  altar. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  RITE.  291 


§  4.  Administration  of  the  Rite  of  Confirmation. 

Four  principal  ceremonies  were  employed  in  the  rites  of  confirma- 
tion, namely  ;  imposition  of  hands,  unction,  with  the  chrism,  sign  of 
the  cross,  and  prayer. 

1.  Imposition  of  hands.  This  rite  is  derived  from  the  New  Tes- 
tament :  it  was  used  in  various  religious  solemnities,  and  is  still  re- 
tained in  the  christian  church.  For  an  account  of  the  different 
opinions  which  were  entertained  respecting  this  rite;  and  of  the 
mode  of  administering  it,  see  references  in  the  inde.x.^ 

2.  Unction.  This,  as  has  been  already  remarked,  was  denomi- 
nated chrism,  in  distinction  from  the  unction  which  was  administered 
before  baptism.  Origen  and  Tertullian  speak  expressly  of  this  rite. 
In  the  Apostolical  Constitutions  it  is  styled  the  confirmation  of  our 
confession,  and  the  seal  of  the  covenants.  A  prayer  is  also  given, 
which  was- offered  on  the  occasion.'"  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  gives  full 
instructions  respecting  the  administration  of  chrism. ^^  From  his 
time  it  came  into  general  use  in  the  church. 

The  material  used  for  this  chrism  was  usually  olive-oil.  Some- 
times perfumed  ointment,  compounded  of  various  ingredients,  was 
used.  The  chrism  was  consecrated  by  prayer,  exorcism,  and  insuf- 
flation. It  was  applied,  in  the  Eastern  church,  to  various  parts 
of  the  body,  to  the  forehead,  ears,  nose,  eyes,  breast,  etc.  In  the 
Western  church  it  appears  to  have  been  applied  only  to  the  fore- 
head. 

3.  Sign  of  the  cross.  This  was  affixed  by  applying  the  chrism  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  represent  a  cross.  This  was  thought  to  be  a 
very  important  and  expressive  emblem,  the  sealing  rite,  which  gave 
to  confirmation  the  name  of  ucfQaylg.,  a  seaU- 

4.  Prayer  and  mode  of  confirmation.  In  the  Greek  church  one 
uniform  mode  of  confirmation  has  been  observed  from  the  beginning, 
as  follows  :  "  The  seal  of  the  gift  of  the  Holy.  Ghost.  Amen." 
Besides  this  implied  prayer,  one  more  at  length  is  supposed  to  have 
been  offered.  In  the  Latin  church,  the  form  has  varied  at  difl^erent 
limes.  The  most  ancient  form  ran  thus :  "  The  seal  of  Christ  to 
eternal  life."  The  modern  form,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  is 
as  follows.  "  Signo  te  signo  crucis,  et  confirmo  te  chrismale  salutis 
in  nomine  Pa  f  tris  et  Fi  f  Hi,  et  Spiritus  f  Sancti.     Amen." 


292  OF  THE  lord's  supper. 

Other  formalities  were  :  the  sahitation,  "  Peace  be  with  you  ;" 
a  slight  blow  upon  the  cheek,  to  admonish  the  candidate  of  the  duty 
of  patience  under  injuries  ;  unbinding  of  the  band  upon  the  forehead  ; 
prayer  and  singing  ;  the  benediction  of  the  bishop,  together  with  a 
short  exhortation  from  him. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

OF  THE  lord's  SUFFER. 

^  1.  Names  or  Appellations  of  this  Sacrament. 

Men  of  all  religious  denominations  have,  generally,  concurred  in 
regarding  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper  as  the  most  solemn 
rite  of  christian  worship,  the  grand  characteristic  of  the  religion  of 
Christ.  For  a  full  understanding  of  the  doctrines  and  usages  con- 
nected with  this  institution,  a  knowledge  of  the  various  names  by 
which  it  has  been  distinguished  is  indispensable.  A  full  knowledge 
of  these,  with  all  their  relations  to  the  times  and  places  in  which 
they  were  used,  would  almost  furnish  a  history  of  the  sacrament  it- 
self. These  names  are  exceedingly  numerous ;  and,  although  re- 
taining a  general  similarity  of  meaning,  yet  each  has  been  chosen 
out  of  regard  to  some  peculiar  views  relating  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
sacrament,  or  from  a  preference  for  some  peculiar  mode  of  adminis- 
tration. 

1.  The  term,  the  Lorcfs  supper,  dnnvov  nvQiaxov,  sacra  coena, 
coena  Domini,  has  an  historical  reference  to  the  institution  of  the  rite 
by  our  Lord,  on  the  night  in  which  he  was  betrayed.  Matt.  26:  20, 
3L  1  Cor.  11:  28.  Some  have  erroneously  maintained  that  the  pas- 
sage in  1  Cor.  11:  23  relates,  not  strictly  to  the  participation  of  the 
sacramental  elements,  but  to  the  feast  which  accompanied  the  dis- 
tribution of  these  elements.  But  it  has  been  abundantly  shown  that 
the  early  christian  writers  understood  and  used  the  term  according 
to  the  explanation  given  above. i 

2.  The  table  of  the  Lord,  Tfjans^a  xvglov,  mensa  Dei,  denotes 
much  the  same  as  the  Lord's  supper,  a  festival  instituted  by  the 
Lord.     TertuUian  styles  it  convivium  Dominicum.'^     The  context  of 


NAMES  OF  THE  SACRAMENT.  293 

1  Cor.  10:  21  forbids  the  supposition  that  a  common  table  was  used 
for  this  purpose.  The  apostle  uses  the  term  T(>anrt^«  xvqIov  as  sy- 
nonymous with  S^v(n«(jTJjgi.ov,  an  allar.  We  are  constrained,  there- 
fore, to  believe  that  a  table  was  set  apart  for  this  sacred  purpose, 
like  that  of  the  shew-bread,  a  mensa  mystica,  a  table  sacred  to  the 
purpose  of  celebrating  the  Lord's  supper. 

3.  The  following  scriptural  expressions  are  also  employed  in  a 
sense  partly  literal  and  partly  figurative,  to  denote  the  sacrament : 
bread, — the  breaking  of  bread,  Acts  2:  42.  20:  7  comp.  27:  35. 
Luke  24:^35 — the  eating  of  bread,  John  6:  23 — the  Lord''s  body,  or 
his  flesh,  John  6:  53 — the  cup  of  the  Lord,  1  Cor.  10:  21 — the  cup 
of  the  New  Testament,  Luke  22:  20.  1  Cor.  10:  21  —  bJood.  The 
custom  o(  breaking  the  bread,  and  of  administering  but  one  element, 
has  been  derived  from  the  foregoing  passages. 

4.  The  new  testament  in  my  blood,  Luke  22:  20.  1  Cor.  11:  25. 
It  has,  however,  been  disputed  whether  this  phrase  can,  with  propri- 
ety, be  applied  to  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper. 

5.  Communion,  xoivwvia,  communio.  This  is  by  far  the  most 
common  appellation  of  the  solemnity  in  question.  It  has  been  cur- 
rent in  all  ages,  and  among  all  parties.  It  has  been  used,  both  in  a 
doctrinal  and  mystical  sense  ;  and  in  an  historical  and  ecclesiastical 
signification. 

In  a  doctrinal  sense,  it  has  been  supposed  to  represent  our  recon- 
ciliation to  God,  and  our  union  with  him.  Others  have  supposed  it 
to  represent  our  union  and  fellowship  with  Christ.  This  participa- 
tion with  him,  according  to  some,  is  through  his  presence  in  the  ele- 
ments. Others  understand  by  it  the  union  of  believers  in  spirit, 
with  their  spiritual  head ;  and  others,  again,  the  union  of  believers 
among  themselves  in  the  bonds  of  christian  love. 

In  an  historical  and  ecclesiastical  sense,  communion  denotes  a 
participation  in  all  the  mysteries  of  the  christian  religion,  and,  of 
course,  church-fellowship,  with  all  its  rites  and  privileges.  Hence 
the  term  excommunication. 

In  a  liturgical  sense  it  denotes,  sometimes  the  partaking  of  the  sa- 
crament, and  sometimes  the  administration  of  it. 

6.  Agapae,  a/dmui,  or  ayanj].  love  feast,  feast  of  heaven.  The 
expression  in  Jude  12.  2  Pet.  2:  13,  may  refer  either  to  the  Lord's 
supper,  or  to  the  festival  accompanying  it. 

7.  Eucharist,  Bvxaqidtia,  a  very  ancient  and  general  appellation. 


294  OF  THE  lord's  supper. 

founded  on  the  scriptural  expression  svxctQKrtrjaag,  Matt.  26:  27. 
Mark  14:  23.  Luke  22:  19.  1  Cor.  11:  24.  The  name  eucharist, 
thanks-giving,  was  applied  to  this  ordinance,  because  gratitude  for 
the  divine  mercy  and  grace  is  the  chief  requisite  in  those  who  par- 
take of  it.'* 

8.  Evloyitt,  celebratio  laudis,  benediciio,  thanksgiving,  synony- 
mous with  the  preceding,  Matt.  26:  26.  Mark  14:  22.  1  Cor.  10:  16. 
After  the  fifth  century,  this  became  the  name  for  the  consecrated 
bread  which  was  set  apart  for  the  poor,  and  for  the  ministers  of  the 
church. 

9.  ngo(jq)OQa,  ohlatio,  oblation.  The  literal  signification  of  this 
word  is,  a  sacrificial  offering,  corresponding  to  the  Hebrew  nn:73  , 
and  the  Syriac  corban.  It  finally  became  synonymous  with  n:3T , 
■&v(jIu,  a  saa^ifice.  It  is  applied  to  the  elements  used  in  celebrating 
the  Lord's  supper.  The  later  Greek  writers  used  the  word  uvaqjOQu, 
in  a  moral,  rather  than  a  literal  sense,  in  allusion  to  the  customary 
exhortation,  sursum  corda!  "  Lift  up  your  hearts."  The  leading 
idea  of  the  Latin,  offertormm^  is  a  voluntary  offering  ;  but  it  appears 
to  have  been  applied  especially  to  the  consecrated  bread.^ 

10.  Ovaia,  sacrifice.  This  term  is,  with  great  propriety,  used  by 
early  christian  writers  to  denote  the  sacrifice  of  the  body  and  blood 
of  Christ,  once  offered  for  the  sins  of  the  world.^  Other  epithets  of 
a  similar  import  are  sacrificimn  spiritvale,  sanctum,  mysiicum,  ra- 
tionale, etc,  but  more  frequently,  d-vaiu  uvaixf/ajog,  the  bloodless  sa- 
crifice. After  the  seventh  century,  it  began  to  be  used  to  designate 
the  mass,  which  was  offered  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church  for  the 
dead,  and  accordingly   fell  into  disuse  with  the  evangelical  church. 

11.  Mvan'iQLov,  myslerium,  mystery.  This,  coupled  with  the  ad- 
jectives, (pfjixTov  qiQiy.Mdeg,  cpQiy.wdeaxaTov,  etc.,  awful,  tremendoxis,  is 
familiar  phraseology  with  Chrysostom  and  Gregory  Nazianzen  ;  but 
they  seem  to  use  it  with  reference  to  the  ritual,  rather  than  to  any 
implied  doctrine.  The  Lord's  supper,  as  the  last  and  most  sol- 
emn rite  of  the  secret  discipline,  was  styled  by  Pseudo-Dionysius, 
rtXiTTtV  TsXstbJv,'^  perfection  of  perfections.  The  name  nvaxi]Qiov,  which 
this  ordinance  received  from  its  connection  with  the  secret  discipline, 
became  the  favorite  phrase  for  setting  forth  the  wonderful  presence 
of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  which  finally  ended  in  the  doctrine 
of  transubstantiation.^ 

12.  MvaxaYMyitt,  used  by  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  and  Theodoret,  with 


NAMES  OF  THE  SACRAMENT.  295 

special  reference  to  the  secret  discipline.     After  the  termination  of 
that  system,  it  appears  not  to  have  been  used  by  evangelical  writers. 

13.  ^'vvu^ig,  i.  e.  avvnymyi],  congregation  coeLus,conventus  sacer,  a 
solemn  assembly.  This  phrase  is  of  similar  import  with  that  of 
communion,  with  the  additional  idea  of  a  solemn  and  public  transac- 
tion. It  indicates  that  this,  in  the  primitive  church,  was  the  most 
important  and  solemn  act  of  public  worship. 

14.  'lEQovQyltt,  operatic  sacra,  sacred  ministration.  Supposed  to 
have  been  derived  from  the  expression,  ministering  the  gospel  of 
God,  Rom.  15:  16  ;  and  used  in  the  same  general  and  figurative 
sense. 

15.  JsnovQ/la,  public  service,  liturgy.  This,  and  its  kindred 
terms,  as  used  in  the  New  Testament,  relates  to  the  service  of  the 
priesthood  ;  and  was,  probably,  used  in  the  same  sense  by  Chrysos- 
tom  and  Theodoret,  etc.  It  became,  however,  the  practice,  both  in 
the  Eastern  and  Western  churches,  to  apply  this  epithet  to  the  sacra- 
ment of  the  Lord's  supper.  But  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  it 
finally  gave  place  to  the  name  mass. 

16.  Mass.  This  word  has  undergone  a  change  from  its  simple 
origin  and  meaning,  to  another,  more  entirely  ditierent  in  use  and 
signification  than  any  other.  Passing  by  various  theories  respecting 
the  origin  of  this  word  which  have  been  advanced  and  refuted,  it  will 
be  sufficient  briefly  to  set  forth  its  true  etymology. 

The  word  is  undoubtedly  derived  from  the  Latin  missa,  which 
stands  for  missio,  or  dimissio  populi,  with  direct  reference  to  the  an- 
cient mode  of  dismissing  the  people  at  the  close  of  religious  worship. 
From  being  a  participle,  it  has  become  a  noun  substantive,  for  missio 
like  remissa,  ae,  for  remissio,  or  offensa,  ae,  for  offensio. 

By  the  secret  discipline  of  the  ancient  church,  none  but  believers 
were  permitted  to  be  present  at  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  supper. 
During  a  certain  portion  of  religious  worship  all  were  allowed,  in- 
discriminately, to  attend.  At  the  close  of  this  part  of  the  service, 
the  catechumens  and  unbelievers  of  every  description,  were  dismis- 
sed by  the  deacon  who  said,  Ite  !  missa  est  sc.  ecclesia,  Depart !  the 
assembly  is  dismissed.  From  this  custom  the  religious  service, 
which  had  just  been  concluded,  was  called  missa  catechumenorum. 
the  service  of  the  catechumens.  Then  followed  the  7nissa  Jidelium, 
the  service  of  the  faithful,  or  of  believers.  Hence  the  change  from 
missa  to  mass,  the  latter  being  only  a  slight  modification  of  the  form- 
er word. 


296  OF  THE  lord's  supper. 

Protestants  have  uniformly  rejected  this  term  with  abhorrence,  be- 
cause of  the  abuses  which,  under  this  name,  have  been  connected 
with  the  sacrament,  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  whilst  they 
have  protested  against  the  charge  of  a  want  of  regard  for  the  real 
missa  or  mass  of  the  primitive  church. 

The  above  is  a  brief  summary  of  the  author's  remarks  on  the  sub- 
ject of  mass.  The  reader  is  referred  to  various  authorities  in  the 
index.9 

17.  Sacramentum  altaris,  sacrament  of  the  altar.  This  phrase  is 
used  in  common  by  the  Greek,  Roman,  and  Lutheran  churches.  Bui 
the  reformed  church  reject  the  phrase,  because  of  their  aversion  to 
the  word  altar. 

But,  without  the  addition  of  the  word  altar,  that  of  sacrament  alone 
has,  very  generally,  been  used  to  denote  the  ordinance  in  question, 
this  being  the  principal  rite  of  religious  worship;  and,  by  way  of 
emphasis,  denominated  the  sacrament. 

18.  Besides  the  foregoing  appellations  in  common  use,  and  having 
a  peculiar  signification,  there  are  many  others  of  less  frequent  oc- 
currence, and  more  general  character,  the  knowledge  of  which  may 
be  of  importance  as  conveying  ideas  respecting  the  nature,  signifi- 
cancy,  dignity,  and  efficacy  of  the  ordinance  which  they  describe. 

The  most  of  these  are  derived  from  relations  of  the  bread  and  the 
wine  ;  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.  In  this  point  of  view  the  holy 
sacrament  is  represented  as  spiritual  nourishment,  the  life  and 
strength  of  the  soul,  etc.  The  terms  body  and  blood,  food  and  drink, 
bread  and  wine,  were  at  first  used  in  the  same  sense.  Afterwards, 
in  consequence  of  the  prevailing  custom  of  administering  only  one 
element,  these  terms  were  separated,  and  the  ordinance  was  denoted 
by  the  appellations  of  body,  food,  bread,  or  blood,  drink,  wine,  etc. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  expressions  in  question. 

1.  Corpus  Christi,  body  of  Christ. 

2.  Cibus  Dei,  s.  Domini,  food  of  God  or  the  Lord. 

3.  Cibus  coelestis,  heavenly  food. 

4.  Cibus  angelorum,  angels'  food. 

5.  Cibus  viatorum,  mortalium,  aegrotorum,  food  of  travellers, 
mortals,  the  sick,  etc. 

6.  Manna  coelestis,  heavenly  manna. 

7.  Panis  super substantialis,  equivalent  to  living  bread  or  bread  in- 
deed. The  expression  "  our  daily  bread,"  in  our  Lord's  prayer^ 
was  applied  to  the  consecrated  bread.     Hence  the  expression  above. 


NAMES  OF  THE  SACRAMENT. 


297 


8.  Panis  Dei,  s.  Domini,  bread  of  God. 

9.  Panis  vitae,  bread  of  life. 

10.  Pariis  coelcstis,  heavenly  bread. 

11.  £(f6diov,  viaticum,  provisions  for  a  journey.  It  was  an  ancient 
custom  to  administer  the  sacrament  to  the  sick  in  the  last  stages  of 
life,  and  also  to  put  the  sacred  elements  in  the  coffin  of  the  deceased. 
Hence  the  appellation  above.  Death  was,  to  the  ancient  Christian, 
a  journey  from  this  to  the  eternal  world,  and  the  sacrament  fur- 
nished the  needful  provisions  for  that  journey.  But  the  custom  of 
administerinff  the  sacrament  to  the  <3ying,  was  finally  abandoned. 

12.  Mfiixl^naiq,  participation,  communion,  i.  e.  with  samts  or  with 
Christ,  etc. 

13.  'Aq6di,3o,v,  u()^a^o}v  t?";?  ntXlovfftjg  'Cmjg,  pledge,  pledge  of  eter- 
nal life,  2  Cor.  1:  22.  5:  6,  and  Eph.  1:  14. 

14.  fPuQuuxov  u&ttvaaloig,  avilSoTog  zov  fii]  uno&avBiv,  medicamen- 
turn,  medicina  corporis  el  mentis,  purgalorium,  amuletum,  and  other 
phrases,  expressive  of  medicinal  properties  for  the  soul. 

15.  Sacramentum  pads,  the  reconciling  ordinance,  a  favorite  ex- 
pression of  Chrysostom. 

16.  The  terms  applied  to  baptism  were  often  transferred  to  the 
Lord's  supper,  such  as  isQovgyla,  (iv(jir,Qiov,  already  mentioned  ;  to 
Kftiig,  i)  L,wi],  rj(jMTn<jlu,  i)  ilnig,  o  y.u&UQia^uog,  i)  vno&inig  t^Is  7iaQ^r](Tiag, 
light,  life,  sanation,  hope,  purification,  access  to  the  Father  by  Christ, 
with  assurance  of  adoption* 

*  Th£  following  sentence  in  CosUri  histittit.  Ckr.  lib.  i.  c.  C,  consists  of 
extracts  from  various  writers,  chiefly  from  Bernhard  of  Clairvaux  :— Eucha- 
ristia  est  medicina  aegrotis,  perigrinantibus  via  ;  debiles  confortat,  valentes 
delectat,  languorem  sanat,  sanitatem  servat ;  fit  homo  niansuetior  ad  correc- 
tionem,  pote°ntior  ad  labore.ii,  ardentior  ad  amorem,  sagacior  ad  cautelam, 
ad  obedientiam  promptior,  ad  gratiarurn  cautlones  devotior;  hie  dimittuntur 
peccata  quotidiana,  expelluntur  potcstatcs  Satanao,  dantur  vires  ad  ipsum  eti- 
am  martyrium  subeundum  ;  minuitur  in  minimis  peccatis  sensus,  in  gravio- 
ribus  tollitur  omnino  consensus,  denique  afferunlur  omnia  bona  ;  quia  homo 
communicans  in  id  transit,  quod  sumit.-Tlie  following  expressions  are  from 
the  language  of  the  Council  of  Trent  {Cone.  Trident,  Sess.  xiii.  p.  77— 8G,  ed. 
Lugd.  rG77— 8) :— Eucharistia  est  symbolum  unitalis  et  caritatis,  qua  Chris- 
tus  omnes  Christianos  inter  se  conjunctos  et  copulatos  esse  voluit— Symbo- 
lum  rei  sacrae,  et  invisibilis  gratiae  forma  visibilis.— Spiritualis  animarum 
cibus.— Panis  angelorum.- Animac  vita,  perpetua  sanitas  mentis.— Antido- 
tum  liberans  a  culpis  et  peccatis.— Pignus  futurae  gloriae. 

38 


298  OF  THE  lord's  supper. 

The  holy  sacrament,  from  the  eleventh  century,  became  the  ordeal 
for  proving  the  guilt  or  innocence  of  persons  suspected,  or  accused 
of  crimes  ;  and,  throughout  the  nations  of  Europe,  was  also  em- 
ployed as  the  means  of  ratifying  an  oath,  asseveration,  or  execration. 
The  names  of  the  holy  sacrament  are  familiar  in  the  dialect  of  the 
profane  in  every  language.  Even  a  celebrated  christian  queen,  in 
her  paroxisms  of  rage,  was  accustomed  to  swear  by  the  blood  of 
God! 

§  2.  Scriptural  Account  of  the  Lord's  Supper.i 

The  evangelists  who  record  the  institution  of  the  Lord's  supper 
give  it  no  peculiar  name  or  title.  St.  Paul,  in  his  first  epistle  to  the 
Corinthians  styles  it  the  Lorcfs  supper,  the  table  of  the  Lord,  and  the 
commimion,  11:20.  10:21.  10:  16.  No  other  distinctive  appella- 
tion appears  to  have  been  given  to  it  in  the  Scriptures. 

Our  Saviour  instituted  this  ordinance  in  connection  with  the  passo- 
ver,  and  authorized  his  disciples  to  celebrate  it  in  this  connection. 
But  it  was  evidently  observed  as  a  separate  and  independent  ordi- 
nance in  the  times  of  the  apostles  and  with  their  sanction.  The 
apostle  Paul  in  1  Cor.  xi.  makes  no  mention  of  the  passover,  but 
speaks  of  the  communion  as  a  customary  rite  :  "  As  often  as  ye  eat 
this  iread  and  drink  this  cup  ye  do  show  the  Lord's  death  until  he 
come. 

This  sacrament,  however,  was  probably  celebrated  annually  in 
connection  with  the  passover  by  the  converts  from  the  Jews,  who, 
as  Epiphanius  has  shown,^  continued  for  many  years  to  observe  this 
Jewish  festival  ;  and,  even  in  the  christian  church  generally,  it  was 
celebrated  with  peculiar  solemnity,  at  the  festival  of  Easter,  which 
corresponded  to  this  passover. 

From  the  circumstance  that  it  was  instituted  in  connection  with 
the  passover,  appears  to  have  been  derived  the  custom  of  celebrat- 
ing it,  not  as  a  separate  and  independent  religious  ordinance,  but  as 
one  of  the  common  rites  of  public  worship,  and  as  the  conclusion  of 
the  service. 

It  may  appear,  at  first  thought,  singular  that  John,  the  beloved 
disciple,  the  bosom  friend  of  our  Lord,  who  with  Peter  made  ready 
the  passover,  entirely  omits  to  mention  the  Lord's  supper.  It 
should,  however,  be  recollected  that  John's  gospel  was  evidently  in- 


SCRIPTURAL  ACCOUNT.  299 

tended  to  be  supplementary  to  the  others,  vind  that  liis  own  narrative 
clearly  shows  that  it  was  intentionally  omitted. 

The  account  given  by  St.  Paul  is  of  special  importance  to  us  ;  for 
it  not  only  harmonizes  with  the  narrations  of  the  apostles  and  con- 
firms them,  but  it  shows  that  the  Lord's  supper  is  an  established  or- 
dinance in  the  church,  and  designed  for  perpetual  observance.  He 
severely  rebukes  the  disorders  and  abuses  which  the  Corinthians  had 
introduced,  relates  the  original  institution  in  conformity  with  the- nar- 
rative given  by  Luke,  and  assures  them  that  he  shall  set  the  whole 
in  order  when  he  comes. 

The  question  has  been  raised  whether  Christ  himself  partook  of 
the  sacrament  ?  To  this  the  narrative  offers  no  satisfactory  reply. 
The  opinions  of  the  Church  have  been  greatly  divided  on  this  point. 
Chrysostom^  and  Augustine''  maintain  the  affirmative.  This  opinion 
is  rendered  highly  probable  from  the  circumstance  that  he  carefully 
observed  all  the  Mosaic  ordinances,  and  received  baptism  at  the 
hands  of  John,  because  thus  it  became  him  to  fulfil  all  righteousness. 
In  conformity  with  the  same  spirit  it  is  hardly  credible  that  he  would 
have  omitted  a  rite  so  significant  as  the  one  under  consideration. 
The  advocates  of  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  strenuously  main- 
tain the  contrary  opinion. 

Another  inquiry,  which  has  divided  the  opinions  of  ecclesiastical 
writers,  has  been  raised  respecting  the  presence  of  Judas  the  traitor. 
Did  he  partake  of  the  sacrament  ?  The  Apostolical  Constitutions 
affirm  that  he  was  not  present  at  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  sup- 
per. The  advocates  of  this  opinion  rely  chiefly  on  John  13:  30 — 
He  then  having  received  the  sop,  went  immediately  out.  They  of 
the  contrary  opinion  appeal  to  Luke  22:  11 — And  when  the  hour 
was  come  he  sat  down  and  the  hoclve  apostles  with  him.  In  deliver- 
ing the  cup  our  Lord  said  also,  Drink  ye  all  of  it.  The  prevailing 
sentiment  in  the  church  has  been  that  the  traitor  did  partake  of  the 
sacred  elements  in  company  with  the  other  disciples.-^ 

The  bread  used  on  this  occasion  was  doubtless  the  unleavened 
bread  which  was  provided  for  the  passover.  No  stress,  however,  is 
laid  on  the  nature  or  kind  of  bread  ;  but  on  the  breaking  of  the  bread 
in  token  of  the  body  of  Christ  broken  for  ns. 

The  wine  was,  with  equal  probability,  the  common  wine  of  the 
country,  of  a  dark  red  color,  and  was  received  without  mixture  with 
water.     The  significancy  of  the   distribution  of  the  cup,  however, 


300  OF  THE  lord's  SUPPER. 

consisted  not  in  tlie  qualilij  or  color  of  tlie  wine,  but  in  its  being 
poured  out  in  token  of  the  Mood  of  Christ  shed  for  the  remission  of 
sins. 

The  eucharist  appears  to  have  been  celebrated  at  first  in  the  eve- 
ning, with  reference,  no  doubt,  to  the  time  of  its  original  institution. 
But  no  directions  are  given  on  this  head.  See  1  Cor.  10:  23.  Acts 
20:  7. 

<§  3.  Testimony  of  pagan  Writers. 

Notwithstanding  all  the  care  of  tlie  primitive  Christians  to  conceal 
this  sacred  ordinance  from  their  enemies,  it  was  known,  and  the  cel- 
ebration of  it  was  prohibited^  by  Roman  magistrates,  as  appears  from 
Pliny's  Letter.  Lucian  of  Samosata  speaks  of  our  Lord  as  the  great 
magician  xolio  instituted  neiv  mysteries.  Celsus,  with  reference  to 
this  sacred  festival,  as  appears  from  Origen,  also  severely  censures 
the  Christians  against  whom  he  wrote,2for  holding  certain  secret  as- 
semblies, and  celebrating  unauthorized  rites.  The  frequent  charges 
alleged  against  them  of  sensuality,  and  incest,  of  offering  human 
sacrifices,  and  of  celebrating  horrible  orgies  in  secret,  evidently  re- 
late to  the  same  ordinance.  See  references^  for  a  fuller  view  of  this 
subject. 

§  4.  Testimony  of  the  Apostolical  Fathers. 

Neither  Barnabas,  nor  Polycarp,  nor  Clement  of  Rome  make  any 
mention  of  the  Lord's  supper.  This  omission  is  the  more  remarka- 
ble in  the  latter,  inasmuch  as  he  wrote  a  long  epistle  to  the  Corin- 
thians, whom  the  apostle  so  severely  censures  for  their  abuse  of  this 
ordinance.  Ignatius  is  the  only  one  of  the  apostolical  fathers  whose 
writings  have  any  reference  to  the  subject  before  us,  and  these  pas- 
sages from  his  epistles,  even  if  their  genuineness  be  admitted,  are  of 
little  importance.  In  his  epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  c.  4,  he  speaks  of 
the  breaking  of  one  bread,  the  medicine  of  immortality.  In  his  epis- 
tle 1o  the  Philadelphians,  c.  5,  with  evident  allusion  to  Eph.  4:  2—7, 
he  speaks  of  one  faith,  one  preaching,  one  eucharist — one  loaf  or 
hread  broken  for  all.  There  is  another  passage  in  his  epistle  to  the 
Smyrniotes,  c.  8,  which  is  of  a  more  doubtful  authority  than  either 
of  the  foregoing. 


TESTIMONY  OF  THE  FATHERS. 


301 


It  is  even  more  remarkable  that  most  of  the  early  apologists  for 
Christianity,  such  as  Minucius  Felix,  Athenagoras,  Tatian,  Theophi- 
lus  of  Antioch,  and  Arnobius  do  not  make  any  mention  of  the  sacra- 
ment, the  most  sacred  ordinance  of  the  christian  religion.  Justin 
Martyr,  happily  for  us,  has  given  two  descriptions  of  this  ordinance 
in  nearly  the  same  words,  Apol.  I.  c  61 — 67,  the  one  probably  re- 
lating to  the  celebration  immediately  after  baptism — the  other,  to  the 
ordinary  administration  of  the  sacrament,  on  the  Lord's  day,  in  con- 
nection with  the  agapae.  "  On  Sunday  we  all  assemble  in  one 
place,"  he  says  again,  "  both  those  who  live  in  the  city  and  they  who 
dwell  in  the  country,  and  the  writings  of  apostles  and  prophets  are 
read  so  long  as  the  time  permits.  When  the  reader  stops,  the  presi- 
dent of  the  assembly  makes  an  address  in  which  he  recapitulates 
the  glorious  things  that  have  been  read,  and  exhorts  the  people  to 
follow  them.  Then  we  all  stand  up  together  and  pray.  After 
prayer,  bread,  wine  and  water  are  brought  in.  The  president  of 
the  meeting  again  prays  according  lo  his  ability,  and  gives  thanks,  to 
which  the  people  respond.  Amen.  After  this,  the  bread,  wine  and 
water  are  distributed  to  those  present,  and  the  deacons  carry  por- 
tions to  such  as  are  necessarily  detained  from  the  meeting.  Those 
who  are  able  and  willing,  contribute  what  they  please  in  money, 
which  is  given  to  the  president  of  the  meeting,  and  is  appropriated 
to  the  support  of  widows  and  orphans,  the  sick,  the  poor,  and  whom- 
soever is  necessitous." 

It  appears  from  an  examination  of  both  passages,  that  the  conse- 
cration of  the  elements  was  made  in  the  name  of  the  three  persons 
of  the  Godhead.  He  speaks  of  a  "  thanksgiving  to  the  Father  of 
the  universe,  through  or  in  the  name  of  his  Son,  and  the  Holy 
Ghost." 

The  dialogue  with  Trypho  the  Jew,  usually  ascribed  to  Justin, 
speaks  of  the  "  offering  of  the  bread  of  thanksgiving,  and  of  the  cup 
of  thanksgiving;"  and  of  the  "  eucharistic  meal  of  bread  and  wine  ;" 
of  the  "  dry  and  liquid  food  with  which  Christians  commemorate  the 
sufferings  once  endured  by  the  Son  of  God  ;"  but  gives  no  additional 
information  respecting  the  celebration  of  the  ordinance. 

Irenaeus,  in  his  controversial  writings,  brought  into  use  the  words 
TtgoacpoQu,  and  &vala,  which  Justin  Martyr  had  introduced  ;  his  wri- 
tings, however,  are  chiefly  of  a  controversial  character,  and  accord- 
ingly have  little  reference  to  the  ritual  of  the  church  ;  he  contends 


302  OF  THE  lord's  SUPPER. 

that  the  eucharist  should  be  regarded  as  a  sacrifice,  in  opposition  to 
the  Gnostics,  who  contended  that  all  sacrifices  had  ceased.  Ire- 
naeus  however  distinguished  this  from  the  Jewish  sacrifices,  as  of  a 
higher  and  nobler  character  ;i  he  appears  to  have  been  acquainted 
with  the  doctrine  of  the  symbolical  presence  of  Christ  in  the  ele- 
ments, and  with  the  mixing  of  wine  with  water.^ 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  Origen,  offer  much  important  matter 
in  regard  to  the  doctrine  of  the  eucharist,  but  very  little  relating  to 
the  rites  of  its  celebration.  The  former  speaks  of  the  two-fold  na- 
ture of  the  blood  of  Christ,  bodily  and  spiritual,  and  of  the  mixing 
the  wine  with  water."^  The  latter  is  the  first  to  commend  the  reve- 
rential custom  of  the  church  in  guarding  every  particle  of  the  conse- 
crated bread  from  falling  to  the  ground.  "  You  who  frequent  our 
sacred  mysteries  know  that  when  you  receive  the  body  of  the  Lord, 
you  take  care  with  all  due  caution  and  veneration  that  not  even  the 
smallest  particle  of  the  consecrated  gift  should  fall  to  the  ground  and 
be  wasted.  If,  through  inattention,  any  part  thus  fall,  you  justly  ac- 
count yourselves  guilty.  If  then,  with  good  reason  you  use  so  much 
caution  in  preserving  his  body,  how  can  you  esteem  it  a  lighter  sin 
to  slight  the  word  of  God  than  to  neglect  his  body."^ 

From  TertuUian  we  learn,  that  this  ordinance  was  celebrated  be- 
fore daylight  in  the  morning, "  antelucanis  coetiiibus^''  and  received 
only  at  the  hands  of  the  presiding  minister,  "riec  de  aliorum  manu 
quam  praesidentium  sumimusy  He  also  intimates  that  the  sacred 
elements  were  strictl}^  guarded  from  waste  and  accident ;  but  ex- 
pressly declares  that  all  these  usages  are  observed  from  tradition, 
and  the  force  of  custom,  without  any  scriptural  authority  whatever.^ 

Cyprian  treats  at  length  of  the  types  of  the  Lord's  supper  in  the 
Old  Testament,  and  of  the  elements  ;  and  censures  severely  the 
practice  of  administering  loater  instead  of  wine.  Certain  sects  at 
that  time  maintained  that  the  use  of  wine,  even  at  the  sacrament, 
was  sinful.  It  further  appears  from  his  writings,  that  the  eucharist 
was  administered  daily^ — that  it  was  offered  to  children  and  on  one 
occasion,  was  administered  by  a  female  enthusiast,— that  the  sacred 
elements  were  sent  to  the  absent  communicants, — and  that  the  con- 
secrated bread  was  carried  by  the  communicants  from  the  table  of 
the  Lord.  According  to  the  same  author,  they  also  received  the 
sacred  elements  in  communion  from  the  officiating  minister  into 
their  own  hands.*^ 


TESTIMONY  OF  THE  FATHERS.  303 

But  the  most  important  information  in  our  possession  respecting 
the  point  under  consideration,  is  derived  from  the  Apostolical  Con- 
stitutions. This  is  the  oldest  liturgical  document  now  extant  in  the 
church,  and  is  evidently  the  basis  of  the  formularies  and  liturgies 
both  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches.'''  Brief  descriptions  of 
the  eucharist,  and  of  the  agapae,  are  found  in  different  parts  of  this 
work  ;8  and  full  descriptions  of  the  liturgies  and  formularies  connec- 
ted with  this  service  f  from  which  the  following  particulars  are 
collected. 

a)  The  agapae  are  distinguished  from  the  eucharist 

b)  The  ordinance  was  celebrated  with  profound  secresy  as  a  sa- 
cred mystery;  catechumens,  penitents,  and  unbelieversof  every  de- 
scription, being  excluded  with  the  greatest  caution,  and  the  doors 
carefully  guarded. 

All  believers  in  good  and  regular  standing  were  e.xpected  to  par- 
take of  the  elements, 

c)  The  sexes  were  separated. 

d)  The  ordinance  was  administered  in  the  usual  time  of  public 
worship,  in  the  morning,  and  in  the  ordinary  place  of  assembly.  No 
intimation  is  given  of  a  celebration  by  night. 

e)  The  consecration  of  the  elements  was  performed  by  the  chief- 
priest,  aQXLSQsvg,  this  term  is  sometimes  used  as  synonymous  with 
that  of  bishop  ;  but  even  if  we  do  not  admit  the  identity  of  presbyters 
and  bishops,  and  of  teaching  and  ruling  bishops,  we  must  still  admit 
that  the  presbyter  was  permitted,  at  times,  to  consecrate  the  ele- 
ments, especially  in  the  absence  of  the  bishop. 

f)  The  consecrating  minister  offered  a  prayer  in  his  own  behalf, 
as  well  as  more  general  petitions  ;  and  then  distributed  the  bread 
himself.     The  cup  was  distributed  by  the  deacons. 

g)  Mention  is  made  of  a  splendid  robe  for  the  minister,  and  of  his 
making  the  sign  of  the  cross  upon  his  forehead. 

h)  The  elements  were  presented  simply  in  these  words  :  "  The 
body  of  Christ ;  the  blood  of  Christ,  the  cup  of  life  -,"  to  which  the 
communicant  simply  responded,  "Amen  !"  The  brevity  of  this  form 
is  strikingly  contrasted  with  the  prolonged  prayers,  and  formalities 
of  the  other  parts  of  this  service. 

i)  During  the  service,  the  34th  Psalm  was  sung.  The  42d  and 
139th  came  into  use  at  a  later  period.     The  attention  of  the  assem- 


304  OF  THE  lord's  SUPPER. 

bly  was  called  for  with  the  usual  form,  aVw  tov  vovv, — I'/ofxiv  nqoq 
Tov  xvgiov, — siirs2iin  corda^  haie?nus  ad  Dominum. 

k)  The  three  elements,  bread,  wine,  and  water,  are  mentioned  ; 
the  two  last  being  mixed  in  the  same  vessel.  The  bread  was  broken 
for  distribution,  and  the  fragments  carefully  preserved. 

1)  The  communicants  were  required  sometimes  to  stand  erect; 
and  sometimes  to  kneel,  and  with  the  head  inclining  forward  to  re- 
ceive the  blessing. 

§  5.  Times  of  Celebration. 

Under  this  head  two  points  of  inquiry  arise.  1.  At  what  hour  or 
part  of  the  day.  2.  How  often,  and  on  what  particular  occasions, 
was  the  Lord's  supper  celebrated  .?  In  regard  to  these  particulars, 
there  appears  to  have  been  no  uniformity  of  practice  or  harmony  of 
views  in  the  primitive  church.  A  brief  summary  of  the  usages  of 
Ihe  church  at  different  times  is  however  given  below. 

1.  The  twie  of  day.  This  solemnity  was  originally  instituted  in 
the  evening  or  at  night.  Matt.  26:  20.  1  Cor.  11:  23,  and  on  some 
occasions  was  celebrated  by  night  by  the  apostles  ;  and  probably  at 
other  times  of  the  day  also.  Acts  2:  46.   1  Cor.  16:  2. 

Nothing  definite  can  be  determined  from  Justin  Martyr  respecting 
the  time  of  celebrating  the  sacrament. 

At  a  later  period  mention  is  made  by  Ambrose,^  and  Augustine,^ 
of  the  celebration  of  it  by  night  on  certain  occasions,  and  as  an  ex- 
ception to  the  general  rule.  It  was  afterwards  administered  in  the 
morning  even  on  the  occasions  mentioned  by  them. 

TertuUian  speaks  of  the  celebration  of  it  on  Easter  eve?  This,  in 
the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  was  the  most  solemn  period  for  the 
celebration,  both  of  baptism,  and  of  the  Lord's  supper  ;  and  was  ob- 
served as  such  even  in  the  ninth  century.^  In  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries  it  was  transferred  to  the  evening,  and  then  to  the  af- 
ternoon of  the  day  before  Easter,  and  afterwards,  to  the  morning  of 
the  same  day. 

The  celebration  on  Christmas  eve  continued  until  a  late  period. 
To  this  ancient  custom  of  celebrating  the  eucharist  by  night  is  to  be 
traced  the  modern  custom  of  burning  lighted  tapers  on  such  occa- 
sions.^ 

The  Roman  laws  forbade  assemblies  by  night,  even  for  religious 


TIMES  OF   CELEBRATION.  30E 


worship.  For  this  reason,  probably,  the  early  Christians  selected 
Xhe  last  hours  of  the  night,  towards  morning,  for  holding  their  reh- 
aious  meetin-rs.  This  was  neither  a  forbidden  nor  a  suspicious  hour, 
and  yet  it  was  sufficient  to  satisfy  their  views  of  the  necessity  of 
celebrating  the  eucharist  by  night.  Other  reasons  were  afterwards 
sourrht  out"drawn  from  scriptural  representations  of  Christ,  as  the  Sun 
of  righteousness,  Dayspring  from  on  high,  Light  of  the  world,  etc. 
Ninc"o'cIock  in  the  morning  became  the  canonical  hour  as  early  as 
the  fifth  century.  And  it  was  settled  that  the  sacrament  should  be 
celebrated  on  Sundays  and  high  festivals  at  this  hour,  and  at  twelve 
o'clock  on  other  occasions. 

2.  Times  and  Seasons.  In  the  primitive  church,  it  was  an  univer- 
sal custom  to  administer  this  ordinance  on  Thursday  in  Easter  week, 
that  being  the  day  of  its  original  institution.  In  commemoration  of 
this,  some  contended  that  the  ordinance  ought  to  be  restricted  to 
an  annual  celebration  on  this  day  ;  but  the  prevailing  sentiment 
of  the  church  was  in  favor  of  frequent  communion,  as  a  means  of 
quickening  them  in  the  christian  life  ;  and  in  conformity  with  what 
they  believed  to  be  the  injunction  of  St.  Paul,  1  Cor.  11:  26. 

Whatever  theories  may  exist  respecting  the  original  institution  of 
the  christian  sabbath,  it  is  an  established  historical  truth  that  it  was 
observed  very  early  in  the  second  century;  and  that  the  sacrament 
was  usually  celebrated  on  that  day.  This  was  doubtless  the  status 
dies,  the  fixed,  appointed  day  of  Piiny.^  It  is  distinctly  mentioned 
in  the  epistle  of  Ignatius  to  the  Magnesians,  p.  57.  The  genuineness 
of  the  passage  has  indeed  been  called  in  question,  and  the  controver- 
sy  is  still  unsettled.  The  observance  of  the  day  may  be  clearly 
shown  fromTertullian.^  Justin  Martyr  says,  "We  all  meet  together 
on  Sunday  ;"  and  the  reason  assigned  is,  that  this  is  the  first  day  of 
the  week,  when  in  the  beginning  light  was  created,  and  when  also  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  arose  from  the  dead.^  It  was  called  also  dies  pa- 
nis-the  day  of  bread,  with  evident  allusion  to  the  celebration  of  the 
sacrament  on  that  day.  The  weekly  celebration  of  the  sacrament 
was  strongly  recommended  at  the  reformation,  but  no  positive  enact- 
ment was  made  to  that  effect. 

But  we  must  not  suppose  that  the  celebration  of  this  ordinance 

in  the  ancient  church  was  restricted  to  any  particular  or  appointed 

■  .season.     On  the  contrary,  it  was  observed  to  a  considerable  extent 

daily  in   the   primitive  church,  and  probably  by  the  apostles  them- 

39 


306  OF  THE  lord's  SUPPER. 

selves,  Acts  2:  42,  46.  Irenaeus  says,  "  It  is  the  will  of  the  Lord 
that  we  should  make  our  offering  at  his'altar  frequently,  and  without 
intermission,  sic  ei  ideo  nos  quoque  offerre  Dominus  viilt  munus  ad 
altare  frequenter  sine  inlermissione.'''"^  Express  testimonies  to  this 
effect,  of  a  date  somewhat  later,  are  cited  in  the  index,^*^ 

The  celebration  of  this  rite  immediately  after  the  baptism  of  adults, 
on  the  eve  of  Easter,  and  of  Whitsuntide,  has  been  already  mentioned. 
And  also  on  Christmas  eve.  It  was  after  the  discontinuance  of  the 
stated  times  for  baptism  and  of  the  festive  vigils  preceding,  that  the 
communion  was  transferred  to  the  morning,  as  has  been  already 
mentioned. 


§  6.  Place  of  Celebration.^ 

The  sacrament  was  instituted  in  a  private  house,  and  the  "  break- 
ing of  bread"  by  the  apostles,  Acts  2:  46.  20:  7, 8,  was  in  the  private 
houses  of  believers.  But  the  Corinthians,  it  appears,  had  a  place 
distinct  from  their  own  houses,  set  apart  for  the  celebration  of  this 
lite  and  of  public  worship,  1  Cor.  11:  20. 

In  times  of  persecution,  the  Lord's  supper  was  administered  wher- 
ever it  could  be  done  with  secrecy  and  safety,  in  secret  places,  in 
dens  and  caves  of  the  earth,  in  the  wilderness,  and  desert  fields,  etc. 
But  it  was  a  rule  from  the  beginning  that,  as  far  as  practicable,  this 
ordinance  should  be  solemnized  in  the  public  assembly,  and  in  the 
customary  place  of  public  worship.  The  consecration  of  the  ele- 
ments, especially,  was  at  times  regarded  as  an  act  to  be  perform- 
ed only  in  public ;  as  appears  from  the  custom  of  sending  the  con- 
secrated elements  to  the  sick,  and  to  the  poor  or  infirm  who  might 
be  absent.  The  consecration  in  private  houses  was  expressly  forbid- 
den by  the  council  of  Laodicea,  c.  58. 

The  communion  table,  or  altar,  was  common  as  early  as  the  sec- 
ond century.  This,  styled  ^vaiauiriqiov,  was  at  first  made  of  wood, 
hence  the  expression  »j  awxrjQiu  xov  ^ilov.  Altars  wrought  from 
stone  became  common  in  the  time  of  Constanline,  and  in  the  West- 
ern church  were  required  by  ecclesiastical  authority  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixth  century.^ 

The  custom  of  covering  the  altar  with  white  linen  was  very  ancient. 
Optatus  is  the  first  writer  who  expressly  mentions  this  practice.^  Al- 
lusions are  also  made  to  it  by  several  other  authors.^ 


MINISTERS  OF  THE  LORD's  SUPPER.  307 


§  7.   Ministers  of  the  Lord's  Sdpper.' 

As  in  baptism,  so  in  the  administration  of  this  ordinance,  a  devia- 
tion from  the  general  rule  in  cases  of  necessity  was  authorized  by 
common  consent.  The  following  remarks  must  be  regarded  as  ex- 
hibiting only  the  prevailing  principles  and  usages  in  relation  to  this 
subject,  without  regard  to  the  occasional  exceptions  and  minor  points 
of  conlroversy. 

Nothing  is  said  in  the  New  Testament  respecting  the  person 
whose  prerogative  it  is  to  administer  this  sacrament.  Our  Lord 
himself  administered  it  at  the  time  of  its  institution  ;  and  the  prob- 
ability is  that  the  apostles,  afterwards,  performed  the  same  office, 
Acts  20:  7.  2:  42,  46.   1  Cor.  10:  14  seq.    11:  23  seq. 

According  to  the  earliest  documents  of  the  second  and  third  cen- 
turies, it  was  the  appropriate  office  of  the  bishop  or  president  of  the 
assembly  to  administer  the  eucharist.  Justin  Martyr's  account  of 
this  rite  is,  that  the  president,  o  ngosajoig  rmv  addcpav,  pronounced 
the  form  of  prayer  and  praise  over  the  elements,  and  the  deacons 
distributed  them  among  the  communicants  who  were  present,  and 
conveyed  them  to  such^as  were  absent.^  According  to  Ignatius,  the 
ordinance  could  not  be  administered  without  the  presence  of  the 
bishop.3  In  the  Apostolical  Constitutions,  the  administration  of  this 
ordinance  is  ascribed,  at  one  time,  to  the  chief  priest,  ugx^sgeig ;  at 
another,  to  the  bishop,  inhxonog.'^  He  is  directed  to  stand  before 
the  altar  with  the  presbyters  and  deacons,  and  to  perform  the  office 
of  consecration.  The  same  is  required  by  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  and 
by  Dionysius.-'' 

It  was  a  rule,  of  long  continuance,  that  a  presbyter  should  not 
consecrate  the  elements  in  the  presence  of  the  bishop.  In  the  pres- 
ence of  several  bishops  this  service  devolved  upon  the  senior  officer, 
or  upon  some  one  specially  designated  for  this  purpose. 

It  was  also  the  duty  of  the  bishop  during  the  seventh  and 
eighth  centuries.  But  in  the  middle  ages  the  bishops  seldom  offi- 
ciated at  this  service.  Their  neglect  of  this  duty  is  ascribable,  per- 
haps, to  their  increasing  cares  and  duties,  and  the  extent  of  their 
dioceses  ;  but  especially  to  the  pride  of  office  ;  which  did  not  com- 
port with  the  discharge  of  the  ordinary  duties  of  religion,  an  opinion 
that  presents  a  striking  contrast  to  the  pious  zeal  of  the  bishops  of 


308  OF  THE  lord's  SUPPER. 

the  first  centuries,  in  presiding  and  officiating  at  the  table  of  the 
Lord.8 

In  general  it  was  a  rule  of  the  primitive  church  that  the  bishop 
consecrated  the  elements,  assisted  sometimes  by  the  presbyter."^ 
The  presbyter  distributed  the  bread,  and  the  deacon  presented  the 
cup.^  In  the  absence  of  the  bishop,  the  service  of  the  consecration 
was  performed  by  the  presbyter,  and  both  elements  were  distributed 
by  the  deacons.  In  the  performance  of  this  service  the  deacons 
acted  simply  as  the  assistants  of  the  bishop  or  presbyter.  They  not 
unfrequently  assumed  the  prerogative  of  consecrating  the  elements  ; 
but  this  practice  was  expressly  forbidden  by  repeated  acts  of  eccle- 
siastical councils. 9 

It  early  became  a  custom,  in  the  primitive  church,  for  the  minis- 
ter to  prepare  himself  for  his  solemn  office  at  the  table  of  the  Lord 
by  appropriate  religious  duties.  Confession  and  private  prayer 
were  afterwards  required.  Fasting  and  abstinence  from  sensual  in- 
dulgences were  likewise  enjoined.*  It  was  also  an  ancient  custom  for 
the  clergy  to  wash  their  hands  before  administering  the  elements.^^ 

<§  8.  Of  the  Communicants.^ 

Under  this  head  three  things  require  particular  notice.  1.  The 
persons  who  were  admitted  to  the  communion  of  the  Lord's  supper. 
2.  Their  preparation  for  this  ordinance.  3.  Their  deportment  in  the 
participation  of  it. 

L  Persons  admitted  to  the  holy  co7nmunion.  It  appears  from  the 
Apostolical  Consthutions,2  that,  after  the  doors  had  been  carefully 
closed  and  a  guard  set,  the  deacon  made  a  public  proclamation  of 
the  different  classes  of  persons  who  were  not  permitted  to  be  present 
on  the  occasion.  These  were  the  first  and  second  classes  of  cate- 
chumens, the  xajijxoifmoi  and  axgow/xsvoc, — the  unbelievers,  Jews 
and  pagans,  and  reputed  heretics  and  separatists  of  every  descrip- 


*  Sacerdos  Syrus  earn  noctein,  quae  liturgiam  praecedet,  vigilando  in  ec- 
clesia,  aut  secretario  ducit  insomnem,  orationibus  et  sacrae  lertioni  vacans, 
ne  per  somnium  ludibrio  aliquo  contaminetur.  Si  uxorem  habet,  abstinere 
abilla  debet  per  dies  aliquot ;  jejunasse  etiam  praecedente  vespera,  et  saltern 
vino  et  onini  liquore,  quo  caput  tentari,  potest  abstinuisse.  Similem  consue- 
tudinem  in  ecclesia  per  noctandi  antequam  liturgia  celebritur  vigere  apud 
Nestorianos.  Mesipotamanos  testati  sunt,  qui  Bagdado  saepe  iiuc  venerunt 
sacerdotes. — Rcnaudot.  Lit.  Orient.  T.  p.  49. 


OF  THE  COMMUNICANTS.  309 

tion.  The  penitents  and  energumens  arc  not  here  mentioned,  but  it 
appears  from  other  sources  that  they  were  not  permitted  to  be  pres- 
ent at  the  Lord's  table.  None  indeed  but  believers  in  full  commu- 
nion with  the  church  were  permitted  to  be  present.  All  such,  origi- 
nally, partook  of  ihe  sacrament.  Neither  in  the  New  Testament, 
nor  by  Justin  Martyr,  Irenaeus,  or  any  of  the  earliest  christian 
writers,  is  any  intimation  given  of  a  selection  of  communicants. 
All  persons  present  communicated  ;  and,  according  to  Justin,. the 
sacred  elements  were  even  sent  by  the  hands  of  the  deacons  to  ab- 
sent members  of  the  church,  who  might  be  sick,  or  otherwise  pre- 
vented from  coming  to  the  table  of  the  Lord.  According  to  the 
rule  of  St.  Ambrose,  omnes  chrisliani,  omni  dominica,  debenl  ojferre, 
"all  Christians  ought,  on  every  Lord's  day,  to  partake  of  the  Lord's 
supper."  Such  as  came  to  church  without  receiving  the  sacrament, 
are  repeatedly  threatened  with  excommunication  for  this  irregulari- 
ty.-' But  such  cases  of  absence  must  have  become  customary  in  the 
fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  as  appears  from  the  severity  with  which 
this  delinquency  is  rebuked  by  Chrysostom  and  others.'* 

In  the  sixth  century,  persons  of  this  description,  who  did  not  wish 
to  receive  the  sacrament,  withdrew  before  the  solemnity  began,  but 
not  until  they  had  received  the  blessing  of  the  minister.^  This  was 
virtually  sanctioning  the  custom  of  absenting  one's  self  from  the 
communion,  and  gave  rise  to  the  distinction,  among  the  members  of 
the  church,  of  communicants  and  non- communicants ,  a  distinction  un- 
known in  the  primitive  church. 

From  this  it  afterwards  became  customary  for  the  presbyters  to 
keep  consecrated  bread,  called  eulogia,  to  ofTer  to  such  persons  as 
chose  to  partake  of  it  instead  of  uniting  in  regular  communion  with 
the  church.  To  this  substitute  for  full  communion  it  is  easy  to  refer 
the  origin  o( private  masses,  and  of  communion  in  one  kind.  This  per- 
version of  the  ordinance  became  common  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
To  the  same  origin,  no  doubt,  is  to  be  traced  the  idea  of  a  half-way 
covenant,  which  has  at  times  prevailed  in  the  church.  Thev  that 
received  the  eulogia  in  the  place  of  the  sacrament,  were  called  half- 
way communicants. 

Agreeably  to  all  the  laws  and  customs  of  the  church,  baptism  con- 
stituted membership  with  the  church.  All  baptized  persons  were 
legitimately  numbered  among  the  communicants,  as  members  of  the 
church.     Accordingly  the  sacrament  immediately  followed  the  ordi- 


310  OF  THE  lord's  SUPPER. 

nance  of  baptism,  that  the  members  thus  received  might  come  at 
once  into  the  enjoyment  of  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  christian 
fellowship.  But  in  all  these  instances  the  baptized  person  is  of  ne- 
cessity supposed  to  have  been  of  adult  age,  capable  of  exercising 
faith,  according  to  the  injunction,  "  Believe  and  be  baptized." 

After  the  general  introduction  of  infant  baptism,  the  sacrament 
continued  to  be  administered  to  all  who  had  been  baptized,  whether 
infants  or  adults.  The  reason  assigned  by  Cyprian  and  others  for 
this  practice  was,  "  that  age  was  no  impediment ;  that  the  grace  of 
God,  bestowed  upon  the  subjects  of  baptism,  was  given  without 
measure  and  without  any  limitation  as  to  age."  ^  Augustine  strongly 
advocates  this  practice,'^  and  for  authority  appeals  to  John  6:  53, 
Except  ye  eat  the  Jlesli  of  the  So7i  of  Man  and  drink  his  blood,  you 
have  no  life  in  you. 

The  custom  of  infant  communion  continued  for  several  centuries. 
It  is  mentioned  in  the  third  council  of  Tours,  A.  D.  813,  and  even 
the  council  of  Trent,  A.  D.  1545,  only  decreed  that  it  should  not  be 
considered  essential  to  salvation.  It  is  still  scrupulously  observed  by 
the  Greek  church.^ 

The  African  church  were  accustomed  to  administer  the  eucharist 
to  the  dead,  as  has  been  already  mentioned  ;  and,  in  some  instan- 
ces, even  to  bury  with  them  some  of  the  consecrated  elements. 
But  the  latter  custom  seems  not  to  have  prevailed  to  any  considera- 
ble degree,  and  the  former  was  severely  condemned.^  The  conse- 
crated elements  were  frequently  conveyed  to  such  as  were  sick  or 
in  prison  ;  but  they  were  seldom  consecrated  in  a  private  house.^*^ 

2.  Preparation  of  the  Communicants.  The  several  preliminary 
rites  of  baptism  which  have  been  already  detailed,  were  regarded  as 
a  due  preparation  both  for  that  ordinance,  and  for  the  sacrament 
which  immediately  followed.  But,  for  every  subsequent  return  to 
the  table  of  the  Lord,  a  special  and  solemn  preparation  was  required 
of  each  communicant.  The  ordinance  was  regarded  with  the  deep- 
est religious  awe,  which  none  could  duly  approach  without  self-ex- 
amination, and  a  tender  christian  spirit,  coupled  with  a  holy  life. 

The  following  rites  especially,  were  observed  preparatory  to  the 
communion  of  the  Lord's  supper. 

1.  Self  examination,  and  confession  of  sin  before  God,  as  taught 
in  I  Cor.  11:28. 

2.  Absolution,  or  a  removal  of  ecclesiastical  censures  and  penal- 


OF  THE  COMMUNICANTS.  311 

ties.  No  one  who  was  the  subject  of  discipline  could  come  to  the 
Lord's  supper  until  he  had  first  been  restored  to  full  and  regular 
standing  with  the  church. 

3.  Fasting,  humilialion,  and  ahsUnence  from  sensual  pleasures,  in 
much  the  same  manner  as  was  required  of  the  officiating  minister.^^ 
See  page  308. 

4.  The  communicants  loore  a  peculiar  apparel  suited  to  the  occa- 
sion. This  was  probably  white  raiment  similar  to  that  which  was 
put  on  after  baptism,  though  no  specific  law  was  given  on  this  sub- 
ject.    The  women  wore  veils,  usually  white,  called  Dominicalia}^ 

5.  Communicants  of  both  sexes  were  accustomed  to  loash  their 
hands,  previously  to  receiving  the  sacred  elements.  This  was  not  a 
ceremonial  purification,  but  a  rite  dictated  by  a  sense  of  propriety, 
quiddam  secundum  se  conveniens .^"^ 

The  following  extracts  from  Chrysostom  are  given  to  exhibit  the 
elevated  sentiments  of  piety  which  according  to  that  venerable  father 
should  pervade  our  breasts  at  the  table  of  the  Lord. 

"  When  thou  sittest  down  to  a  common  table,  remember  that 
spiritual  table,  and  call  to  mind  that  supper  of  the  Lord.  Con- 
sider what  words  thy  mouth  hath  spoken,  words  worthy  of  such  a 
table,  what  things  thy  mouth  hath  touched  or  tasted,  what  meat  it 
has  fed  upon.  Dost  thou  think  it  no  harm  with  that  mouth  to  speak 
evil  of  and  revile  thy  brother.^  How  canst  thou  call  him  brother.? 
If  he  is  not  thy  brother,  how  couldst  thou  say  '  Our  Father.?' — for 
that  implies  more  persons  than  one.  Consider  with  whom  thou 
stoodest  in  the  time  of  the  holy  mysteries ;  with  cherubim  and  sera- 
phim. But  the  cherubim  use  no  reviling.  Their  mouth  is  filled 
with  one  office,  glorifying  and  praising  God.  How  then  canst  thou 
say  with  them, '  Holy,  Holy,  Holy,'  who  usest  thy  mouth  to  reviling  } 
Tell  me,  if  there  was  a  royal  vessel,  always  filled  with  royal  dain- 
ties, and  set  apart  only  for  this  use,  and  one  of  the  servants  should 
use  it  for  mean  purposes,  would  he  afterwards  dare  to  place  it,  filled 
with  that  which  is  vile  and  refuse,  among  the  other  vessels  appointed 
for  royal  use .?  No,  certainly.  Yet  this  is  the  very  case  of  railing 
and  reviling.  You  say  at  the  holy  table, '  Our  Father,'  and  then 
immediately  add, '  which  art  in  heaven.'  This  word  raises  you  up, 
and  gives  wings  to  your  soul,  and  shows  that  you  have  a  Father  in 
heaven.  Therefore  do  nothing,  speak  nothing,  of  earthly  things. 
He  hath  placed  you  in  the  order  of  spirits  above,  and  appointed  you 


312  OF  THE  lord's  SUPPER. 

a  station  in  that  choir.  Why  then  do  you  draw  yourself  downward  ? 
You  stand  by  the  royal  throne,  and  do  you  revile  your  brother  ? 
How  are  you  not  afraid  lest  the  king  should  take  it  as  an  affront  of- 
fered to  himself  ?  If  a  servant  beats  or  reviles  another  in  our  pre- 
sence, who  are  but  his  fellow-servants,  though  he  does  it  justly,  we 
rebuke  him  for  it.  And  dare  you  stand  before  the  royal  throne,  and 
revile  your  brother  ?  See  you  not  these  holy  vessels  .?  Are  they 
not  always  appropriated  to  one  peculiar  use  ?  Dares  any  one  put 
them  to  any  other  ?  But  you  are  more  holy  than  these  vessels,  yea, 
much  more  holy.  Why  then  do  you  pollute  and  defile  yourself  ? 
You  stand  in  heaven,  and  do  you  still  use  railing  ?  You  converse 
with  angels,  and  do  you  yet  revile  ?  You  are  admitted  to  the  Lord's 
holy  kiss,  and  do  you  yet  revile  .''  God  hath  honored  and  adorned 
your  mouth  so  many  ways,  by  angelical  hymns,  by  food,  not  angeli- 
cal, but  super-angelical,  by  his  own  kisses,  and  by  his  own  embra- 
ces, and  do  you  after  all  these  revile  .''  Do  not,  I  beseech  you.  Let 
that  which  is  the  cause  of  so  many  evils  be  far  from  the  soul  of  a 
Christian."  (Horn.  14  in  Ep.  ad  Ephes.) — "  Be  grateful  to  thy  bene- 
factor by  an  excellent  conversation  ;  consider  the  greatness  of  the 
sacrifice,  and  let  that  engage  thee  to  adorn  every  member  of  thy  body. 
Consider  what  thou  takest  in  thy  hand,  and  never  after  endure  to 
strike  any  man  ;  do  not  disgrace  that  hand  by  the  sin  of  fighting  and 
quarrelling,  which  has  been  honored  with  the  reception  of  so  great  a 
gift.  Consider  what  thou  takest  in  thy  hand,  and  keep  thy  hand 
free  from  all  robbery  and  injustice.  Think  again,  how  thou  not  only 
receivest  it  in  thy  hand,  but  puttest  it  to  thy  mouth  ;  and  keep  thy 
tongue  pure  from  all  fihhy  and  contumelious  speech,  from  blas- 
phemy and  perjury,  and  all  words  of  the  like  nature.  For  it  is  a 
most  pernicious  thing  that  the  tongue,  which  ministers  in  such  tre- 
mendous mysteries,  and  is  dyed  with  the  purple  of  such  precious 
blood,  and  made  a  golden  sword,  should  be  put  to  the  vile  practice 
of  railing  and  reviling,  and  scurrilous  and  abusive  language.  Re- 
gard with  veneration  the  honor  wherewith  God  has  honored  it ;  and 
do  not  debase  it  to  such  mean  offices  of  sin.  Consider  again,  that, 
after  thy  hand  and  thy  tongue,  thy  heart  receives  that  tremendous 
mystery : — then  never  devise  any  fraud  or  deceit  against  thy  neigh- 
bor, but  keep  thy  mind  pure  from  all  malicious  designs.  And  after 
the  same  manner  guard  thy  eyes  and  thy  ears."  [Horn.  21  ad  Pop. 
Antioch.) 


OF  THE  COMMUNICANTS.  313 

3.  Acts  and  deportment  of  the  communicants  at  the  Lord^s  tahle. 
L  They  were  required  to  bring  certain  oblations  or  presents  of 
bread  and  wine.  The  bread  was  enveloped  in  a  white  linen  cloth 
called  fano,  and  the  wine  was  contained  in  a  vessel  called  ama  or 
amula.  These  offerings  were  brought  to  the  altar  after  the  deacon 
had  said,  '  Let  us  pray,'  and  while  the  assembly  were  engaged  in 
singing  a  charity-hymn  apptx)priate  to  the  occasion.!^  The  whole 
ceremony  is  minutely  related  in  the  note  below.*  The  custom  was 
abolished  in  the  twelfth  century. 

2.  The  communicants  stood  during  the  administration  of  the  sa- 
crament, with  their  faces  towards  the  East.'^  "  Stantes  oramus,  quod 
est  signum  resurrectionis.  Unde  etiam  omnibus  diebus  Dominicis 
id  ad  altarc  observatur,  et  Hallelujah  canitur,  quod  significat  action- 
em nostram  futuram  non  esse  nisi  laudare  Deum." — Augustine,  Ep. 
191.  ad  Jan.  c.  15. 

3.  The  clergy,  according  to  their  ranks  respectively,  first  received 
the  elements  ;  then  the  men,  and  lastly  the  women. ^^  They  advan- 
ced to  the  table  two  by  two.  After  the  fourth  century,  none  but  the 
clergy  were  usually  permitted  to  come  within  the  railing  and  to  ap- 
proach the  altar.'" 

4.  The  communicants  received  the  elements  sometimes  standing, 
sometimes  kneeling  ;  but  never  sitting.  They  took  the  bread  and 
cup  in  their  hands,  and  repeated  after  the  minister  the  sacramental 
formulary,  concluding  with  a  loud  '  Amen,'  to  signify  that  they  be- 
lieved themselves  to  be  partakers  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.'^ 
The  men  received  the  elements  with  uncovered  hands,  previously 
washed  ;  the  women  used  a  part  of  the  dominical  as  a  napkin,  with 
which  to  handle  them.  From  the  ninth  century,  the  bread,  instead 
of  being  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  communicants,  was  placed 
in  their  mouths,  to  prevent  its  being  sacrilegiously  carried  home. 
Their  scrupulous  care  to  prevent  the  least  morsel  from  being  wasted 

*  "  Egregiuni  sane  remotae  antiquitatis  pigniis  ac  vestigium  ad  haec  us- 
que teinpora  servatum.  Nimirum  alit  eadem  Ecclcsia  decern  senes  laicos 
totidemque  anus,  quorum  munus  est,  quibusdam  soleninibus  sacris  interesse. 
Honcsto  ac  antlquo  vcstium  generc  utuntur,  et  cum  tempus  Oftertorii  poscit 
e\  iis  duo  marcs  fanonibus,  hoc  est,  niappis  candidis  invoiuti  accedunt  ad 
gradus  Fresbyterii,  et  dextra  oblatas,  sinistra  aviulas  cum  vino  tenant,  quae 
sacerdos  illuo  ab  altar!  una  cum  ministris  descendens,  et  duo  arorentea  vasa 
deaurata  deferens  suscipit.  Idem  subinde  peragunt  et  foeminae  duae  anill 
aetate  venerandae." — Muratorii  Ajitiq.  Ital.  T.  IV. 
40 


314  OF  THE  lord's  SUPPEK. 

has  been  already  mentioned.  It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  the  Nesto- 
lians  still  exercise  the  same  caution  to  prevent  the  waste  of  any 
particle  of  the  sacred  elements. 

At  the  close  of  the  communion  the  people  ail  knelt  down  and  re- 
ceived the  blessing  of  the  priest,'^  after  which  he  dismissed  them, 
saying, '  Depart  in  peace.' 

The  practice  of  kneeling  during  the  consecration  and  distribution 
of  the  elements,  was  introduced  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  cen- 
turies, and  became  general  at  a  period  still  later.^^ 

§  9.  Of  the  Elements.' 

a)   Of  the  Bread. 

1.  Quality  of  the  Iread.  The  question  whether  leavened  or  tin- 
leavened  bread  should  be  used  in  the  sacrament,  has  been  the  sub- 
ject of  a  spirited  dispute  between  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches.  The 
former  contended  for  the  use  of  leavened,  the  latter  of  unleavened 
bread.  Without  attempting  to  follow  our  author  through  his  pro- 
tracted discussion  of  this  question  ;  suffice  it  to  say,  as  the  result  of 
his  investigation,  that  no  rule  was  given  by  our  Lord  on  this  subject. 
It  is  even  uncertain  whether  he  used  the  unleavened  bread  of  the 
passover  or  common  bread  at  the  institution  of  the  supper. 

The  early  christian  writers  make  no  mention  of  the  use  of  unlea- 
vened bread  in  celebrating  the  Lord's  supper. 

The  bread  for  the  sacrament  was  supplied  from  the  oblations 
which  the  communicants  presented  at  the  commencement  of  the  so- 
lemnity, and  was,  probably,  the  same  as  that  which  was  in  common 
use. 

From  the  seventh  century,  the  church  at  Rome  used  unleavened 
bread;  and  the  church  at  Constantinople  continued  the  use  of  com- 
mon fermented  bread,  but  the  controversy  between  the  two  churches 
on  the  subject  originated  with  Michael  Cerularius,  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople, in  the  year  1053. 

Protestants  regard  the  quality  of  the  bread  as  of  no  importance. 
For  the  most  part  they  discontinued,  at  the  reformation,  the  use  of 
unleavened  bread.     But  the  Lutherans  still  continue  it.* 

*  Panis  sitfermentalas,an  azjmua  ;  vinum  I'nbrum,  an  album,  nihil  refert. 
Fermentatum  et  vulgarera  paneiii  luisse  aatc   teuipus  Aleiandri  Romani 


OF  THE  ELEMENTS.  315 

2.  Form  of  the  bread.  The  eucharistic  bread  in  the  church  of 
Rome  is  styled  the  host,  IwsLia,  It  consists  of  cakes  of  meal  and 
water,  made  small,  circular,  and  thin  like  wafers,  by  which  name  it 
is  frequently  called.  These  wafers  have  been  known  by  various 
names,  as  vanes  eucharistdci,  sacramentales,  orbiculares,  tesselati, 
reticulali,  placentae  or  biculares,  nebula,  and  spuma  panis,  crustula 
farracea,  coronae,  panes  mimularii,  denaria  sacramentorum,  etc. 
By  the  enemies  of  religion  it  has  also  been  stigmatized  with  various 
opprobrious  epithets. 

The  host  seems  to  have  been  used  in  the  form  above  mentioned 
since  the  rise  of  the  controversy  with  the  Greek  church  in  1053. 

The  use  of  these  thin  cakes  is  discarded  by  most  of  the  reformed 
churches  ;  but  retained  by  the  Lutherans. 

b)  Of  the  Wine.^ 
1.  Color  of  the  wine.     The  common  wine  of  Palestine  is  of  a  red 
or  dark  color.     Such  was  the  wine  which  our  Saviour  used  at  the 
sacrament,  as  it  would  seem  both  from  the  nature  of  the  case  and 

Episcopi,  narraat  historiae  :  qui  primus  azynio  pane  delectatus  est ;  qua  id 
ratione,non  video,  nisi  ut  plebis  oculos  novo  speclaculo  in  admirationem  tra- 
heret  magis,  quara  ut  animos  proba  religione  institueret.    Omnes  objuro,  qui 
vel  levi  allquo  pietatis  studio  tanguntur,  annon  evidenter  perspiclant,  et  quan- 
to  praeclarius  Dei  gloria  hie  resplendeat,et  quanto  affluentior  spiritualis  con- 
solationis  suavitas  ad  fideles  transeat,quam  in  istisfrigidis  et  histrionicis  nu- 
gis,  quae  nullum  alium  usnm  afferunt,  nisi  ut  stupentis  populi  sensum  fal- 
lunt.     Calvin.  Inst.  Chr.  Rd.  lib.  iv.  c.  17,  §  4:3.-Panis  azymus  ne  sit  an 
fermentalus,  non  magnopere  putamus  laborandum.  Beza.  Ep.  12,  ad  .Anglic. 
Eccl.  Putrcs. —Odiosa.  excitata  est  conlentio  super  materia  cocnae  dominicae, 
contendentibus  his,  pane  azymo,  aliis  vero  fermentato  esse  utendum.     Atqui 
apud  veteres  quandam  de  his  nullae  movebantur  rixae.     Nam  ecclesiae  pro 
libertate  sua  utebantur  utroque.     Videtur  quidem  Dominus  in  prima  ilia  coe- 
na  usus  esse  pane  azymo,  in  mensa  ex  veteri  more  celebrandi  Paschatis  re- 
licto,  unde  nou  paucae  ecclesiae  infermentato  pane  usae  sunt,  quae  tamen 
fermentato  pane  ulentes,  non  damnabant  haereseos.  Bullinger.  ap.  Gerhard. 
Loc.  Theol.  X.— Fermenlati  aeque  ac  azyrai  panis  in  Eucharistia  Jiber  usus 
est,  dum  modo  ne  alteruter  ceu  necessarius  et  nullo  casu  mutabilis  praescri- 
bat'ur.     Uterque  analogiam  quandam   fundit :  ille  nutritionis  plenioris ;  hie 
sinceritatis  et  sanclitatis,  ad  quain  Eucharistia  obligal,  majoris.     Nostrae  ec- 
clesiae usum  azymi  a  Zuinglio,  externorum  ejusmodi  plane  incurioso  et  in- 
teriorum  atque  spiritualium  tenacissimo,  retentum,  ecu  fractioni  et  distribu- 
tioni  opportuniorem,  ut  mutarent,  hactenus   induci   non  potuerunt,  novandi 
periculum  metuentes.     Heidegger.  Corp.  Theol.  Christ.  Loc.  xxv.  §  78. 


316  OF  THE  lord's  SUFFER. 

from  the  declaration  this  is  my  blood,  as  well  as  from  the  scriptoral 
expression,  the  blood  of  the  grape,  etc.  The  color  of  the  wine  was 
not  considered  as  essential,  but  the  red  wines  were  generally  prefer- 
red to  the  white. 2 

Of  the  mixture  of  wine  until  loater.  The  ancient  churches  uni- 
versally mixed  water  whh  the  sacramental  wine.  This  mixture  was 
called  x^Sfia,  from  xsQapwfji,  misceo.  By  the  Latin  authors  it  was 
styled  mixtiim,  temperalum.  Some  speak  of  this  mixing  of  wine 
with  water  as  an  express  precept  of  Christ.^  Others  rely  upon  pre- 
cedent, and  early  usage  for  authority.'*  But  whatever  may  have 
been  the  origin  of  this  custom  it  was  abundantly  authorized  by  the 
canons  of  the  church.'^ 

The  Armenians  used  wine  alone  ;  others  used  only  water  ;  but 
both  were  condemned  as  heretics. 

Protestants,  at  the  reformation,  abandoned  this  ancient  rite  of  the 
church,  not  as  being  unlawful  or  injurious,  but  because  it  was  main- 
tained by  the  Catholics  merely  on  the  ground  of  ecclesiastical  au- 
thority. 

The  proportion  of  water  mixed  with  the  wine  varied  at  different 
times.  Sometimes  it  was  one  fourth  ;  at  others,  one  third.  The 
Western  church  mixed  cold  water  only.  The  Greek  church  first 
mixed  cold  water,  and  afterwards  added  warm  water,  just  before  the 
distribution.  This  was  said  to  be  emblematical,  at  once  of  the  fire 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  of  the  water  which  flowed  from  our  Savior's 
side.6 

Various  other  idle  questions  relating  to  the  sacred  elements  at 
times  agitated  the  church  ;  and  various  superstitious  ceremonies 
were  observed  by  different  branches  of  the  church,  which  it  were 
superfluous  to  mention  in  detail.  With  some  it  was  a  question  of 
what  material  the  bread  should  be  made — whether  of  the  flour  of 
wheat,  or  barley,  or  of  that  of  some  other  grain.  Others  mingled 
salt  and  oil  with  the  bread.  Some  substituted  water  for  wine.  Oth- 
ers used  mingled  wine.  Indeed,  this  sacred  ordinance  of  the  Lord's 
supper,  in  itself  so  simple  and  so  impressive,  has  been  dishonored, 
at  times,  by  casuistical  discussions  too  ridiculous  to  be  gravely  rela- 
ted ;  and  desecrated  by  rites  too  horrible  to  be  mentioned. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  ELEMENTS.  317 


§  10.  Consecration  of  the  Elements. 

The  consecration  of  the  elements  was  at  a  very  early  period  per- 
formed with  great  formality,  and  with  a  set  form  of  words  and  prayer, 
which  were  the  subject  of  frequent  discussion  in  different  churches.  It 
would  be  foreign  to  the  design  of  this  work  to  enumerate  the  various  con- 
troversies that  have  prevailed  on  this  subject.  In  general,  the  church 
has  agreed  that  the  elements  should  be  set  apart  to  a  sacramental 
use  by  prayer.  The  words  given  in  the  original  institution  were 
uniformly  included  in  the  consecrating  prayer.  Some  contended 
that  a  personal  invocation  of  the  Holy  Spirit  was  essential  to  a  due 
consecration  of  the  elements.  But  all  agreed  in  supplicating  the 
graces  of  the  Spirit  to  sanctify  these  gifts  to  them,  and  to  make  them 
partakers  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  i.  e.  of  the  benefits  of  his 
death.  Several  of  the  authors  who  have  treated  of  this  general  sub- 
ject are  enumerated  in  the  index. ^ 

Elevation  of  the  host.  As  early,  perhaps,  as  the  third  or  fourth 
century,  it  became  customary  in  the  Eastern  church  to  exhibit  the 
consecrated  elements  to  the  people,  to  excite  their  veneration  for  the 
sacred  mysteries  of  the  sacrament.  In  the  middle  ages  the  host  be- 
came the  subject  of  adoration,  under  the  notion  that  the  elements,  by 
transubstantiation,  became  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.  This  theo- 
logical dogma  was  introduced  into  Gaul  in  the  twelfth  century,  and 
into  Germany  in  the  thirteenth.^ 

§  11.  Distribution  of  the  Elements.^ 

Both  the  bread  and  the  wine  were  universally  administered  to  the 
clergy  and  laity  alike  until  about  the  twelfth  century,  when  the  cup 
began,  in  the  Western  church,  gradually  to  be  withdrawn  from  the 
laity,  on  account  of  the  disorders  to  which  the  use  of  it  had  given 
rise.*  The  Greek  retains  substantially  the  ancient  custom.  Protes- 
tants universally  concur  in  administering  both  elements. 

*  Certum  est,  omnes  passim  clericos  et  laicos  viros  et  mulieres,  sub  utra- 
que  specie  sacra  mysteria  antiquitus  suinsisse,  cum  solenini  eorum  celebra- 
tioni  aderant  et  offerebant  et  de  oblatis  participabant.  Extra  sacrificium 
vero  et  extra  ecclesiain  semper  et  ubiquc  cominunio  sub  una  specie  in  usu 
fuit.     Prirnae  parti  asserlionis  cons-entiunt  omnes,  tarn  calholici  quani  secta- 


318  OF  THE  lord's  SUPPER. 

The  strictest  order  was  observed  in  distributing  the  elennents  to 
the  difTerent  raniis  of  people.  The  clergy  first  received  tliem,  and 
the  others  in  a  regular  succession.*  This  rule  is  disregarded  by 
protestants,  with  the  exception  of  the  English  episcopal  church. 

The  communicants  received  the  elements  at  the  altar.  The 
council  of  Laodicea,  however,  admitted  only  the  clergy  to  the  altar.^ 
The  laity,  and  communicants  of  the  other  sex,  from  this  time,  usu- 
ally received  the  elements  from  without  the  chancel. 

rii ;  nee  earn  negare  potest,  qui  vel  levissima  reruni  ecclesiasticaruin  notitia 
iinbutus  sit.  Semper  enim  et  ubique  ab  ecclesiae  priinordiis  usque  ad  saecu- 
lum  XIJ  sub  specie  panis  et  vini  coniinunicarunt  fidcles;  coepitque  paulatiin 
ejus  saeculi  initio  usus  calicis  obsolescere,  plerisque  episcopis  cum  populo 
intercidentibus  ob  periculum  irreverentiae  et  eft'usionis.  quod  inevitabile  erat 
auctafidelium  multitudine,  in  qua  deesse  non  poterant  minus  catiti  et  attenti 
et  parum  religiosi,  .  .  Paulatim  introducta  est  communio  sub  sola  specie  pa- 
nis, posteaquam  intolerandi  abusus  religiosos  antistites  ad  abrogandum  com- 
munem  calicis  usum  induxerunt.  Moribus  enim  immutatis  leges  quoque 
mutandae  sunt,  quae  aliquando  utiles  atque  optimae  fuerunt.  Hacc  autem 
tnutatio  facta  est  piiMuim  a  diversis  episcopis  in  suis  ecclesiis,  deinde  a  Syno- 
do  Constantiensi  cinonica  sanctione  pro  omnibus  stabilita.  Bona  Rcr.Liturg. 
lib.  ii.  c.  18,  §  ].  —  Ab  ecclesiae  exordio  ad  saeculum  usque  XII  eucharistiam 
etiam  laicis  sub  utraque  specie  in  publico  soleninique  cucharistiae  ministerio 
fuisse  ministratam  (etsi  non  semper  et  necessario),  nullus  est  inter  catholi- 
cos  qui  ignorat,  si  vel  levissima  rerum  ecclesiasticarum  notitia  sit  imbutus. 
Varum  crescente  indies  fidelium  numero,  cum  sanguis  non  raro  a  populo 
minus  cauto  et  parum  religioso  fuerit  efFusus,  primum  introducta  fuit  con- 
suetudo,  ut  ope  tubuli  vel  fistulae  cujusdam  sumeretur,  quae  fundo  calicis, 
teste  Lindane,  quandoque  fuit  ferruminata,  ne  ob  incultioris  populi  rustici- 
tatem  tam  facile  effundi  posset.  Ast  cum  et  haec  praxis  sua  haberet  incom- 
moda,  coeperunt  sacerdotes  populo  panem  eucharisticam  pretioso  sanguine 
intinctum  distribuere  :  qui  mos  saeculo  XI  et  XII  multis  ciclesiis  fuit  fa- 
miliaris.  Verum  cum  ilium  reprobarint  ecclesiae  aliae,  nee  inconvenientiis 
satis  iretur  obviam,  calicis  usus  saec.  XIII  semper  semperque  minui,et  tan- 
dem saec.  XIV  fere  generaliter  obsolescere  coepit,  donee  saec.  XV  post  ex- 
ortam  Hussitarum  haeresin  calix  publico  ecclesiae  decreto  Laicis  omnibus 
fuerit  sublatus.    Krazer  de  Litiirg.  p.  567. 

*  Ordo  communionis  hie  erat,  ut  primo  quidem  Celebrans  seipsum  com- 
municaret,  deinde  Episeopos,  si  qui  aderant,  vel  Presbyteros  simul  cum  co 
synaxin  agentes :  turn  Diaconos,  Subdiaconos  et  Clericos,  Monachos,  Dia- 
conissas  et  saeras  V  irgines  ;  novissiine  populum  adjuvantibus  Presbyteris, 
primum  viros,  postea  mulieres.  Idem  in  calicis  distributione  servabatur,  ni- 
si quod  Presbyteri  per  se  ilium  sumebant,  Diaconi  a  Presbyteris,  reliqui  a 
Diaconis,  ut  ex  Ordine  Romano  et  ex  Graecoruni  Euehologio  constat.  Biva 
Rer.  Liturg.  lib.  ii.  c.  17,  p.  858. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  ELEMENTS.  319 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  primitive  Christians  used  no  established 
form  in  presenting  the  elements.  This  is  the  more  remarkable,  in- 
asmuch as  they  were  so  careful  in  regard  to  their  baptismal  formu- 
lary ;  and  is  to  be  accounted  for  only  from  the  fact,  that  the  form  of 
the  original  institution  was  introduced  into  the  consecrating  prayer. 
The  earliest  form  of  which  we  have  any  record  was  also  the  most 
simple  and  concise.  In  presenting  the  elements  respectively,  the 
presiding  elder  said  :  "  Tlie  body  of  Christ ;  the  blood  of  Christ ; 
the  cup  of  life."  To  which  the  communicant  replied,  "  Amen."^ 
This  response  was,  in  time,  omitted  by  the  laity,  and  only  repeated 
by  the  clergy  ;  but  it  is  not  known  at  what  time  this  change  took 
place. 

Under  Gregory  the  Great,  and  subsequently,  the  forms  following 
were  in  use  :  "  The  body  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  preserve  you 
unto  eternal  life."  "  The  body  and  the  blood  of  the  Lamb  of  God, 
which  is  given  to  you  for  the  remission  of  sins."  "  May  the  body 
and  the  blood  of  the  Lamb  of  God  be  to  you  the  salvation  of  soul 
and  body."  "  May  the  body  and  the  blood  of  the  Lamb  of  God 
avail  you  to  the  remission  of  sins,  and  to  life  eternal."'' 

When  the  bread  was  dipped  in  the  wine,  the  form  of  distribution 
ran  thus :  "The  body  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  dipped  in  his  blood, 
preserve  your  soul  unto  everlasting  life."  ^ 

The  Syriac  and  Greek  churches  had  also  each  their  own  pecu- 
liar forms.  But  the  protestant  churches  have,  with  great  propriety, 
restored  the  original  and  significant  form  :  "  Take,  eat  :  this  is  my 
body,  which  is  broken  for  you,"  etc. 

Abuses  connected  with  the  celebration  of  this  ordinance  very  early 
crept  into  the  church.*^  To  correct  these  the  bread  and  wine  were, 
at  one  time,  mingled  together  ;  at  another,  the  wine  was  withheld, 
and  the  bread  only  administered ;  and  again,  the  elements  were 
presented  to  the  lips,  instead  of  being  delivered  into  the  hands. 
The  protestant  churches,  generally,  have  returned  to  the  ancient 
mode  of  presenting  the  bread  and  wine  singly  into  the  hands  of  each 
communicant. 

The  custom  of  the  Greek  church  was  to  receive  the  sacrament 
standing,  and  such  at  first  was  probably  the  usage  of  the  Western 
church. 

The  most  important  riles  connected  with  the  celebration  of  this 
ordinance,  as  detailed  above,  are  brought  together  in  the  following 
extract. 


320  OF  THE  lord's  SUPPER. 

"  However  much  they  altered  in  dliferent  places,  and  at  different 
periods,  the  times  of  celebrating  this  sacred  ordinance,  they  never 
varied  except,  perhaps,  in  some  trifling  circumstances,  in  the  mode 
of  observance.  The  peculiar  service  of  the  faithful  was  commonly 
introduced  by  a  private  and  silent  prayer,  which  was  followed  by  a 
general  supplication  for  the  church  and  the  whole  family  of  man- 
kind, and  then  each  of  the  brethren  came  forward  to  contribute  a 
free-will  offering,  according  to  his  ability,  to  the  treasury  of  the 
church, — the  wealthy  always  being  careful  to  bring  part  of  theirs  in 
articles  of  bread  and  wine.  Out  of  this  collection  both  the  sacra- 
mental elements  were  furnished, — the  one  consisting,  from  the  first, 
of  the  common  bread  that  was  in  use  in  the  country,  and  the  other 
of  wine  diluted  with  water,  according  to  the  universal  practice  of  the 
ancients.  Preliminary  to  the  distribution  of  these,  two  ceremonies 
were  always  observed  with  the  greatest  punctuality, — the  one  em- 
blematical of  the  purity  that  became  the  ordinance,  the  other  of  the 
love  that  should  reign  among  all  the  disciples  of  Christ.  The  dea- 
cons brought  a  basin  of  water,  in  which  the  presiding  ministers 
washed  their  hands  in  presence,  and  on  behalf,  of  the  whole  congre- 
gation,—a  practice  founded  on  the  words  of  the  Psalmist, — "I  will 
wash  my  hands  in  innocence,  and  so  I  will  compass  thine  altar;" 
and  then  on  a  given  signal,  the  assembled  brethren,  in  token  of  their 
mutual  amity  and  good  will,  proceeded  to  give  each  other  a  holy 
kiss,  ministers  saluting  ministers,  the  men  their  fellow-men,  and  the 
women  the  female  disciples  that  stood  beside  them.  At  this  stage 
of  the  service,  another  prayer  of  a  general  nature  was  offered,  at  the 
conclusion  of  which  the  minister,  addressing  the  people,  said, 
"  Peace  be  unto  you,"  to  which  they  responded  in  one  voice,  "  and 
with  thy  spirit."  Pausing  a  little,  he  said,  "  Lift  up  your  hearts  to 
God,"  to  which  they  replied,  "  We  lift  them  up  unto  God  ;"  and 
then,  after  another  brief  interval  of  silence,  he  proceeded,  "  Let  us 
give  thanks  to  God,"  to  which  they  returned  the  ready  answer,  "  It 
is  meet  and  just  so  to  do."  These  preliminary  exhortations  being 
completed,  the  minister  offered  up  what  was  called  the  great  thanks- 
giving for  all  blessings,  both  temporal  and  spiritual,  especially  for 
the  unspeakable  love  of  God  as  manifested  in  the  death,  resurrec- 
tion, and  ascension  of  Christ,  and  for  that  holy  ordinance  in  which, 
in  gracious  adaptation  to  the  nature  of  man,  He  is  evidently  set  forth 
as  crucified  and  slain  ;  concluding  with  an  earnest  desire,  that  in- 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  ELEMENTS.  321 

tending  communicants  might  participate  in  all  the  benefits  it  was  de- 
signed to  impart,  to  which  all  the  people  said  aloud,  "  Amen."  As 
the  communicants  were  about  to  advance  to  the  place  appropriated 
for  communion, — for  up  to  that  time  it  was  unoccupied, — the  minis- 
ter exclaimed,  "  Holy  things  to  holy  persons," — a  form  of  expression 
equivalent  to  a  practical  prohibition  of  all  who  were  unholy  ;  and  the 
invitation  to  communicants  was  given  by  the  singing  of  some  appro- 
priate Psalms,  such  as  the  passage  in  the  34th, — "  O  taste  and  see 
that  God  is  good,"  and  the  133d,  beginning,  "  Behold  !  how  good 
and  how  pleasant  it  is  for  brethren  to  dwell  together  in  unity  !"  The 
elements  having  been  consecrated  by  a  prayer,  which  consisted 
chiefly  of  the  words  of  the  institution,  the  minister  took  up  the  bread, 
and  breaking  it,  in  memorial  of  Christ's  body  being  broken,  distrib- 
uted it  to  his  assisting  brethren  beside  him,  and  in  like  manner  the 
cup,  both  of  which  were  carried  round  by  the  deacons  to  the  com- 
municants in  order  ;  and  while  they  presented  them  in  this  simple 
form,  "  the  body  of  Christ,"  "  the  blood  of  Christ,"  each  communi- 
cant, on  receiving  them,  devoutly  said,  "  Amen."  The  manner  in 
which  they  received  the  element,  was  by  taking  it  in  the  right  hand, 
and  placing  the  left  underneath  to  prevent  any  of  it  from  falling. 
The  act  of  communion  being  finished,  a  thanksgiving  hymn  was 
sung,  and  an  appropriate  prayer  offered,  after  which  the  brethren 
again  gave  each  other  the  salutation  of  a  holy  kiss,  and  having  re- 
ceived the  blessing  of  their  pastor,  were  exhorted  to  "  Go  in  peace." 
"  Such  was  the  manner  in  which  the  holy  rite  of  the  supper  was 
usually  celebrated  among  the  primitive  Christians.  But  we  shall 
have  exhibited  a  very  imperfect  view  of  their  manners  in  this  re- 
spect, unless  we  take  into  consideration  some  peculiarities,  which, 
while  they  were  professedly  founded  on  a  literal  interpretation  of  the 
words  of  Scripture,  gave  rise  to  customs  that  have  been  almost  uni- 
versally exploded  by  every  succeeding  age  of  the  Church.  Accord- 
ing to  their  ideas,  the  feast  of  communion,  implying  a  fellowship  in 
spirit  and  feeling,  might  be  celebrated  by  persons  who  were  absent, 
as  well  as  those  who  were  present  at  the  solemnity  ;  and  according- 
ly, they  were  in  the  habit  of  sending,  by  the  hands  of  the  deacons, 
portions  of  the  sacred  elements  to  their  brethren,  who,  from  sickness 
or  imprisonment,  were  unable  to  attend.  Such  causes  of  absence  as 
these,  which  arose  from  the  unavoidable  dispensations  of  Providence, 
ought  not,  in  their  opinion,  to  deprive  any  of  the  comfort  and  privi- 

41 


322  OF  THE  lord's  supper. 

lege  of  communicating ;  and  as  numbers  of  those  who  were  ranked 
in  this  class,  were  martyrs,  confessors  of  the  truth,  and  devoted  fol- 
lowers of  the  Saviour,  they  considered  it  would  have  been  the  height 
of  cruelty  to  withhold  from  such  honored  characters  the  means  of 
participating  with  their  brethren  in  an  act  of  communion  that  was 
essentially  spiritual.  Frequently  did  they  transmit,  therefore,  to  the 
sick-beds  or  the  dungeons  of  their  brethren,  fragments  of  the  bread 
that  had  been  consecrated  in  the  church ;  or,  where  that  could  not 
be  procured,  the  minister  consecrated  it  on  the  spot: — nay,  so  far 
were  they  carried  by  their  benevolent  desire  to  extend  the  benefits 
of  this  sacred  ordinance  to  all  who  were  anxious  to  partake  of  it,  that 
they  scrupled  not  to  send  it  to  penitents  when  in  a  dying  state,  though 
they  would  not,  in  other  circumstances,  have  been  deemed  qualified, 
according  to  the  established  rules  of  the  Church.  A  memorable  ex- 
ample of  this  is  furnished  in  the  case  of  Serapion,  a  Christian  of 
whose  faith  and  sincerity  no  doubt  was  entertained,  till,  on  the  out- 
break of  a  violent  persecution,  he  fell  from  his  profession.  Returning 
to  his  first  love,  he  long  and  importunately  solicited  in  vain  a  restora- 
tion to  the  privilege  of  communion.  Being  overtaken,  at  length,  by 
a  severe  indisposition,  which  brought  him  in  four  days  to  the  verge 
of  the  grave,  he  despatched  a  messenger  to  one  of  the  neighboring 
ministers,  with  an  earnest  request  that  he  would  come  and  give  him 
the  consolations  of  the  sacrament.  The  minister  was  prevented  by 
sickness  from  going  in  person,  but  perceiving  the  urgency  of  the 
case,  he  sent  a  portion  of  the  consecrated  bread  by  the  hands  of  the 
messenger,  who  administered  it  to  ihe  dying  penitent. 

"  Another  peculiarity  of  theirs — arising  from  an  impression  of  the 
absolute  necessity  of  this  ordinance  to  salvation, — was  their  admis- 
sion of  persons  to  partake  of  it  of  all  ages,  and  in  every  variety  of 
circumstance.  Provided  only  that  they  had  received  the  initiatory 
rite  of  baptism,  the  primitive  Christians  scrupled  not  to  administer 
the  other  christian  sacrament  to  all,  without  exception,  even  though 
they  might  be  altogether  unconscious  of  the  service  in  which  they 
were  made  to  engage.  Hence  the  custom  of  giving  the  communion 
to  infants — a  custom  which,  for  many  ages,  prevailed  in  the  ancient 
Church  ;  and  as  persons  of  that  tender  age  were  unable  to  eat  the 
bread,  the  practise  early  came  into  use  of  dipping  it  in  wine,  and 
pressing  a  drop  or  two  from  the  moistened  sop  into  the  mouth  of  the 
babe.   Hence,  also,  the  custom  of  administering  it  to  the  sick  in  the 


ACCOMPANYING  RITES.  323 

delirium  of  a  fever,  or  in  such  circumstances  of  bodily  weakness  that 
they  were  incapable  of  communicating  their  own  wishes, — which, 
however,  if  the  attendant  nurse  testified  had  been  previously  and 
anxiously  expressed,  were  gratified  by  a  participation  of  the  sacred 
rite,  just  as  if  they  had  been  in  the  full  possession  of  bodily  and 
mental  health.  Hence,  also,  the  custom  of  many  religious  persons 
carrying  home  a  portion  of  the  consecrated  bread  from  the  church 
to  their  own  homes,  and  reserving  it  for  future  use  among  their  most 
precious  and  valuable  treasures.  In  a  chest  appropriated  to  the  pur- 
pose this  sacred  deposit  was  laid,  and  when  no  opportunity  was  af- 
forded of  attending  the  morning  service,  every  time  they  rose  from 
bed,  and  before  engaging  in  any  worldly  business,  they  were  accus- 
tomed to  consecrate  the  day  by  the  solemn  act  of  participating  of  the 
sacrament ;  or,  when  a  christian  stranger  came  to  their  houses  for 
their  hospitality,  ere  ever  he  tasted  of  the  viands  that  v(rere  produced 
for  their  refreshment,  the  morsel  of  the  consecrated  bread  was  broken 
between  them,  and  their  social  intercourse  hallowed  by  the  prelimi- 
nary rite  of  communion.  Customs  like  these,  which  savored  so 
strongly  of  superstition,  could  have  originated  only  in  a  profound 
feeling  of  reverence  for  the  ordinance,  and  in  an  impression  of  its 
supposed  indispensable  necessity  to  the  well-being  of  the  soul  in  a 
future  world." — Jamieson,  pp.  125 — 130. 

§  12.  Accompanying  Rites. 

1.  Psalmody  in  connection  with  the  Sacrament.  The  Apostolical 
Constitutions  prescribe  the  34th  Psalm  to  be  sung  on  this  occasion  ; 
certain  parts  being  supposed  peculiarly  appropriate.^  '  I  will  bless 
the  Lord  at  all  times.'  '  O  taste  and  see  that  the  Lord  is  good.' 
Certain  other  psalms  were  also  in  use  in  different  churches,  particu- 
larly the  42d,  43d,  45th,  133d,  139ih,  and  145th  Psalms.2  These 
were  sung  during  the  distribution.  Besides  these,  it  was  customary 
to  begin  and  to  conclude  the  whole  ceremony  with  some  solemn 
form  of  praise  and  thanksgiving,  in  which  the  whole  body  of  the 
communicants  joined.  These  were  selected,  for  the  most  part,  from 
the  book  of  Psalms;  but  they  varied  in  different  limes  and  places. 

2.  Of  the  kiss  of  charity?  This  form  of  salutation,  as  a  token  of 
christian  affection,  appears  to  have  been  an  apostolic  custom,  Rom. 
16:  16.  1  Cor.  16:  20.  2  Cor.  13:  12.    1  Thess.  5:  26.  1  Pet.  5:  14, 


324  OF  THE  lord's  supper. 

and  was  perpetuated  for  many  centuries.  It  was  appropriately  one 
of  the  rites  of  the  sacramental  service.  But  was  observed  on  com- 
mon occasions  of  public  worship.  It  was  omitted  on  Good  Friday, 
in  remembrance  of  the  traitorous  kiss  of  Judas  Iscariot. 

The  different  sexes,  however,  were  not  permitted  to  interchange 
this  salutation  one  with  another.  Many  other  precautions  were  also 
used  to  prevent  abuses  which  might  be  expected  to  arise  out  of  this 
practice.^  It  was  for  the  enemies  of  Christianity  the  occasion  of 
abundant  reproach  ;  but  it  was  still  continued  through  the  eighth 
and  ninth  centuries,  even  to  the  thirteenth,  when  it  appears  to  have 
ceased. 

The  following  passage  from  the  nineteenth  canon  of  the  Council 
of  Laodicea  is  worthy  of  remark  on  other  accounts,  as  well  as  for 
its  prescription  concerning  this  token  of  christian  charity  and  con- 
cord. "  After  the  bishops'  sermons  {una  tug  o^dlag  tc5v  inia- 
mnwv),  let  a  prayer  for  the  catechumens  be  first  pronounced. 
When  the  catechumens  have  left  the  church,  let  the  prayer  for  the 
penitents  {tuv  iv  ^iiavoia)  be  said.  After  these  have  received  im- 
position of  hands  (TiQomX&oviMv  vno  ;^ft?«),  and  have  retired,  let  the 
three  prayers  of  the  faithful  (twv  niaiwv  tug  tvyjig  rqug)  be  offered  ; 
the  first  in  silence  {8i,a  amnr^g),  but  the  second  and  third  aloud  {Slu 
7iQ0(7(p(iDVT'j(TSMg.)  Then  let  the  kiss  be  given,  (t/jV  hqi]V7}v,  i.  e.  the 
kiss  of  peace.)  When  the  presbyters  have  given  this  kiss  to  the 
bishop,  let  the  laity  exchange  it  among  themselves.  Hereupon  let 
the  holy  sacrifice  be  accomplished.  But  it  is  permitted  to  the  cler- 
gy {jolg  iBqaTixolg)  alone,  to  approach  the  altar,  and  communicate 
there."     All  this  proceeds  upon  the  system  of  secret  instruction. 

3.  Incense  and  the  sign  of  the  cross.  The  use  of  incense  in  con- 
nection with  the  sacrament  was  unknown  in  the  church  until  the 
time  of  Gregory  the  Great,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  century. 
After  this  period  it  became  prevalent  in  the  churches. 

The  signing  of  the  cross  has  a  higher  antiquity.  It  is  spoken  of 
by  Basil,^  Chrysostom,^  and  Augustine,^  and  is  distinctly  mentioned 
in  the  Apostolical  Constitutions^  as  a  part  of  the  sacramental  service. 

This  superstition  is  abolished  in  the  Protestant  churches. 


AGAPAE,  OR  FEASTS  OF  CHARITY.  325 


§  13.  Agapae,  or  Feasts  of  Charity. 

These  feasts  were  usually  celebrated  in  connection  with  the  Lord's 
supper ;  but  not  as  a  necessary  part  of  it.  From  their  connection 
with  this  ordinance,  the  following  account  of  them  is  inserted  as  com- 
piled by  Riddle  from  Augusti  and  Siegel. 

The  history  of  the  common  meals  or  feasts  in  the  church,  called 
agapae  (a/omat.,  more  frequently  than  in  the  singular  »/  ayiinrj),  is  in 
many  respects  obscure.  It  appears  that  they  were  not  independent 
rites,  but  always  connected  with  some  act  or  office  of  public  worship. 
When  they  were  celebrated  in  connection  with  the  Lord's  supper, 
they  seem  to  have  taken  place  before  the  administration  of  that  sa- 
crament, in  conformity  with  the  circumstances  of  the  original  insti- 
tution, which  took  place  "  after  supper,"  1  Cor.  11:  25.  This  ar- 
rangement is  supposed  to  have  led  to  the  disorders  which  St.  Paul  so 
sharply  reproved  in  the  Corinthian  church ;  and  the  inconvenience 
of  it  becoming  generally  manifest,  it  was  soon  made  the  practice  of 
the  church  to  celebrate  the  Lord's  supper  first,  and  even  to  dispense 
with  attendence  at  the  feast  which  followed,  although  all  Christians 
were  required  to  contribute  provisions  for  it,  according  to  their 
ability.^ 

But,  even  under  these  altered  circumstances,  the  love-feasts  were 
frequently  attended  with  intemperance,  and  other  serious  disorders, 
which  form  subjects  of  grave  complaint  in  the  writings  of  the  Fa- 
thers.^ This  may  perhaps  be  reckoned  among  the  causes  of  the 
change  in  the  time  of  celebrating  the  Lord's  supper,  already  men- 
tioned, from  the  evening  to  the  early  part  of  the  morning.  And 
hence  it  was,  that  afterwards  the  holding  of  agapae  within  the  church- 
es was  forbidden.3  And  by  this  regulation  the  agapae  became  en- 
tirely distinct  from  the  eucharist,  which  continued  to  be  publicly  cele- 
brated in  the  church. 

It  cannot  be  exactly  determined  at  what  period  the  agapae  were 
entirely  abolished. 

1.  Origin  of  the  Name  and  of  the  custom.  The  Greek  word 
agape,  ayani],  which  signifies  love  or  charity,  is  used  in  ecclesiasti- 
cal antiquities  to  denote  a  certain  feast,  of  which  all  members  of  the 
church  of  whatever  rank  or  condition,  partook  together;  intended 
lo  denote  and  cherish  those  dispositions  of  brotherly  love  and  affec- 


326  OF  THE  lohd's  supper. 

lion  which  the  gospel  prescribes  to  the  disciples  of  Jesus.  In  the 
New  Testament  the  word  occurs  only  once  in  this  sense  of  feast  of 
charity  or  lovtfeast,  namely  in  the  Epistle  of  St.  Jude,  verse  12, 
and  there  it  is  found  in  the  plural  number;  but  the  observance  itself 
is  alluded  to  in  the  sacred  records,  under  other  names,  as  meat,  ta- 
bles. Acts  2:  46.  6:  2.  The  word  was  retained  by  ecclesiastical 
writers,  but  not  to  the  exclusion  of  other  significant  appellations  ; 
e.  g.  av/.nTC(na,  banquets  ;  yoival  jQunf^ai,  public  tables ;  xoival  f.ait- 
dasig,  public  feasts  ;  Sslnva  xoLva,  public  suppers.  This  use  of  the 
term^Ayunrj  is  not  found  in  the  writings  of  any  profane  authors  be- 
fore the  christian  era ;  but  it  occurs  in  the  works  of  Plutarch  and 
Celsus,  who  doubtless  borrowed  it  from  the  Christians. 

It  is  certain  that  the  feast  of  charity  was  celebrated  in  the  earliest 
period  of  the  christian  church  ;  see  Acts  2:  46.  6:  2.  1  Cor.  11:  16 
— 34.  Some  writers  suppose  that  this  custom  had  its  remote  origin 
in  the  practice  of  the  heathen  ;  while  others  regard  it  as  derived 
from  the  Jewish  synagogue.  But  it  is  perhaps  still  more  probable 
that  it  originated  simply  in  the  circumstances  of  our  Lord's  last  sup- 
per with  his  disciples  ;  or  that,  at  all  events,  it  is  to  be  attributed  en- 
tirely to  the  genius  of  a  religion  which  is  eminently  a  bond  of  bro- 
therly union  and  concord  among  its  sincere  professors. 

2.  Mode  of  Celebration.  In  the  earliest  accounts  which  have  come 
down  to  us,  we  find  that  the  bishop  or  presbyter  presided  at  these 
feasts.'*  It  does  not  appear  whether  the  food  was  dressed  in  the 
place  appointed  for  the  celebration  of  the  feast,  or  was  previously 
prepared  by  individual  members  of  the  church  at  their  own  homes  ; 
but  perhaps  either  of  these  plans  was  adopted  indifferently,  according 
to  circumstances.  Before  eating,  the  guests  washed  their  hands  ; 
and  a  public  prayer  was  oflered  up.  A  portion  of  Scripture  was 
then  read,  and  the  pi'esident  proposed  some  questions  upon  it,  which 
were  answered  by  the  persons  present.  After  this,  any  accounts 
which  had  been  received  respecting  the  affairs  of  other  churches 
were  recited  ;  for,  at  that  time,  such  accounts  were  regularly  trans- 
mitted from  one  community  to  another,  by  means  of  which  all 
Christians  became  acquainted  with  the  history  and  condition  of  the 
whole  body,  and  were  thus  enabled  to  sympathize  with,  and  in  many 
cases  to  assist,  each  other.  Letters  from  bishops  and  other  eminent 
members  of  the  church,  together  with  the  Acts  of  the  Martyrs,  were 
also  recited  on  this  occasion.     And  hymns  or  psalms  were  sung,^ 


AGAPAE,  OR  FEASTS  OF  CHARITY.  327 

At  the  close  of  the  feast,  money  was  also  collected  for  the  benefit  of 
widows  and  orphans,  the  poor,  prisoners,  and  persons  who  had  suf- 
fered shipwreck.  Before  the  meetinjr  broke  up,  all  the  members  of 
the  church  embraced  each  other,  in  token  of  mutual  brotherly-love  ; 
and  tho  whole  ceremony  was  concluded  with  a  philanthropic  prayer.*^ 

As  the  number  of  Christians  increased,  various  deviations  from 
the  original  practice  of  celebration  occurred  ;  which  called  for  the 
censure  of  the  governors  of  the  ChurchJ  In  consequence  of  these 
irregularities,  it  was  appointed  that  the  president  should  deliver  to 
each  guest  his  portion  separately,  and  that  the  larger  portions  should 
be  distributed  among  the  presbyters,  deacons,  and  other  officers  of 
the  church. 

While  the  church  was  exposed  to  persecution,  these  feasts  were 
not  only  conducted  with  regularity  and  good  order,  but  were  made 
subservient  to  christian  edification,  and  to  the  promotion  of  brotherly 
love  and  of  that  kind  of  concord  and  union  which  was  specially  de- 
manded by  the  circumstances  of  the  times.^  None  but  full  members 
of  the  church  were  allowed  to  be  present ;  catechumens,  penitents, 
Jews,  and  heathens,  being  carefully  excluded.^  A  custom  of  ad- 
mitting baptized  children,  which  was  introduced  at  an  early  period, 
was  afterwards  abandoned  as  inconvenient,  i'' 

The  following  description  of  christian  intercourse  in  their  love- 
feasts  is  also  from  Tertullian,  Apol.  39.  "  They  sit  not  down  at 
table  till  prayers  have  been  offered  to  God.  They  eat  as  much 
as  the  hunger  of  each  one  requires,  and  drink  only  so  much  as  is 
necessary  to  health  and  cheerfulness.  Being  thus  satisfied,  they  are 
mindful  that  the  evening  is  to  be  spent  in  prayer.  They  enter  into 
conversation  with  the  continued  reflection  that  God  is  hearing  them. 
After  their  hands  are  washed  and  lights  are  brought  in,  each  one  is 
invited  to  sing  something  before  the  company  to  the  praise  of  God, 
whether  it  be  borrowed  from  the  holy  Scripture,  or  as  his  own  heart 
may  dictate  to  him.  Then  it  is  seen  how  much  he  has  drunken. 
With  prayer  the  interview  is  closed." 

3.  Ti?ne  and  place  of  Celebration. — Time  of  day.  These  feasts, 
as  well  as  all  Christian  assemblies,  were  held,  at  first,  whenever 
and  wherever  opportunity  would  permit,  consistently  with  safety. 
The  passages  of  the  New  Testament  which  refer  to  the  agapae  af- 
ford no  intimation  of  the  time  of  day  in  which  they  were  celebrated, 
unless  indeed  we  regard  Acts  20:  7,  as  supplying  some  information 


328  OF  THE  lord's  supper. 

on  this  point.  From  Tertullian  it  would  appear  that  they  were  held 
in  the  night ;  for  he  calls  them  coenae  and  coenulae,  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  prandia  ;  and  this  writer  gives  us  to  understand  that  lights 
were  required  in  the  place  in  which  the  feast  was  made.  But  it  is 
probable  that  this  nocturnal  celebration  was  more  a  matter  of  neces- 
sity than  of  choice. 

According  to  the  account  of  Pliny  in  his  letter  to  Trajan,  it  would 
seem  that  in  his  time  (in  Bithynia,  at  least)  these  feasts  were  held  in 
the  day-time. ^1 

On  the  whole,  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  nature  of  the  case  did 
not  permit  the  uniform  observance  of  any  fixed  hour  or  time  of  day 
in  the  celebration  of  this  feast,  during  the  earliest  period  of  the 
church,  while  it  was  exposed  to  persecution. 

Bay  of  the  week.  These  feasts  were  ordinarily  held  on  the  first 
day  of  the  week,  or  Sunday  ;  but  the  celebration  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  exclusively  confined  to  that  day.^^ 

Place  of  meeting.  At  first,  the  agapae  were  celebrated  in  private 
houses,  or  in  other  retired  places,  in  which  the  Christians  met  for  the 
purpose  of  religious  worship.  After  the  erection  of  churches,  these 
feasts  were  held  within  their  walls ;  until-,  abuses  having  occurred 
which  rendered  the  observance  inconsistent  with  the  sanctity  of  such 
places,  this  practice  was  forbidden.  In  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
century,  the  Council  of  Laodicea  enacted  "  that  agapae  should  not 
be  celebrated  in  churches  ;"  a  prohibition  which  was  repeated  by 
the  Council  of  Carthage,  in  the  year  391  ;  and  was  afterwards  strict- 
ly enjoined  during  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries. ^^  gy  t^g  efforts 
of  Gregory  of  Neocaesarea,  Chrysostom,  and  others,  a  custom  was 
generally  established  of  holding  the  agapae  only  under  trees,  or 
some  other  shelter,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  churches  ;  and  from 
that  time  the  clergy  and  other  principal  members  of  the  church  were 
recommended  to  withdraw  from  them  altogether. 

In  the  early  church,  it  was  usual  to  celebrate  agapae  on  the  festi- 
vals of  martyrs,  agapae  natalitiae,  at  their  tombs ;  a  practice  to 
which  reference  is  made  in  the  epistle  of  the  church  of  Smyrna, 
concerning  the  martyrdom  of  Polycarp.^"* 

These  feasts  were  sometimes  celebrated  on  a  smaller  scale,  at 
marriages,  agapae  connubiales,  and  funerals,  agapae  funerales. 

4.  Abolition  of  the  custom.  The  celebration  of  the  agapae  was 
frequently  made  a  subject  of  calumny  and  misrepresentation  by  the 


SACRAMENTAL  UTENSILS.  329 

enemies  of  the  christian  faith,  even  during  the  earliest  and  best  ages 
of  the  church.  In  reply  to  these  groundless  attacks,  the  conduct  of 
the  Christians  of  those  times  was  successfully  vindicated  by  Tertul- 
iian,  Minucius  Felix,  Origen,  and  others.  But  real  disorders  having 
afterwards  arisen,  and  having  proceeded  to  considerable  lengths,  it 
became  necessary  to  abolish  the  practice  altogether ;  and  this  task 
was  eventually  elfecled,  but  not  without  the  application  of  various 
means,  and  only  after  a  considerable  lapse  of  time. 

§  14.  Sacramental  Utensils. 

Our  Lord,  at  the  institution  of  the  sacrament,  without  doubt  used 
the  cup  which  was  in  common  use  among  the  Jews  on  festive  occa- 
sions— simple  and  plain  like  the  rude  vessels  of  those  days.  A  large 
silver  goblet  was  in  use  at  Jerusalem  in  the  seventh  century,  which 
was  said  to  be  the  identical  cup  that  our  Lord  used  on  that  occa- 
sion. At  a  period  still  later,  the  inhabitants  of  Valencia  in  Spain, 
also  claimed,  with  equal  probability,  to  be  in  possession  of  the  iden- 
tical cup  which  was  presented  by  Christ  to  his  disciples  at  that  time. 

The  cup  which  was  used  by  the  primitive  church  was  of  no  pre- 
scribed form,  nor  of  any  uniform  material.  It  was  made  of  wood, 
horn,  glass,  or  marble,  according  to  circumstances.  But,  at  a  very 
early  period,  it  began  to  be  wrought  with  great  care,  and  to  be  made 
of  the  most  costly  materials,  such  as  silver  and  gold,  set  with  pre- 
cious stones.  In  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  centuries,  the  use  of 
vessels  made  of  horn,  wood,  glass,  lead,  tin,  etc.  was  forbidden,  and 
each  church  was  required  to  have,  at  least,  one  cup  and  plate  of 
silver. 

Two  cups  were  generally  used,  one  exclusively  by  the  clergy,  the 
other,  of  larger  dimensions,  by  the  laity.  These  had  handles  at- 
tached to  their  sides.  The  sacramental  cup  of  the  Armenian  church 
is  said  to  contain  two  separate  apartments,  in  one  of  which  the  wine 
is  contained,  and  in  the  other  the  bread.  And  similar  vessels  seem  to 
have  been  in  use  in  the  christian  church  previous  to  the  eighth  cen- 
tury. They  then  began  to  be  made  with  a  pipe  attached  to  them, 
like  the  spout  of  a  tea-pot,  and  the  wine  was  received  from  the  ves- 
sel by  suction.  These  spouts  were  called  Jistulae  eucharistae,  pagi' 
lares,  arumlines,  cannae,  canahs,  pipae.     These  pipes  were  used  to 

42 


230  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CHURCH. 

prevent  the  waste  of  any  drop  of  the  consecrated  wine  in  the  distri- 
bution of  it.     Such  cups  are  still  in  use  in  some  Lutheran  churches. 

The  cup  was  at  an  early  period  ornamented  with  inscriptions  and 
pictorial  representations. 

The  platter  for  the  distribution  of  the  bread  was,  at  first,  a  basket 
made  of  osier.  Like  the  cup,  it  has  from  time  to  time  been  made 
of  glass,  marble,  silver,  and  gold,  varying  in  form,  size,  and  style  of 
execution,  corresponding  with  that  of  the  cup. 

The  pomp  and  superstition  of  catholic  worship  have  added  many 
other  articles  to  the  sacramental  vessels,  which  are  enumerated  by 
Siegel,  from  whom  the  above  is  extracted. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
of  the  discipline  of  the  ancient  church. 

^  1.  Preliminary  Remarks. 

The  discipline  of  the  ancient  church,  although  derived  from  the 
Mosaic  economy,  was  an  original  and  peculiar  institution,  growing 
out  of  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  early  Christians  ;  and  fully 
illustrates  their  views  of  the  stern  and  awful  sanctity  of  the  christian 
character.  It  has  an  immediate  relation  to  the  rites  of  baptism,  and 
the  Lord's  supper  ;  and  should  be  studied  in  connection  with  them. 
In  establishing  this  discipline,  the  church  had  respect  only  to  the 
benefit  of  the  offending  member.  Like  an  affectionate  parent,  she 
sought  not  simply  to  punish,  but  to  correct.  Like  a  good  physician, 
her  design  was  not  the  infliction  of  pain,  but  restoration  to  health. 
This  system  of  discipline  is  distinguished  especially  for  that  protrac- 
ted and  severe  probation  to  which  an  offending  member  of  the 
church  was  subjected,  as  the  only  condition  of  his  re-admission  to 
the  communion  and  fellowship  of  the  church.  This  disciplinary 
treatment,  which  was  known  by  the  general  name  of  penance,  ex- 
acted of  the  offender  many  acts  of  humiliation,  self-denial,  and  per- 
sonal mortification,  indicative  of  sincere  repentance,  and  promising 
amendment  and  a  consistent  life  in  future.     The  institution  of  pen- 


FEELIMINARY  REMARKS.  331 

ance  may,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  the  most  important  part  of  the 
discipline  of  the  church. 

The  subject  may,  with  propriety,  be  introduced  by  the  follow- 
ing remarks. 

1.  Penance  was  required  only  of  actual  members  of  the  church, 
who  had  become  such  by  receiving  baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper. 
No  Jew  or  pagan  could  do  penance  ;  nor  even  a  catechumen,  be- 
cause he  was  not  strictly  a  member  of  the  church. 

2.  Penance  was  not  a  civil,  but  an  ecclesiastical  penalty.  It  af- 
fected, not  his  relations  to  the  state,  but  to  the  church  exclusively. 

3.  Penance  was  entirely  a  voluntary  duty  ;  instead  of  being  an 
unwelcome  requisition,  it  was  granted  as  a  favor,  and  cheerfully 
sought.  In  this,  perhaps,  it  was  distinguished  from  all  other  forms 
of  punishment. 

4.  In  the  ancient  church,  public  penance  was  usually  allowed  but 
once.  If,  at  any  time,  a  repetition  of  the  same  was  permitted  to  the 
same  individual,  it  was  an  exception  to  the  general  rule. 

5.  The  nature  and  duration  of  the  penance  was  varied  accord- 
ing to  the  aggravations  of  the  offence  committed.  Every  general 
rule  on  this  point  was  subject  to  many  exceptions,  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. 

6.  In  many  cases,  the  performance  of  penance  was  required 
through  the  whole  term  of  the  penitent's  life  ;  but  the  severity  of  this 
sentence  was  frequently  mitigated. 

7.  The  penitents  were  divided  into  several  classes,  differing  ac- 
cording to  time  and  place  ;  but  in  the  primitive  church,  they  were 
carefully  distinguished  from  each  other. 

8.  The  fulfilment  of  the  prescribed  penance,  restored  the  offender 
to  his  former  standing  with  the  church  ;  except  in  the  case  of  the 
clergy,  whose  restoration  was  not  complete  and  full. 

9.  The  penance  was  often  excessive,  and  injurious,  in  its  tendency 
to  the  interests  of  the  church  ;  and,  as  exercised  in  the  earliest  cen- 
turies, was  open  to  censure ;  but  on  the  whole,  it  was  productive  of 
great  good.  In  times  of  persecution  and  declension,  especially,  it 
was  admirably  instrumental  in  sustaining  in  the  church,  the  spirit 
and  power  of  religion. 

A  careful  examination  of  this  subject  will  require  us  to  consider 
separately,  the  following  points. 

I,  The  origin  and  antiquity  of  penance. 

II.  Its  subjects  ;  or,  the  offences  for  which  it  was  imposed. 


332  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CHURCH. 

III.  The  different  classes  of  penitents. 

IV.  The  duties  of  penitents,  and  the  discipline  imposed  upon  them, 
or  the  different  kinds  and  degrees  of  penance. 

V.  The  restoration  or  re-admission  of  penitents  into  the  church. 

§  2.  The  Okigin  of  Penance. 

Penance  in  the  christian  church  is  an  imitation  of  the  discipline  of 
the  Jewish  synagogue  ;  or  rather,  it  is  a  continuation  of  the  same  in- 
stitution. Excommunication  in  the  christian  church  is  essentially 
the  same  as  expulsion  from  the  synagogue  of  the  Jews,  and  the  pen- 
ances of  the  offender,  required  for  his  restoration  to  his  former  con- 
dition, were  not  materially  different  in  the  Jewish  and  christian 
churches.  The  principal  point  of  distinction  consisted  in  this,  that 
the  sentence  of  excommunication  affected  the  civil  relations  of  the 
offender  under  the  Jewish  economy  ;  but  in  the  christian  church,  it 
affected  only  his  relations  to  that  body.  Neither  the  spirit  of  the 
primitive  institutions  of  the  church,  nor  its  situation,  or  constitution 
in  the  first  three  centuries,  was  at  all  compatible  with  the  interming- 
ling or  confounding  of  civil  and  religious  privileges  or  penalties. 

The  act  of  excommunication  was  at  first  an  exclusion  of  the  of- 
fender from  the  Lord's  supper,  and  from  the  agapae.  The  term  it- 
self implies  separation  from  the  communion.  The  practice  was  de- 
rived from  the  injunction  of  the  apostle,.!  Cor.  5:  11.  '  With  such 
an  one  no  not  to  eat.''  From  the  context,  and  from  1  Cor.  10:  16 — 
18.  11:  20 — 34.,  it  clearly  appears  that  the  apostle  refers,  not  to 
common  meals,  and  the  ordinary  intercourse  of  life,  but  to  these  re- 
ligious festivals. 

Examples  of  penitence  or  repentance  occur  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment ;  neither  are  there  wanting  instances,  not  merely  of  individuals 
but  of  a  whole  city  or  people,  performing  certain  acts  of  penance, — 
fasting,  mourning,  etc.,  Nehem.  ix.  and  Jonah  iii.  But  these  acts  of 
humiliation  were  essentially  diflerent,  in  their  relations  to  individuals, 
from  christian  penance. 

We  have,  however,  in  the  New  Testament,  an  instance  of  the  ex- 
communication of  an  offending  member,  and  of  his  restoration  to  the 
fellowship  of  the  church  by  penance,  agreeably  to  the  authority  of 
Paul,  1  Cor.  5:  1 — 8.  2  Cor.  2:  5 — 11.  This  sentence  of  exclusion 
from  the  church  was  pronounced  by  the  assembled  body^  and  in  the 


ORIGIN  OF  PENANCE.  333 

name  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  By  this  sentence,  the  offender  was 
separated  from  the  people  of  the  Lord,  with  whom  he  had  been 
joined  by  baptism,  and  was  reduced  :o  his  former  condition  as  a 
heathen  man,  subject  to  the  power  of  Satan,  and  of  evil  spirits. 
This  is  perhaps  the  true  import  of  delivering  such  an  one  up  to 
Satan, 

A  similar  act  of  excommunication  is  described  briefly  in  1  Cor. 
16:  22.  "  If  any  man  love  not  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  let  him  be  an- 
athema maranatha."  The  ^aguv  u&u  corresponds,  in  sense,  with 
the  Hebrew  D"in,  and  denotes  a  thing  devoted  to  utter  destruction. 
It  is  only  the  Syro-Chaldaic  ririwVf  N:~i73  expressed  in  the  Greek 
character,  and  means,  "  The  Lord  cometh."  The  whole  sentence 
implies  that  the  church  leaves  the  subject  of  it  to  the  Lord,  who 
Cometh  to  execute  judgment  upon  him.  All  that  the  apostle  requires 
of  the  Corinthians  is,  that  they  should  exclude  him  from  their  com- 
munion and  fellowship ;  so  that  he  should  no  longer  be  regarded  as 
one  of  their  body.  He  pronounces  no  further  judgment  upon  the  of- 
fender, but  leaves  him  to  the  judgment  of  God.  "  What  have  I  to 
do  to  judge  them  that  are  without.?"  5:  12,  i.  e.  those  who  are  not 
Christians,  to  which  class  the  excommunicated  person  would  belong. 
"  Do  not  ye  judge  them  that  are  within  .^"  i.  e.  full  members  of  the 
church.  But  them  that  are  without  God  judgeth  ;  or  rather  ivill 
judge,  xQivil,  as  the  reading  should  be.  It  appears  from  2  Cor.  2: 
1 — 11,  that  the  church  had  not  restored  such  to  the  privileges  of 
communion,  but  were  willing  to  do  so ;  and  that  the  apostle  very 
gladly  authorized  the  measure. 

On  these  important  passages  it  is  worthy  of  remark  : 

1.  That  the  excommunication  of  the  offender  is,  by  the  authority 
of  the  apostle,  the  act  of  the  whole  church. 

2.  This  exclusion  is  called  a  "  punishment,"  inixifxia,  but  it  is 
carefully  distinguished  from  a  civil  penalty,  and  from  a  judicial  pun- 
ishment by  God. 

3.  No  mention  is  made  of  any  act  of  penance,  either  in  kind  or  in 
duration,  as  the  condition  on  which  the  excommunicated  person  was 
re-admitted  to  the  church  ;  but  the  silence  of  the  apostle  on  this  sub- 
ject is  not  proof  that  such  penance  was  not  required.  Especially  is 
it  worthy  of  remark  that  satisfactory  evidence  of  sorroiv,  Ivnt],  on 
the  part  of  the  transgressor,  for  the  sin  committed,  was  the  condition 
of  his  restoration  to  the  church. 


334  ~  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CHURCH. 

The  history  of  the  primitive  church  for  the  first  three  centuries,  is 
more  full  on  the  subject  of  ecclesiastical  discipline,  than  on  any 
other.  The  apostolical  fathers  very  frequently  treat  of  it,  and  not 
only  speak  of  penitence  as  a  moral  quality,  and  as  a  religious  duty, 
but  they  also  treat  of  penance  as  a  part  of  church  discipline.  Ter- 
tullian,  especially,  recognizes  this  distinction  ;  and  says,  that  peni- 
tence ought  not  only  to  be  felt  in  the  mind,  but  to  be  manifested  by 
some  external  act,  non  sola  conscientia  proferatur,  sed  aliquo  eliam 
actu  administretur.'^ 

The  Shepherd  of  Hermas  treats  expressly  of  this  subject.  This 
work,  according  to  the  most  approved  opinion  of  the  learned,  is  not 
indeed  the  production  of  that  Hermas  who  is  mentioned  by  the  apos- 
tle, Rom.  16:  14,  but  of  some  author  of  the  second  century.^  And 
yet  it  was  held  in  such  consideration  by  the  early  fathers  as  to  be 
entitled  to  respect.  Tertullian  describes  it  as  almost  divine,  fere 
scriptura ;  and  as  such,  it  was  publicly  read  in  connection  with  the 
Scriptures.  The  leading  topic  of  this  book  is  repentance  and  the 
forgiveness  of  sin.  Mention  is  made  of  an  angel  of  penitence,  whose 
office  it  is  to  lead  Christians,  who  have  fallen  into  sin,  to  repentance, 
and  to  aid  and  strengthen  them  in  this  exercise.^  This  angel  teaches 
Hermas  that  true  penitence  is  appropriately  found  in  baptism  ;  but 
that  still  opportunity  for  repentance  is  given  to  those  who,  after  bap- 
tism, have  been  drawn  into  sin  by  the  wiles  of  Satan,  but  this  only 
once,  Unam  poenitentiam  habet.  It  is,  however,  declared,  that  this 
repentance  remains  not  to  bold  and  presumptuous  sinners,  but  only 
to  those  whose  future  repentance  and  reformation  God  had  foreseen.^* 

Tertullian  wrote  an  entire  treatise  on  the  subject  of  penitence,  De 
Poenitentia,  from  which,  and  from  many  other  passages  in  his  writ- 
ings, the  conclusion  is  fairly  derived  that  there  was,  in  the  second 
century,  a  complete  system  of  discipline  and  penance  extant  in 
the  church.  This  discipline  he  describes  as  consisting  in  exhorta- 
tions, and  censures,  and  tokens  of  divine  displeasure.  "  For,"  he 
adds,  "  it  is  a  consideration  of  great  moment,  that,  if  any  one  so  of- 
fends as  to  be  excluded  from  all  intercourse,  communion,  and  fellow- 
ship with  the  saints,  it  is  seen  and  known  of  God,  and  deeply  affects 
the  offender  in  the  future  judgment."     It  is  also  worthy  of  consid- 

*  Or  if,  as  some  suppose,  these  works  were  written  by  Tertullian  after  he 
became  a  Montanist,  we  must  consider  this  as  one  of  those  points  on  which 
he  was  known  to  differ  from  tlie  majority  of  that  sect. 


ORIGIN  OF  PENANCE. 


335 


eration  that  the  author  guards  against  a  thoughtless  and  presumptu- 
ous continuance  in  sin,  by  according  to  transgressors  the  grace  of 
repentance  bid  once  after  baptism,  and  even  this,  he  in  another  place 
denies  to  fornicators  and  adulterers.^  * 

Cyprian  of  Carthage  defends  the  same  general  principles,  against 
the  Novalians,  who  denied  to  the  fallen  christian  professor  the  grace 
of  God  and  the  hope  of  eternal  salvation,  and  accordingly  refused 
him  the  benefit  of  penance  and  readmission  to  the  church.  Hi§  sen- 
timents are  fully  developed  in  the  note  below,  and  in  many  of  his 
writings.'^'t 

*  Ibidem  etiam  exhortationes,  castigationes,  et  censura  divina.     Nam  et 
judicatur  magno  cum  pondere,  ut  apud  centos  de  Dei  conspectu,  summumque 
futuri  judieii  praejudicium  est,  si  quis  ita  deliquerit,  ut  a  communicatione 
orationis  et  converitus,  et  omnis  sancti  commercii,  relegetur.— Tertull.  ^po- 
loget.  C.39.— Haec  igitur  venena  ejus  providens  Deus,  clausa  licet  ignoscen- 
tiae  janua,et  intinctionis  sera  obstructa,  aliquid  adhuc  permisit  patere.   Collo- 
cavit  in  \es[:\b\i\o  ■poenitentiam  secundain,(\ndie  pulsantibus  patefaciat:  sed  jam 
semel,  quia  jam  secundo.    Sed  amplius  nunquam,  quia  proxime  frustra.    Non 
enim  et  hoc  semel  satis  est?  De  potnit.  c.  7.  —  Hujus  igitur  Poenitentiae  se- 
cundae  et  unius,  quanto  in  arte  negotium  est,  tanto  operosior  probatio,  ut  non 
sola  conscientia  proferatur,  sed  aliquo  etiam  actu  administretur.    Is  actus,  qui 
magis  vocabulo  Graeco  exprimitur  et  frequentatur,  exoinologesis  (i^ofioU- 
yTjois)  est,  qua  delictum  Domino  nostrum  confitemur  :  non  quidem  ut  igna- 
ro,  sed  quatenus  satisfactio  confessione  disponitur,  confessione  poenitentiae 
na'scitur,  poenitentia  Deus  mitigatur.     Itaque  exomologesis  prostcrnandi  et 
humilificandi  hominis  disciplina  est,  conversationem,  injungens  misericor- 
diae  illicem  ;  de  ipso  quoque  habitu  atque  victu  mandat,  sacco  et  cineri  in- 
cubare,  corpus  sordibus  obscurare,  animum  moeroribus  dejicere,  ilia,  quae 
peccavit,  tristi  tractatione  mutare.     Celerum  pastum  et  potum  pura  nosse, 
non  ventris  scilicet,  sed  animae  causa.    Plerumque  vero  jejuniis  preces  alere, 
ingemiscere,  lacrymari  et  mugire  dies  noctesque  ad  Dominum  Deum  tuum, 
presbyteris  advolvi,  et  aris  Dei  adgeniculari,  omnibus  fratribus  legationes 
deprecationis  suae  injungere.     Haec  omnia  exomologesis,  ut  poenitentiam 
coramendat,  ut  de  periculi  timore  Dominum  honoret,  ut  in  peccatorem  ipsa 
pronuntians  pro  Dei  indignatione  fungatur,  et  temporal!  affliclione  aeterna 
supplicia,  non  dicam,  frustetur,  sed  expung&t.— Ibid.  c.  9. 

t  Ne  igitur  ore  nostro,  quo  pacera  negamus,  quo  duritiara  magis  humanae 
credulitatis,  quam  divinae  et  paternae  pietatis  opponimus,  oves  nobis  com- 
missae  a  Domino  reposcanlur:  placuit  nobis,  Sancto  Spiritu  suggercnte,  et 
Domino  per  visiones  multas  et  manifestas  admonente. ,  quia  hostis  imminere 
praenuntiatur  et  ostenditur,  coUigere  intra  castra  milites  Christi,  exaniinatis 
singulorum  causis,  pacem  lapsis  dare,  imo  pugnaturis  arma  suggerere  ;  quod 
crediiauB  vobis  quoque  paternae  misericordiae  contemplatione  placiturum. 


336  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CHURCH. 

This  system  of  church  discipline  existed  at  an  early  period  in  the 
Eastern  churches,  as  well  as  in  the  Western.  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria teaches,  from  the  Shepherd  of  Hermas,  that  penitence  can  he 
experienced  but  once  after  baptism  ;  and  that  all  subsequent  appear- 
ance of  repentance  is  not  repentance.^  Origen  appears  to  have  en- 
tertained the  same  sentiments.  Semel  tantum,idque  raro,penitentia 
concedebatur,  was,  according  to  Dupin,  his  doctrine.^ 

A  prayer  for  penitents  is  given  in  the  Apostolical  Constitutions, 
which,  together  with  the  acts  of  several  councils  in  the  beginning  of 
the  fourth  century,  in  connection  with  the  foregoing  testimonies, 
clearly  prove  the  existence  of  an  established  system  of  church  disci- 
pline as  early  as  the  second  and  third  centuries.  The  prayer  for  the 
penitents,  in  the  Apostolical  Constitutions,  is  given  in  the  note  be- 
low.* 

Quod  si  de  collegis  aliquis  exstiterit,  qui  urgente  certainine  pacetn  fratribus 
et  sororibus  non  putat  danduin,  reddet  ille  rafionem  in  die  judicii  Domino, 
vel  importunae  censurae,  vel  inhumanae  duritiae  suae. — Cyprian,  Ep.54  ad 
Cornelium,  de  pace  Lapsis  damla. 

*  Ev^aa&B  ol  iv  ii]  [iSTUVoiu.  ixjivwg  navxiq  vnsQ  ib)V  iv  /jnavola 
ctdslcpav  nuQuxnXicrwuiv,  onoig  o  (filoiKiiQfxav  Osog  vnodtl^i]  avrolg  o8ov 
finavoiag,  n^oaSs^i^rai  wL'Tajj/  t?;?'  naXivojdiotv  xal  J1]V  i^Ofioloytjcriv,  nai 
avrxgiipi]  lov  Saravdv  vno  jovq  nodag  nvTwv  iv  Tff-X^h  "o*'  IvToaarjiai, 
avTohg  uno  trig  nnyldog  xov  dm^okov  xal  zijg  iTitjQslag  toiv  daifiovoiv^ 
y.al  i^s}.i]iut  aiirovg  ano  navxog  a&fixlrov  koyov,  xal  ■nnar]g  aionov 
nQu^swg,  nal  novrjgiig  \vvolag'  avy%o}Qr,aij  ds  aviolg  nuvra  xa  naQanxw— 
uaxa  uvxbiv,  xd  rs  sxovffia,  nal  xix  uxovaia,  xul  i^aXu^ir]  xo  vax  avxuv 
XftQoygacfOV,  y.al  eyyQuipijTut,  nvxovg  iv  ^ipiio  JwiJ?  "  xa&aQf]  da  avxovg 
ano  navxog  ^oXva^iov  crugy.og  xul  nvivf-iaxog,  anl  ivwai]  avxovg  unoxaxa- 
(Txriaag  ug  xi]V  uylav  avxov  noif.ivi]v,  oxi  avxog  yivway.si  xo  nXaafia 
rifiwv,  "Oxt  xlg  xav/riasxaL  uyvijv  t/iiv  xagdlav ,■  i]  xig  TiotQgjjtnaaBXOii 
xa&agog  iivm  ano  a^agxiag;  navxic  yuQ  iafisv  iv  inixifiloig,  i'xi  vnkq 
ttvxSiv  iy.xivicrxsQOv  dsrj&wfitv,  oxi  ;f«5«  yivsxai,  iv  ovgavb)  inl  avl  afiag— 
twAm  nixavoovvxi,  oncog  anoaigacpivTsg  nav  igyov  a&ifiixov,  ngocroixsica- 
■&(t)(TL  ndarj  ngd^ft  uya&f],  tV«  o  cpiXav&gconog  Oiog  jj  xa/og  svfiaviag 
ngou8i%d^tvog  uvxbiv  xag  lixag,  unoyMxaffTijaj]  avxolg  ayaXXlaaiv  xov 
(xaxrjglov,  xal  nvsv/xaxi  ijysfiovixo)  axrjgi^)]  avxovg, 'iva  /irjxsxi  aaXsv&axn' 
xoivbivol  ysvia&ai  xmv  aylujv  avxov  Ugwv,  xal  ^ixoy^oi  xoiv  ■&ti(ov  [j,virxrj- 
giav  liva  d^ioi  anocpav&ivxeg  xijg  vloS'salag,  xv^mui,  xii\g  aloivlov  ^wij?. 
"Eti  ixxtvwq  ndvxzg  vnig  aviMv  nnwfitv  •  xvgis  iXitjaov,  awaov  avxavg  o 


SUBJECTS  OF  PENANCE.  337 


§  3.  Subjects  of  Penance,  or  the  offences  for  which  it  was 

IMPOSED. 

Penance  related  only  to  such  as  had  been  excluded  from  the  com- 
munion of  the  church.  Its  immediate  object  was,  not  the  forgive- 
ness of  the  offender  by  the  Lord  God,  but  his  reconciliation  loith  the 
church,  h  could,  therefore,  relate  only  to  open  and  scandalous  of- 
fences. De  occultis  nan  judical  ecclesia— the  church  takes  no  cog- 
nizance of  secret  sins — was  an  ancient  maxim  of  the  church.  The 
early  Fathers  say  expressly,  that  the  church  offers  pardon  only  for 
offences  committed  against  her.  The  forgiveness  of  all  sin  she  refers 
to  God  himself.  Omnia  autem,  says  Cyprian,  Ep.  55,  remissimus 
Deo  omnipotently,  in  r.ujus  potestate  sunt  omnia  reservata*    Such  are 

Osog,  xcil  avdcnrjiTov  tw  iXisi  aov.  ^AvadidfTtg  no  Om  diu  lov  XQiatov 
aviov,  xXlvars  xal  tvXoyiia&E.  I^uEv/ia&u  oiv  6  inlcrxonog  roidds. 
JIavJoy.QcnoQ  0(e  aiojvis,  dstXTioTa  twv  olav,  xrlaia  jtal  nQVTUvt,  roiv  ndv— 
TOiV  6  Tov  lir&Qianov  y.oafiov  xoanov  avudsi^ug  8ia  XoiaTov,  xul  vofiov 
dovg  avTco  ijifpvxov  xal  yQotnrov,  ngbg  to  'Crjv  avrov  sv&iafiwg,  ag  Ao/t— 
xov'  y.al  uftuQiovit,  vtio&ijx)]v  8ovg  nQog  (XBiavoiav  ti)v  craviov  ayu&6- 
rrjttt'  i'nidE  inl  Toig  xfxlixotag  aoi  av%iva  ipv^iig  xal  abtfiuTog'  on  ov 
^ovksi  TOV  &avaTov  tou  afiUQTwlov,  uXXw  t?;j'  ^sravoiav,  waiE  anoaroE- 
)//«t  avi'ov  U7i6  iTig  odov  avTov  t?]?  novij^ijig,  xul  ^jjv.  'O  Nlvei'Itwv 
ngoadE^ufisvog  iijv  (lEiavoiav  o  &e}.mv  nuviag  av&Qwnovg  ato&ijvai,  xal 
lig  enlyvwaiv  dh]diittg  el&Eiv '  o  rov  vlov  nQO(jdE^ui.iivog,  xcy  xaiacpay- 
ovTn  TOV  ^iov  avTov  aaojTOjg,  naiqixdlg  anXay/voig,  dia  Tt/V  y.EJuvoiav  ' 
aiTO?  xal  vvv  TiQCixdElai,  twv  Ixetuv  (TOV  T»;y  fiEiayvoxjiV  on  ovx  I'trrjv 
og  oi-/  afiagji'iinTal  aoi  '  lav  yug  avo^iug  TxaqaTrim](jr],  xvgis,  xvgiE,  xlg 
vnoaTi]<jtTai ;  on  naga  cot  o  ilaa/Aog  iaxi '  xai  anoxaiacfjijcrov  aviovg 
iji  dy'ia  aov  ixxXrjaia^  iv  tjj  Jigoriga  «|t«  xal  Tifijj,  8ia  toii  Xgiarov  ro\ 
Ofov  (Tiorrigog  Vf^MV  '  8i  ov  aoi  8o^a  xal  ngoaxvrqaig,  iv  tw  ayiw  nvEV- 
fxaii,  ilg  Tolg  aloJvag.     u^i]v, 

*  Nos,  in  quantum  nobis  et  videre  ct  judicare  conceditur,  faciem  singulo- 
rum  videmus,  cor  scrutari  et  menteni  perspicere  non  possumus.  De  his  ju- 
dical occultorum  scrutator  et  cognitor  cito  venturus,  et  de  arcanis  cordis  at- 
que  abdilis  judicaturus.  Obesse  autem  mali  bonis  non  debent,  sed  magis 
niali  a  bonis  adjuvari.  Id  Ep.  53. — Qua  ex  causa  necessario  apud  nos  fit,  ut 
per  singulos  annos  seniores  et  praepositi  in  unuin  conveniamus  ad  dis- 
ponen  da  ea,  quae  curae   noatrae  coiumissa   sunt,  ut  si  qua  graviora  sunt, 

43 


338  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  ANCIEWT  CHURCH. 

the  concurring  sentiments  of  most  of  the  early  writers  on  this  sub- 
ject. It  was  reserved  for  a  later  age  to  confound  these  important 
distinctions,  and  to  arrogate  to  the  church  the  prerogative  of  forgiv- 
ing sins. 

Various  synonymous  expressions  occur  in  the  writings  of  Tertul- 
iian  and  Cyprian,  to  denote  this  mode  of  discipline,  all  of  which  are 
in  accordance  whh  the  representations  given  above  of  penance,  soch 
as  discipUna,  orandi  discipUna,  patimtiae  discipli?ia,  deifica  disci- 
plina,  satisfactio,  satisfacere,  etc.  The  last  mentioned  terms  imply 
a  demand  made  by  the  church,  on  conditions  imposed  in  order  to  a 
restoration  to  that  body.  Hence  also  the  frequent  expression,  poe- 
nitentia  canonica,  canones  poenitentiales — penitential  exercises  re- 
quired by  authorit)'  of  councils  and  bishop's. 

In  the  ancient  phraseology  of  the  church,  the  lapsed,  who,  after 
professing  Christianity  had  abjured  their  faith,  were  included  among 
the  proper  subjects  of  penance.  The  term  was  frequently  applied 
in  a  wider  sense,  but  in  this  restricted  sense  the  lapsed  were  divided 
into  several  classes.  1.  The  Lihellatici — those  who  received  from 
a  Roman  magistrate  a  warrant  for  their  security,  libellimi  securitaiis, 
or  pads,  certifying  that  they  were  not  Christians,  or  that  they  were 
not  required  to  sacrifice  to  the  gods.^  2.  The  Sucrificaii,  including 
all  those  who  had  sacrificed  to  heathen  gods,  whether  by  constraint 
or  voluntary.^  3.  Tradiiorcs.  This  term  came  into  use  about  for- 
ty years  after  the  death  of  Cyprian,  and  was  employed  to  denote 
those  who  had  delivered  up  copies  of  the  sacred  Scriptures,  church 
records,  or  any  other  property  of  the  church.^  These  were  charge- 
able with  different  degrees  of  guilt  according  to  the  nature  of  their 
offence.  They  \vho  had  been  guilty  of  murder  and  adultery  were 
sometimes  included  under  this  class. 


§  4.  Different  classes  of  Penitents, 

Neither  Tertullian  nor  Cyprian   make  any  mention  of  different 
classes  of  penitents.     It  is  therefore  to  be  presumed  that  this  dis- 


communi  cansilio  dirigantar,  lapsis  qaoque  fratribtis,  et  post  lavacram  sain- 
tare  a  Diabolo  vulneratis  per  poenitentiam  medela  quaeratur  :  non  qnasi  a; 
nobis  remissionein  peccatorum  consequantur,  sed  at  per  nos  ad  intelligen- 
tiam  delictornm  suornm  convertantar,  et  Uoniino  plenius  satkfacere  cogan- 
lar. — Flrmiliain,  Ep.  ad  Cyprian.,  Ep.  Cypr,  7ri. 


DIFFERENT  CLASSES  OF  PENrTENTS.  339 

tincUon  into  several  classes  was  made  at  a  later  period.  They  are 
first  mentioned  in  the  equivocal  epistle  of  Gregory  Thaumaturgus, 
bishop  of  Neocaesarea,  from  A.  D.  244  to  A.  D.  270,  This  classi- 
fication was  fully  known  in  the  fourth  century,'  and  probably  was 
first  established  in  the  latter  part  of  the  third  century,  or  beginning 
of  the  fourth. 

The  penitents  were  divided  into  four  classes  or  degrees,  as  fol- 
lows : 

1.  JlQOiTKlttiovtig,  Jlentcs,  mourners,  or  weepers.  These  were 
rather  candidates  for  penance,  than  actual  penitents.  They  were 
wont  to  lie  prostrate  in  the  porch  of  the  church.  Sometimes  they 
knelt  or  stood,  entreating  the  faithful  and  the  clergy  to  intercede  for 
them  for  their  forgiveness  and  reconciliation.  Tertullian  says, 
"  they  were  accustomed  to  fall  down  at  the  presbyter's  feet,  and 
kneel  to  the  friends  of  God  and  entreat  all  the  brethren  to  intercede 
for  them."^  These  were  probably  called  xnnu^ovTig,  hicmantes,  be- 
cause they  remained  in  the  open  air,  not  being  permitted,  on  any 
occasion,  to  enter  within  the  sacred  enclosure  of  the  church.  Others 
suppose  that  demoniacs  were  designated  by  this  name,  from  the  con- 
vulsions to  which  they  were  subject. 

2.  'AxQomfievoi,  audientes,  hearers.  These  were  permitted  to  en- 
ter within  the  doors,  and  to  take  their  station  in  the  narthex,  or  low- 
est part  of  the  house,  where  they  were  allowed  to  hear  the  reading 
of  the  Scriptures  and  the  exposition  of  them,  but  were  denied  the 
privilege  of  joining  in  the  prayers  of  the  church.  Basil  and  others 
prescribe  three  years  as  the  term  of  their  continuance  in  this  order.^ 
They  were  regarded  as  sustaining  the  same  relations  to  the  church 
as  the  first  class  of  catechumens,  and  were  known  by  the  same  name. 
They  were  distinguished  however  from  the  catechumens,  by  not  be- 
ing permitted  to  receive  the  imposition  of  hands.'* 

3.  Tjioninjovxfq,  FovvyMvovrfg,  suhstrati,  or  geimjleclentes,  prostra- 
tors,  kneelers.  These  were  much  the  same  as  the  third  class  of 
catechumens,  who  also  bore  the  same  name.  They  were  permitted 
to  remain  at  public  prayer,  but  only  in  a  kneeling  posture.  The 
catechumens  took  precedence  of  them  in  attendance  upon  prayers, 
and  sooner  passed  into  u  higher  grade.  In  this  class  of  penitents 
they  continued  three,  and  sometimes  even  seven  years.^ 

4.  -vviffjotfisfoi^  co7isislentes,  by-standers.  This  class  take  their 
name  from  their  being  permitted  to  sta7id  with  believers,  and  to  join 


340  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CHURCH. 

with  them  in  prayer,  but  not  to  partake  of  the  communion  with  them.^ 
Whether  they  were  permitted  to  remain  as  spectators  of  the  sacra- 
mental service  is  uncertain.  They  continued  in  this  class  for  the 
space  of  two  years. 

Some  have  supposed,  but  without  sufficient  reason,  that  there  was 
a  fifth  class  of  penitents.  The  truth  rather  is  that  the  distinction  be- 
tween these  classes  was  not  uniformly  observed.  In  the  time  of 
Cyprian,  the  bishop  had  not,  indeed,  authority  officially  to  regulate 
the  rules  of  penance ;  still  he  exercised  a  controlling  influence  in 
these  matters.  But  by  later  ecclesiastical  rules,  the  bishop  was  au- 
thorized to  abridge  or  extend  the  time  allotted  for  penance.  The  coun- 
cil of  Ancyra  especially  accorded  to  the  bishop  a  discretionary  pow- 
er in  this  respect,  and  particularly  directs  him  charitably  to  consider 
the  deportment  of  the  offender,  both  before  and  after  entering  upon 
a  course  of  penance,  and  grant  him  a  dispensation  accordingly.* 
This  is  the  true  origin  of  that  practice  which  subsequently  led  to  such 
enormous  abuses — the  granting  indulgences. 

The  Indulgeritia  paschalis,  so  called,  has  a  special  reference  to 
the  penitents,  and  to  their  stations  in  the  early  church. 

§  5.    Of  the  duties  of  Penitents,  and  the  discipline  imposed 

UPON  them  ;    OR  THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  AND  DEGREES  OF  PENANCE. 

Penance,  as  has  been  already  observed,  was  wholly  a  voluntary 
act,  on  the  part  of  those  who  were  subject  to  it.  The  church  not  only 
would  not  enforce  it,  but  they  refused  even  to  urge,  or  invite  any  to 
submit  to  this  discipline.  It  was  to  be  sought  as  a  favor,  not  inflicted 
as  a  penalty.  But  the  offending  person  had  no  authority,  or  permis- 
sion, to  prescribe  his  own  duties  as  a  penitent.  When  once  he  had 
resolved  to  seek  the  forgiveness  and  reconciliation  of  the  church,  it 
was,  exclusively,  the  prerogative  of  that  body,  to  prescribe  the  con- 
ditions on  which  this  was  to  be  effected.  No  one  could  even  be  re- 
ceived as  a  candidate  for  penance,  without  permission  first  obtained 
of  the  bishop  or  presiding  elder. 

*  Tovg  ds  tTiiaxoTiovg  e'^ovaiav  f/stv,  tov  tqottov  t%  inL(jTQ0(p7]g  do- 
xifidixavTag  cpLkav&QMJiEVtcr&ai;  ij  nliLova  n^odiid^svui  xqovov  tcqo  ntxv- 
XMV  8s  xal  6  nqouyav  ^iog,  y.al  6  (isxa  xavTa,  i^trtt^sa&a)'  xotl  ovTtog  i] 
(filav&QOinla  iniiiiXQua&w.  Cone.  Ancyr.  c.  5.  This  rule  was  estab- 
lished also  by  Constitut.  Carolin.  1.  vii.  c.  294. 


DUTIES  OF  PENITENTS.  341 

The  duties  required  of  penitents,  consisted  essentially  in  the  fol- 
lowing particulars : 

1.  Penitents  of  the  first  three  classes  were  required  to  kneel  in 
worship,  whilst  the  faithful  were  permitted  to  stand. 

2.  All  were  required  to  make  known  iheir  penitential  sorrow  by 
an  open  and  public  confession  of  their  sin.  This  confession  was 
to  be  made,  not  before  the  bishop  or  the  priesthood,  but  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  whole  church,  with  sighs,  and  tears,  and  lamentations. 
These  expressions  of  grief  they  were  to  renew  and  continue,  so  long 
as  they  remained  in  the  first,  or  lowest  class  of  penitents,  entreating, 
at  the  same  time,  in  their  behalf,  the  prayers  and  intercessions  of  the 
faithful.  Some  idea  of  the  nature  of  these  demonstrations  of  peni- 
tence may  be  formed  from  a  record  of  them  contained  in  the  works 
of  Cyprian.^  Almost  all  the  canons  lay  much  stress  upon  the  sighs, 
and  tears,  accompanying  these  effusions. 

3.  Throughout  the  whole  term  of  penance,  all  expressions  of  joy 
were  to  be  restrained,  and  all  ornaments  of  dress  to  be  laid  aside. 
The  penitents  were  required,  literally,  to  wear  sackcloth,  and  to 
cover  their  heads  with  ashes.*  Nor  were  these  acts  of  humiliation 
restricted  to  Ash  Wednesday  merely,  when  especially  they  were  re- 
quired. 

4.  The  men  were  required  to  cut  short  their  hair,  and  to  shave 
their  beards,  in  token  of  sorrow.  The  women  were  to  appear  with 
dishevelled  hair,  and  wearing  a  peculiar  kind  of  veil.'-^ 

5.  During  the  whole  term  of  penance,  bathing,  feasting,  and  sen- 

*  "SLaxt  i'a&Ev  avacntjvai,  xal  Ivdvadfisvov  aaxxov,  koI  anoSov  naiana- 
ad^evov  fiSTO.  Trokkrjs  aTTOvS)/?,  zal  Sa-A^vojv  nQoaTrtotlv.  Euseb.  Hist.  Ecci. 
lib.  V.  c.  28. — Quis  hoc  crederet,  ut  saccuin  indueret,  ut  errorem  publicc  fa- 
teretur,  et  tota  urbe  spectante  Romana,  ante  diem  paschae  in  Basilica  Late- 
rani  staret  in  ordine  poenitentium  ?  W\eTon.  Ep.W,  Epit.  Fab. — De  ipso 
quoque  habitu  atque  victu  mandat,  sacco  et  cineri  incubare,  corpus  sordibus 
obscurare.  Tertull.  Dc  Puemt.  c.  9. — Totiim  corpus  incuria  maceretur,  cinere 
adspersum,  etopertum  cilicia.  Ambros.  ad  Virgin. Lajisam  c.  8. — Agite  poen- 
itentiam  plenam,  dolentis  ac  lamentantis  animi  probate  nioestitiarn.  .  .  . 
Orare  importet  impensius,  et  rogare,  diem  luctu  transigere,  vigiliis  noctes  ac 
fletibus  ducere,  tempos  omne  lacrimosis  lamenlationibus  occupare,  stratos  so- 
lo adhaerere,  in  cinere  et  cilicioet  sordibus  volutari,  post  indumentum  Chris- 
ti  perditum  nullum  jam  velle  vestitum,  post  diaboli  cibum  malle  jejuiiium, 
justis  operibus  incumbere,  quibus  peccatapurganlur,  eleemosynis  frequenter 
insistere,  quibus  a  morte  animae  liberantur.     Cyprian.  Dc  La^sis. 


342  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CHURCH. 

sual  gratifications,  allowable  at  other  times,  were   prohibited.     In 
the  spirit  of  these  regulatious,  marriage  was  also  forbidden."^ 

6.  Besides  these  restrictions  and  rules  of  a  negative  character, 
there  were  certain  positive  requirements  with  which  the  penitents 
were  expected  to  comply. 

a)  They  were  obliged  to  be  present,  and  to  perform  their  part  at 
every  religious  assembly^  whether  public  or  private,— a  regulation 
which  neither  believers  nor  catechumens  were  required  to  observe.'* 

b)  They  were  expected  to  abound  in  deeds  of  charity  and  benevo- 
lence, particularly  in  alms-giving  to  the  poor. 

c)  Especially  were  they  to  perform  the  duties  of  the  par abolani, 
in  giving  attendance  upon  the  sick,  and  in  taking  care  of  them. 
These  offices  of  kindness  they  were  expected  particularly  to  bestow 
upon  such  as  were  afTected  with  contagious  diseases. 

d)  It  was  also  their  duty  to  assist  at  the  burial  of  the  dead.  The 
regulations  last  mentioned  are  supposed  to  have  been  peculiar  to  the 
church  of  Africa.^ 

These  duties  and  regulations  collectively,  were  sometimes  inclu- 
ded under  the  general  term  i'^o^oloyr,aLq^  confession.  By  this,  was 
understood  not  only  words,  but  works  ;  both,  in  connection,  being  the 
appropriate  means  of  manifesting  sorrow  for  sin,  and  the  purpose  of 
amendment. 

§  6.  Re-admission  of  Penitents  into  the  Church. 

The  re-admission  of  penitents  into  the  church  was  the  subject  of 
frequent  controversy  with  the  early  fathers,  and  ancient  religious 
sects.  Some  contended  that  those  who  had  once  been  excluded 
from  the  church  for  their  crimes,  ought  never  again  to  be  received 
again  to  her  fellowship  and  communion.  But  the  church  generally, 
were  disposed  to  exercise  a  more  charitable  and  forgiving  spirit. 

The  following  general  principles  prevailed  in  the  ancient  church, 
in  regard  to  the  restoration  of  excommunicated  members  to  their  for- 
mer standing. 

1.  There  was  no  established  term  of  time  for  the  continuance  of 
penance.  The  several  grades  each  extended  through  three,  seven, 
and  even  ten  years  ;  but  the  whole  was  varied  according  to  circum- 
stances, or  at  the  discretion  of  the  bishop.^  The  abuse  and  perver- 
sion of  this  privilege  led  the  way  to  the  sale  of  indulgences  in  the 
Eoman  Catholic  church. 


RE-ADMISSION  INTO  THE  CHURCH.  343 

2.  Sincere  and  unfeigned  penitence  was,  alone,  considered  legiti- 
mate and  satisft^ctory.  ll  was  called  poenitentia  legitima,  plena, 
justa,  when  attended,  both  in  public  and  in  private,  with  lannenta- 
tions,  and  with  tears,  and  every  demonstration  of  sincere  penitential 
sorrow  for  sin.  This  was  regarded  more  than  the  amount  of  time 
spent,  under  the  discipline  of  penance.- 

3.  In  case  of  extreme  sickness,  and  in  prospect  of  death,  the  ex- 
communicated person  might  be  forgiven  and  restored  by  ihe  bishop, 
or  by  a  presbyter  or  deacon,  by  virtue  of  authority  delegated  to  him 
for  this  purpose.  But  in  case  of  the  recovery  of  the  sick  person,  the 
whole  prescribed  course  of  penitence  was  usually  required  of  him.^ 

4.  When  one  of  the  clergy  fell  under  ecclesiastical  censure  he 
was  forever  incapacitated  from  returning  to  ihe  discharge  of  his  offi- 
cial duties,  even  though  restored  to  the  communion  of  the  church. 
A  layman  also,  who  had  once  been  the  subject  of  discipline  in  the 
church,  was  ineligible  to  any  clerical  office.^ 

In  regard  to  the  mode  of  receiving  again  the  returning  penitent, 
it  may  be  remarked, 

1.  That  the  restoration  was  not  only  a  public  act,  but  a  part  of 
public  worship.  For  this  public  absolution  the  obvious  reason  was 
assigned,  that  the  restitution  made  by  the  offender,  was  in  this  way 
made  as  public,  as  the  act  of  excommunication  ;  and  that  the  salu- 
tary influence  of  the  discipline  might  be  felt  by  the  whole  body  of 
the  church. 

2.  The  same  bishop,  under  whom  the  penitent  had  been  excluded 
from  the  church,  or  his  successor,  was  the  only  appropriate  organ 
of  restoring  him  to  the  fellowship  of  the  church.^  This  rule  was  so 
strictly  enforced  that  the  bishop,  who  should  violate  it,  was  liable  to 
severe  censure,  or  to  be  removed  from  office  for  the  offence.^  To 
prevent  any  mistake,  the  names  of  excommunicated  persons  were 
publicly  enrolled,  and  a  list  of  their  names  sent  to  the  neighboring 
dioceses.'  These  regulations  were  severally  observed  in  order  that 
the  church,  who  witnessed  the  offence,  might  also  receive  the  full 
influence  of  the  discipline  with  which  it  was  visited. 

3.  The  restoration  usually  took  place  on  passion  week,  which  was 
from  this  circumstance  denominated  hebdomas  indulgenliae  ;  or  at 
some  time  appointed  by  the  bishop.  The  transaction  was  perform- 
ed Mi  the  church,  when  the  people  were  assembled  for  religious  wor- 
ship -,  and  for  the  most  part  immediately  before  the  administration 


344  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CHURCH. 

of  the  Lord's  supper.  The  individual,  kneeling  before  the  bishop  in 
the  attitude  and  garb  of  a  penitent,  and  before  the  aUar,  or  the  read- 
ing desk,  (the  ombo,)  was  re-admitted  by  him  with  prayer  and  the 
imposition  of  hands.^  The  latter  rite,  especially,  was  regarded  as 
the  significant  and  principal  token  of  admission  to  the  communion 
of  the  church.  The  chrism  was  also  administered  to  heretics,  but 
no  other  class  of  offenders. 

4.  No  established  form  of  absolution  is  recorded,  but  from  anal- 
ogy it  might  be  presumed  that  some  such  was  in  use.  Nothing  like 
the  modern  method  of  absolving  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  Son,  and 
Holy  Ghost,  was  known  to  the  ancient  church.'-^  The  whole  rite 
was  frequently  denominated  "  dare  pacem,"  from  which  it  is  fairly 
presumed,  that  some  such  phraseology  was  included  in  the  form  of 
absolution. 

5.  The  fifty-first  Psalm  was  usually  sung  on  this  occasion,  but  not 
as  a  necessary  part  of  the  service."^ 

6.  The  sacrament  was  immediately  administered  as  a  token  that 
the  penitent  was  re-instated  in  all  his  former  privileges,  the  disquali- 
fication for  the  clerical  office  only  excepted. 

§  6.  Private  Penance.^ 

"  Properly  speaking,  public  penance  is  such  as  relates  to  notorious 
offences,  and  is  performed  only  before  the  church ;  private  penance 
relates  to  sins  confessed  only  to  a  priest,  for  which  satisfaction  is  pri- 
vately performed.  It  is  private  penance,  thus  closely  connected 
with  the  practice  of  auricular  confession,  which  has  been  exalted  to 
the  rank  of  a  sacrament  in  the  church  of  Rome. 

No  precedent  or  other  authority  in  favor  of  this  practice  can  be 
found  in  the  New  Testament.  James,  (5:  16,)  relates  to  a  mutual 
confession  of  sins  ;  and  demands  no  more  confession  of  the  people 
to  a  priest,  than  of  a  priest  to  the  people.  Roman  Catholic  writers, 
abandoning  this  passage,  contend,  however,  that  auricular  confession 
is  founded  upon  Scripture,  inasmuch  as  it  is  a  natural  and  necessary 
accompaniment  of  the  power  of  forgiving  sins,  which  they  suppose 
to  have  been  vested  in  the  apostles,  Matt.  18:  IS.  16:  19.  John  20: 23. 
Such  is  the  position  maintained  by  the  council  of  Trent,  (Sess.  xiv. 
c.  3 — 6) ;  the  unsoundness  of  which  has  been,  however,  abundantly 
proved. 


PRIVATE  PENANCE.  345 

"  The  more  acute  and  judicious  controversialists  on  the  Romish 
side  betake  themselves  to  the  authority  of  the  fathers  in  this  matter ; 
claiming  Irenacus,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Origen,  Teriullian,  and 
others,  as  bearing  witness  to  the  existence  of  private  confession  in 
their  days.  Bui  it  is  found,  upon  examination,  that  the  fio/uokopjai^, 
or  confessio,  to  which  they  allude,  is  quite  another  thing, — such,  in 
fact,  as  has  been  already  described  ;  a  point  which  is  fully  conceded 
by  a  celebrated  Roman  Catholic  antiquarian,  Gabriel  Albaspinaeus. 
{Obsenmt.  Eccl.  lib.  ii.  c.  26.)  The  truth  is,  that  the  ancient  wri- 
ters speak  of  e^ufioXoyrjatg  only  in  the  sense  of  confession  of  sin  to 
Almighty  God,  or  as  denoting  public  penance  ;  the  whole  exercise, 
in  the  latter  case,  being  denominated  from  its  introductory  part. 
Concerning  the  former  kind  of  confession,  the  fathers  teach  express- 
ly that  it  is  to  be  made  only  to  God,  and  not  by  any  means  to  man, 
whether  the  whole  church  or  individual  ministers,  Basil.  M.  in  Ps. 
37:  8.  Chrysost.  Ho7n.  31  in  Ep.  ad  Hebr.  It  is  wholly  unconnec- 
ted with  anything  in  the  shape  of  satisfaction  or  penalty  ;  its  only 
necessary  accompaniment  being  repentance  or  contrition,  with  pur- 
pose of  amendment.  The  other  kind  of  confession  related,  as  has 
been  already  explained,  to  those  open  or  notorious  offences,  on  ac- 
count of  which  a  member  of  the  church  had  been  excluded  from  her 
communion  ;  and  it  was  required  as  a  preparatory  step  in  order  to  a 
restoration  to  ecclesiastical  privileges.  And  together  with  this,  we 
may  rank  the  public  confession  of  previous  sins  which  was  required 
as  one  of  the  preliminaries  of  baptism  ;  allusion  to  which  is  made 
by  some  of  the  earliest  ecclesiastical  writers. 

"  During  the  Decian  persecution,  the  number  of  penitents  being 
very  large,  the  bishop  deemed  it  expedient  to  appoint  certain  pres- 
byters to  the  especial  office  of  receiving  their  confessions  prepara- 
tory to  public  penance  ;  it  having  been  already  recommended,  as  a 
wholesome  practice,  that  persons  suffering  under  any  perplexities  of 
mind  or  troubles  of  conscience,  should  have  recourse  to  some  wise 
and  skilful  pastor  for  their  guidance  and  satisfaction.  The  establish- 
ment of  this  office  of  penitentiary  presbyters  is  related  by  Socrates, 
Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  V.  c.  19,  and  Sozomen  Hist.  Eccl.  vii.  16  ;  from 
whom  we  learn  also  that  it  was  never  admitted  by  the  Novalians  ; 
that  it  was  abolished  at  Constantinople,  by  Nectorius  the  bishop,  ia 
the  reign  of  Theodosius  ;  and  that  this  example  was  followed  by  al- 
most all  the  bishops  of  the  East,  in  whose  churches  the  office  was 
44 


346  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CHURCH. 

accordino-ly  discontinued  ;  but  that  it  continued  in  use  in  the  West- 
ern churches,  and   chiefly  at  Rome,  to   prepare  men  for  the  public 
penance  of  the  church.     The  appointment  of  these   penitentiary 
priests  may  be  regarded  as  having  led  the  way  to  the  institution  of 
confessors,  in  the  modern  acceptation   of  the  term.     But  those  offi- 
cers were  by  no  means  identical,  and  ought  not  to  be  confounded 
with  each  other.     The  office  of  the  penitentiary  priests  '  was  not  to 
receive  private   confessions   in  prejudice   to  the   public   discipline; 
much  less  to  grant  absolution  privately  upon  bare  confession  before 
any  penance  was  performed  ;  which   was  a  practice  altogether  un- 
known to  the  ancient  church  ; — but  it  was  to  facilitate  and  promote 
the  exercise  of  public  discipline,  by  acquainting  men  what  sins  the 
laws  of  the  church  required  to  be  e.xpiated   by  public  penance,  and 
how  they  were  to  behave  themselves  in  the  performance  of  it ;  and 
only  to  appoint  private  penance  for  such  private  crimes  as  were  not 
proper  to  be  brought  upon  the  public  stage,  either  for  fear  of  doing 
harm   to   the    penitent   himself,  or  giving   scandal  to  the  church.' 
Bingham,  Antiq.  b.  xviii.  c.  3,  §  11.     The  confession   of  sins  was 
indeed  private ;  but  it  was  destined  to  be  made   public   in  order  to 
the  performance  of  penance.     The  private  or  auricular  confession 
of  later  centuries  is  quite  different  from  the  confession  made  to  those 
penitentiary  presbyters.     Confession  was  not  made  to  them,  with  a 
view  of  obtaining  forgiveness  from  God  ;  but  in  order  to  procure  res- 
toration to  the  former  privileges  of  the  offended  church.     It  was 
considered  indeed  useful  and  necessary  to  seek  for  both  kinds  of  for- 
giveness at  the  same  time  ;  but  no  christian  minister  claimed  the 
power  of  pronouncing  pardon  in  the  name  of  God.    See  Schroeck, 
Kirchensgeschiclite^  iv.  318 — 321. 

"  The  regular  establishment  of  the  system  of  private  confession 
and  absolution  is  usually  ascribed  to  Leo  the  Great,  who  represen- 
ted not  merely  any  particular  penitentiary  priests,  but  every  priest, 
as  possessing  the  power  and  authority  to  receive  confession,  to  act 
as  an  intercessor  with  God  on  behalf  of  the  penitent,  and  to  declare 
forgiveness  of  sins  in  the  name  of  God.  But  even  the  system  intro- 
duced by  this  pontiff  differed  from  that  which  has  prevailed  since  the 
thirteenth  century  in  the  Roman  church,  inasmuch  as  the  confes- 
sion of  sins  was  left  to  every  one's  own  conscience,  and  penance 
was  still  regarded  as  an  entirely  voluntary  act,  which  no  one  could 
be  compelled  to  perform  ;  nor  was  the  priest  supposed  to  possess  in 


RECAPITULATION.  347 

himself  any  ((Jclcgatcd)  power  of  forgiving  sins.  And  subsequently 
to  the  age  of  Leo,  it  was  considered  as  a  matter  quite  at  the  option 
of  an  ofTender  either  to  confess  his  sins  to  a  priest,  or  to  God  alone." 

§  7.  Recapitulation. 

For  the  purpose  of  illustrating  to  the  common  reader  the  views  of 
the  ancient  church  respecting  this  interesting  and  important  subject, 
together  with  the  motives  which  led  to  the  observance  of  this  system 
of  discipline  as  detailed  above,  a  recapitulation  is  inserted  in  the 
words  of  the  popular  author  of  whose  labors  we  have  taken  occasion 
frequently  to  avail  ourselves  in  the  progress  of  this  work.* 

1.  Seoerity  of  discipline.  Widely  as  society,  among  the  primi- 
tive Christians,  was  pervaded  with  the  leaven  of  a  pure  and  exalted 
morality,  and  well  adapted  as  were  the  means  they  took  to  preserve 
that  high  standard  of  piety  and  virtue,  their  history  bears  melancholy 
evidence,  that  no  precautions  are  sufficient  to  protect  the  purest  as- 
sociations of  men  from  the  intrusion  of  fhe  unworthy.  Even  in  the 
earliest  age  of  the  church,  when  the  number  of  the  disciples  was 
small,  and  the  apostles  themselves  presided  over  the  interests  of  the 
infant  body,  the  rules  of  christian  propriety  were  frequently  violated, 
and  the  most  odious  forms  of  hypocrisy  and  vice  were  found  lurking 
under  the  cloak  of  a  religious  profession ;  and  it  is  not  surprising, 
therefore,  that  as  Christianity  enlarged  her  boundaries,  and  saw  mul- 
titudes flocking  to  her  standard  in  every  region  of  the  world,  the 
number  of  delinquents  proportionally  increased.  While  some  who 
had  embraced  the  cause  of  Jesus  from  low  and  selfish  considerations, 
and  others  who  had  brought  over  to  the  new  religion  a  lingering  at- 
tachment to  the  habits  of  the  old,  were  often  found  acting  in  a  man- 
ner that  disgraced  the  christian  name,  or  betrayed  a  spirit  at  vari- 
ance with  the  requirements  of  the  gospel,  a  more  numerous  class 
were  driven,  through  weakness,  or  the  fears  of  persecution,  to  apos- 
tatise from  the  faith,  and  defile  themselves  again  with  the  profane 
rites  of  idolatry  ;  and  no  description  of  offenders — not  even  those 
who  were  guilty  of  the  grossest  immoralities, — appeared  in  the  eyes 
of  the  primitive  church  to  have  more  degraded  themselves,  and  to  be 
covered  with  a  darker  shade  of  guilt,  than  those  who,  from  a  cow- 
ardly apprehension  of  torture  and  death,  relapsed  into  the  abomina- 

''  Jamieson,  pp.  147 — ir>'.>. 


348  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CHURCH. 

tions  of  heathenism.  From  various  causes,  ihen,  partly  arising  from 
the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  times,  partly  traceable  to  the  gen- 
eral corruption  of  human  nature,  the  primitive  Christians  were  ever 
and  anon  distressed  with  the  discovery  of  offences  committed  by 
some  of  their  body  against  the  name  or  the  principles  of  Jesus  ;  and 
accordingly,  one  branch  of  their  manners  that  presents  itself  pre- 
eminently to  our  notice,  throughout  the  whole  of  their  history,  is  the 
mode  of  treatment  they  observed  towards  their  erring  or  fallen 
brethren. 

That  treatment  was  characterised  by  a  rigor  and  an  impartiality 
to  which  the  discipline  of  succeeding  ages  has  seldom  furnished  a 
parallel ;  and  indeed  it  is  not  wonderful,  that  they  who  adopted  such 
extraordinary  means  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  vicious  or  un- 
worthy men  into  the  church,  should  have  been  equally  anxious  for 
the  stern  and  unsparing  exclusion  of  all  who  were  afterwards  found 
wanting  in  the  requisite  qualities  of  faith  and  holiness.  Whatever 
other  faults  the  primitive  Christians  fell  into  at  different  periods,  at 
no  time  did  they  lay  themselves  open  to  the  imputation  of  laxity. 
On  the  contrary,  so  much  did  a  severe  and  inflexible  virtue  regulate 
the  terms  of  membership,  during  the  whole  period  within  which  they 
flourished,  that  no  sin,  whether  of  that  scandalous  description  that 
outrages  every  feeling  of  decency,  or  of  that  milder  character  that 
implies  only  an  inconsistency  with  the  spirit  of  the  gospel,  was  al- 
lowed to  pass,  without  receiving  a  due  measure  of  censure  or  con- 
demnation. Each  successive  age,  though  it  added  in  many  other 
respects  to  the  religious  observances  of  the  preceding,  transmitted 
the  ancient  discipline  of  the  church  unimpaired  to  posterity,  and  en- 
deavored to  preserve  the  christian  society  as  a  sacred  enclosure, 
within  whose  precincts  nothing  unclean  or  unholy  was  permitted  to 
enter  or  continue. 

2.  Tenderness  and  sorroio  for  the  offender.  But  however  firm 
and  vigorous  the  hand  with  which  they  wielded  the  reins  of  disci- 
pline, they  always  tempered  the  infliction  with  the  affectionate  spirit 
of  christian  love,  and  combined  unqualified  detestation  of  the  sin  with 
lively  pily  and  concern  for  the  sinner.  While,  in  executing  that 
painful  duty,  they  knew  no  man  after  the  flesh, — would  have  ad- 
dressed the  language  of  reproof, — or  passed  the  sentence  of  a  long 
exile  from  the  community  of  the  faithful  on  their  dearest  earihly 
friend,  if  he  deserved  it, — they  mourned  over  the  fall  of  an  erring 


RECAFITULATION.  349 

disciple  as  much  as  if  they  had  been  suffering  a  personal  or  family 
bereavement.  The  day  on  which  such  a  doom  was  sealed,  was  a 
season  of  universal  and  bitter  lamentation.  The  aged  considered 
themselves  as  having  lost  a  son  or  a  daughter— the  young,  as  having 
been  severed  from  a  brother  or  sister.  Every  one  felt  that  a  tie  had 
been  broken,  and  that  an  event  had  occurred  which  could  be  consid- 
ered in  no  other  light  than  as  a  dire  and  wide-spread  calamity.  Be- 
fore, however,  they  allowed  matters  to  reach  that  painful  extremity, 
they  never  failed  to  resort  to  every  means,  in  private,  of  reproving 
and  admonishing  the  brother  whom  they  saw  to  be  in  fault ;  and  it 
was  not  till  after  they  had  tried  all  the  arts  of  persuasion,  and  their 
repeated  efforts  had  proved  unavailing,  that  they  brought  the  case 
under  the  notice  of  the  church,  and  subjected  the  offender  to  that 
severe  and  impartial  ordeal  which  few  but  the  most  daring  and  incor- 
rigible had  the  hardihood  to  abide.  It  is  scarcely  possible  for  us, 
who  live  in  a  slate  of  society  so  different,  to  conceive  the  tremen- 
dous effect  of  a  sentence  which  cut  off  an  obstinate  offender  from  all 
connection  with  the  church,  and  which,  being  solemnly  pronounced 
in  the  name  of  God,  seemed  to  anticipate  the  award  of  the  judgment 
day.  Looking  upon  the  fallen  disciple  from  that  moment  as  an  en- 
emy of  Christ  and  a  servant  of  the  devil,  the  brethren  avoided  his 
presence  as  they  would  have  fled  from  plague  or  pestilence.  They 
were  forbid  to  admit  him  to  their  house,  to  sit  with  him  at  table,  or 
to  render  him  any  of  the  ordinary  offices  of  life, — and  the  man  who 
should  have  been  detected  in  liis  company,  would  have  run  the  haz- 
ard of  bringing  his  own  character  into  suspicion,  and  of  being  thought 
a  guilty  partner  of  the  other's  sins. 

3.  Tremendous  effects  of  excomvmnication.  Few,  but  those  in 
whom  loog  habits  of  secret  wickedness  had  almost  obliterated  every 
religious  feeling,  could  remain  long  undisturbed  and  tranquil  in  a 
state  which,  considered  as  forsaken  by  God  as  well  as  by  man,  was  at- 
tended with  such  a  tremendous  load  of  present  misery, — and  which 
imagination  associated  with  the  terrors  of  a  dark  and  unknown  futu- 
rity. The  hearts  even  of  the  most  hardened,  if  they  bore  up  for  a 
while,  through  their  corrupt  nature,  and  the  love  of  their  sinful  prac- 
tices, soon  felt  this  unnatural  boldness  give  way,  and  becoming 
alive  to  all  the  wretchedness  of  an  e.xcommunicated  state, — the  un- 
happy sinners,  like  persons  standing  on  the  brink  of  despair,  placed 
themselves  again  at  the  gate  of  the  church,  and  implored,  in  the 


350  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CHURCH. 

most  importunate  and  abject  manner,  to  be  delivered  from  a  condi- 
tion which  was  more  dreadful  than  death  itself.  From  day  to  day 
they  repaired  to  the  cloisters,  or  the  roofless  area  of  the  church, — 
for  no  nearer  were  they  allowed  to  approach  it, — and  there  they 
stood,  in  the  most  humble  and  penitent  attitude,  with  downcast  looks, 
and  tears  in  their  eyes,  and  smiting  on  their  breasts  ;  or  threw  them- 
selves on  the  ground  at  the  feet  of  the  fliithful,  as  they  entered  to 
worship,  begging  an  interest  in  their  sympathies  and  their  prayers, 
— confessing  their  sins,  and  crying  out  that  they  were  as  salt  which 
had  lost  its  savor,  fit  only  to  be  trodden  under  foot.  For  weeks  and 
months  they  often  continued  in  this  grovelling  state,  receiving  from 
the  passengers  nothing  but  the  silent  expressions  of  their  pity.  Not 
a  word  was  spoken,  in  the  way  either  of  encouragement  or  exhorta- 
tion ;  for  during  these  humiliating  stations  at  the  gate,  the  offenders 
were  considered  rather  as  candidates  for  penance  than  as  actually 
penitents.  When  at  last  they  had  waited  a  sufficient  length  of  time 
in  this  state  of  affliction,  and  the  silent  observers  of  their  conduct 
were  satisfied  that  their  outward  demonstrations  of  sorrow  proceeded 
from  a  humble  and  contrite  spirit,  (he  rulers  of  the  church  admitted 
them  within  the  walls,  and  gave  them  the  privilege  of  remaining  to 
hear  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures  and  the  sermon.  The  appointed 
time  for  their  continuance  among  the  hearers  being  completed,  they 
were  advanced  lo  the  third  order  of  penitents^  whose  privilege  it  was 
to  wait  until  that  part  of  the  service  when  the  prayers  for  particular 
classes  were  offered  up,  and  to  hear  the  petitions  which  the  minister, 
with  his  hands  on  their  heads,  and  themselves  on  their  bended  knees, 
addressed  to  God  on  their  behalf,  for  his  mercy  to  pardon  and  his 
grace  to  help  them.  In  due  time  they  were  allowed  to  be  present 
at  the  celebration  of  the  communion,  and  the  edifying  services  that 
accompanied  it ;  after  witnessing  which,  and  offering,  at  the  same 
time,  satisfactory  proofs  of  that  godly  sorrow  which  is  unto  salvation, 
the  term  of  penance  ended. 

4.  Duration  of  hanisliment  from  the  church.  The  duration  of  this 
unhappy  banishment  from  the  peace  and  communion  of  the  church 
lasted  for  no  fixed  time,  but  was  prolonged  or  shortened  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  crime,  and  the  promisirjg  character  of  the  offen- 
der. The  ordinary  term  was  from  two  to  five  years.  But  in  some 
cases  of  gross  and  aggravated  sin,  the  sentence  of  excommunication 
extended  to  ten,  twenty,  and  thirty  years  ;  and  even  in  some  cases, 


RECAPITULATION. 


351 


though  rarely,  to  the  very  close  of  life.  During  the  whole  progress  of 
their  probation,  tlie  penitents  appeared  in  sackcloth  and  ashes, — the 
men  were  obliged  to  cut  off  their  hair,  and  the  women  to  veil  them- 
selves, in  token  of  sorrow.  They  were  debarred  from  all  the  usual 
comforts  and  amusements  of  life,  and  obliged  to  observe  frequent 
seasons  of  fasting,— an  exercise  which,  in  the  ancient  church, 
especially  among  the  Christians  of  the  East,  was  deemed  an  indis- 
pensable concomitant  of  prayer. 

5.  Solemn  manner  of  restoring  offenders.  On  the  day  appointed 
for  their  deliverance  from  this  humiliating  condition,  they  came  into 
the  church  in  a  penitential  garb  of  sackcloth,  and  with  a  trembling 
voice  and  copious  tears,  took  their  station  on  an  elevated  platform, 
■where,  in  presence  of  the  assembled  congregation,  they  made  a  pub- 
lic confession  of  their  sins,  and  throwing  themselves  down  on  the 
ground,  they  besought  them  to  forgive  the  scandal  and  reproach 
they  had  brought  on  the  christian  name,  and  to  give  them  the  bene- 
fit and  comfort  of  their  intercessory  prayers.  The  brethren,  moved 
with  the  liveliest  emotions,  at  beholding  one,  to  whom  they  had  often 
given  the  kiss  of  peace,  in  so  distressing  a  situation,  fell  on  their 
knees  along  with  him,  and  the  minister,  in  the  same  attitude  of  pros- 
tration, laying  his  hands  on  the  head  of  the  penitent,  supplicated,  with 
solemn  fervor,  the  divine  compassion  on  him,  and  then  raising  him, 
placed  him  in  the  ranks  of  the  faithful  at  the  table  of  the  commu- 
nion. 

This  severe  and  protracted  discipline,  through  which  offenders,  in 
the  primitive  church,  were  required  to  pass, — though  several  out- 
ward ceremonies  usually  entered  as  elements  into  the  observance, 
was  reckoned  essentially  a  discipline  of  the  mind ;  and  it  was  as 
different  from  the  bodily  mortification,  in  which  the  votaries  of  Papal 
Rome  comprise  the  whole  duty  of  penitents,  as  the  life-giving  spirit 
is  from  the  senseless  form.  Two  grand  and  important  objects  were 
contemplated  in  its  appointment, — the  one  to  check  every  sin  in  the 
bud,  and  prevent  the  contagion  of  an  evil  example  ;  for  so  jealous 
were  the  good  and  holy  Christians  of  primitive  times,  of  the  least 
dishonor  being  done  to  their  heavenly  Master,  or  the  smallest  re- 
proach being  cast  on  his  cause,  that  they  lost  no  time  in  excluding 
from  their  society  every  one  who  refused  compliance  with  the  pre- 
cepts of  the  gospel,  or  was  not  adorned  with  the  fruits  of  its  genuine 
and  consistent  disciples  : — the  other  was  to  afford  penitents  sufficient 


352  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CHURCH. 

time  to  prove  the  sincerity  of  their  sorrow,  and  to  satisfy  the  church 
of  their  well-founded  claims  to  enjoy  its  clemency  and  be  restored 
to  its  privileges.  It  was  the  more  necessary  to  adopt  those  measures 
of  precaution,  that  in  the  days  of  primitive  Christianity,  multitudes, 
who  from  the  ranks  of  idolatry  came  over  to  Christianity,  retained  a 
strong  predilection  for  their  early  indulgences  and  habits,  and  were 
the  occasion,  by  their  vices  and  their  crimes,  of  doing  injury  to  the 
cause  they  embraced,  to  an  extent  of  which  we  can  scarcely  form 
any  idea.  Accordingly,  those  who,  under  the  pressure  of  severe 
sickness,  or  in  the  immediate  prospect  of  death,  were  absolved  and 
admitted  to  peace  and  communion,  were,  in  the  event  of  their  re- 
covery, required  to  place  themselves  again  in  that  stage  of  their  dis- 
cipline at  which  they  had  arrived  when  arrested  by  their  indisposition, 
and  to  complete  the  course  in  due  order,  as  if  no  inlerruption  had 
occurred  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  sins  of  some  were  consid- 
ered as  of  so  black  a  hue,  and  involving  such  enormous  guilt,  that  a 
life-time  appearing  far  too  short  a  time  to  enable  them  to  bring  forth 
fruits  meet  for  repentance,  they  were  doomed  by  a  law,  as  unalter- 
able as  the  laws  of  the  Medes  and  Persians,  to  live  and  die  under  the 
ban  of  the  church.  In  regard  to  those  cases  where  penitents,  in  the 
progress  of  their  trials,  relapsed  into  sin,  they  were  degraded  to  a 
lower  rank,  and  obliged  to  enter  on  the  task  of  probation  anew, — an 
obligation,  however,  which,  in  such  circumstances,  was  at  once  a 
punishment,  and  a  favor  granted  to  them  as  an  act  of  grace,  in  the 
spirit  of  christian  tenderness, — disposed  to  forbear  a  little  longer 
with  their  weakness.  But  when  a  person  who  had  gone  through  the 
routine  of  penitential  observances,  and  was  restored  to  the  privileges 
of  full  communion,  repeated  his  crime,  or  was  convicted  of  another, 
the  opportunity  of  again  placing  himself  in  the  order  of  penitents  was 
inflexibly  denied,  and  no  importunities  or  tears  on  his  part, — no  in- 
fluence nor  intercession  on  that  of  others,  could  open  the  gates  of  the 
church,  which  thenceforth  were  for  ever  shut  against  him. 

6.  Impartiality  of  this  discipline — story  of  Theodosius.  Nor  was 
the  discipline  of  the  primitive  church  less  distinguished  for  its  im- 
partiality than  its  rigor.  Never  was  it  known  that  the  shield  of  pro- 
tection was  thrown  over  the  head  of  a  relative  or  a  friend;  never 
did  a  timid  or  time-serving  policy  lead  its  rulers  to  shrink  from  visit- 
ing with  merited  punishment  the  perpetrator  of  wickedness  in  high 
places.     Let  the  offender  be  who  or  what  he  might, — whether  old  or 


RECAriTULATlON.  353 

yotmg,  a  male  member  of  the  community,  or  one  belonging  to  the 
gentler  sex  ;  whether  invested  with  the  sacred  office,  or  moving  in 
the  himibler  sphere  of  an  ordinary  brother ;  whether  a  poor  me- 
chanic, or  a  christian  prince, — ail  were  equally  amenable  to  the 
laws  ;  all  were  doomed  indiscriminately  to  abide  the  consequences 
of  violating  them  ;  all  required  to  submit  to  the  same  tedious  and 
searching  ordeal,  as  the  indispensable  terms  of  their  restoration  to 
christian  society.     The  following  historical  anecdote,  out  of  rnany 
similar  ones  that  might  be  adduced,  affords  so  interesting  and   re- 
markable a  proof,  with  how  steady  and  equal  a  hand  the  reins  of 
ancient  discipline  were  wielded,  that  we  are  confident  our  readers 
will  excuse  its  insertion.     The  emperor  Theodosius,  who  flourished 
about  the  year  370,  was  a  prince  whose  character  was  adorned  with 
many  virtues,  and  who  added  to  the  other  excellent  qualities  that 
distinguished  him, — a  firm  and  sincere  attachment  to  the  gospel  of 
Christ.     As  the  best  of  men,  however,  have  their  besetting  sins,  and 
their  inherent  faults,  Theodosius  inherited  the  infirmity  of  a  keen 
and  impetuous  temper,  which,  on  several  occasions,  hurried  him  to 
the  inconsiderate  adoption  of  measures  which  he  afterwards  found 
cause  bitterly  to  lament.     The  most  memorable  of  these  occasions 
was  the  affiiir  of  Thcssalonica.     In  that  city  of  Macedonia,  some 
enactments  of  the  emperor  had  given  so  great  and  universal  dissatis- 
faction to  the  inhabitants,  that  they  assembled  in  an  uproar,  threat- 
ening to  set  the  imperial  orders  at  defiance,  and  sufficiently  indicat- 
ing their  determined  spirit  of  resistance  by  an  attack  upon  the  gar- 
rison, which  was  signalized  by  the  massacre  of  the  commanding  offi- 
cer, and  several  of  the  soldiery.     The  intelligence  of  this  untoward 
event  so  incensed  Theodosius,  that  he  forthwith  issued  his  mandate 
for  reducing  the  whole  city  to  ashes  ;  and   the   bloody   edict  would 
have  been  carried  into  prompt  execution  by  the  military,  who  par- 
ticipated in  the  feelings  of  their  monarch,  and  breathed  revenge  for 
the  loss  of  their  slaughtered  comrades,  had  not  some  christian  bish- 
ops, by  their  powerful  and  importunate  intercession,  prevailed  on  the 
emperor  reluctantly  to    recal   his  orders.      The    prime    minister, 
however,  was  implacable,  and  by  his  incessant  representations  to  his 
imperial  master,  that  so   ill-timed  clemency   would    produce  the 
greatest  detriment  to  the  public  service,  and  weaken  the  hands  of 
government  especially  in  the  provinces,  succeeded  in  inducing  The- 
odosius to  reissue  his  command  for  exterminating  the  Thessalonians 

45 


354  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CHURCH. 

with  fire  and  sword.     Seldom  have  the  annals  of  history  been  stained 
with  so  foul  a  deed  of  perfidy  and  baseness.      Proclamation  having 
been  made,  that  on  a  set  day,  the  civil  authorities  would   treat  the 
populace  to  an  exhibition  of  their  favorite  frames,  a  vast  concourse 
assembled,  and  the  moment  all  eyes  were  rivelted  to  the  spot,  ex- 
pecting the  spectacle  to  commence,  bands  of  soldiers  rushed  furi- 
ously from  all  quarters  on  the  defenceless  crowd,  slauglitering  all 
without  distinction  of  age,  sex,  or  condition.     So  dreadful  was  the 
massacre,  that  within  three  hours,  7000  people  were  stretched  life- 
less on  the  ground.     Meanwhile  a  messenger  had  been  posting  night 
and  day  from  the  palace  with  a  commission  to  stop  the  proceedings, 
the  emperor  having  no  sooner  consented  to  the  massacre  than  he 
relented  ;  but  the  deputy  did  not  arrive  till  the  unfortunate  Thessa- 
lonica  had  become  a  city  of  the  dead,  and  Theodosius  had  to  sustain 
in  the  eyes  of  God  and  man  the  guilt  of  such  unparalleled  cruelty. 
Not  long  after,  circumstances  occurred  that  rendered  it  necessary 
for  the  emperor  to  repair  to  Milan,  when  the  celebrated  Ambrose, 
bishop  of  the  place,  wrote  him  a  letter,  in  which  he  severely  re- 
proached him  for  his  base  and  horrible  treatment  of  the  Thessaloni- 
ans.     Nothing  is  known  of  the  reception  given  to  this  letter,  or  of 
any  further  correspondence  that  may  have  passed  between  them  on 
the  subject,  till,  on  the  Lord's  day,  the  emperor  proceeding  to  public 
worship,  Ambrose  met  him  at  the  gates  of  the  church,  and  peremp- 
torily refused  to  admit  him.     This  proceeding  of  Ambrose,  extraor- 
dinary as  it   may  appear  to  us,  could  not  have  been  surprising  nor 
unexpected  to  his  sovereign,  who  was  well  aware  that  the  austere 
discipline  of  the  times  doomed  offenders  of  every  description  to  wail 
in  the  area  or  the  porticoes  of  the  church,  and  beg  the  forgiveness 
and  the  prayers  of  the  faithful,  ere  they  were  permitted  to  reach  the 
lowest  station  of  the  penitents.     Self-love,  however,  or  a  secret  pride 
in  his  exalted  station,  might  perhaps  have  led  Theodosius  to  hope 
that  the  ordinary  severity  of  the  church  would  be  relaxed  in  his  fa- 
vor,— more  especially,  as  the  act  imputed  to  him  as  a  crime  was  jus- 
tified by  many  urgent  considerations  of  state  policy;  and  under  this 
delusion,  he  made  for  the  church,  never  dreaming,  it  would  seem, 
that  whatever  demur  the  minister  of  Christ  might  make,  he  would 
have  the  boldness  to  arrest  the  progress  of  an  emperor  in  presence 
of  his  courtiers,  and  of  the  whole  congregation.     But  the  fear  of  man 
was  never  known  to  have  made  Ambrose  flinch  from  his  duty  ;  and, 


RECAPITULATION.  355 

heedless  of  every  consideration,  but  that  of  fidelity  to  the  cause  and 
the  honor  of  his  heavenly  Master,  he  planted  himself  on  the  thresh- 
old of  the  church,  and  vowed,  that  neither  bribes  nor  menaces  would 
induce  him  to  admit,  into  the  temple  of  the  God  of  peace,  a  royal 
criminal,  red  witli  the  blood  of  thousands,  who  were  his  brethren, — 
all  of  them  by  the  ties  of  a  common  nature, — many  of  them  by  the 
bonds  of  a  common  faith.  Theodosius,  thus  suddenly  put  on  his 
self-defence,  took  refuge  in  the  history  of  David,  who  was  also  a 
sovereign  ;  and  who,  though  he  had  combined  the  guilt  of  adultery 
with  that  of  murder,  was  yet  pardoned  and  restored  to  favor  by  God 
himself,  on  the  confession  of  his  sins.  "  You  have  resembled  David 
in  his  crime,"  replied  the  inflexible  Ambrose,  "  resemble  him  also  in 
his  repentance."  Self-convicted  and  abashed,  the  em[)eror  aban- 
doned all  further  attempts  ;  and,  returning  to  his  palace,  during 
eight  months  continued  in  a  slate  of  excommunication  from  christian 
fellowship,  bearing  all  the  ignominy,  and  stooping  to  all  the  humili- 
ating acts  required  of  those  who  underwent  the  discipline  of  the 
church.  As  the  first  annual  season  of  communion  approached,  the 
anxiety  of  the  emperor  to  participate  in  the  holy  rite  became  extreme. 
Often,  in  the  paroxysms  of  his  grief,  did  he  say  to  the  counsellor, 
who  had  advised  the  Draconic  edict  against  the  Thessalonians, 
"  Servants  and  beggars  have  liberty  to  join  in  worship  and  commu- 
nion, but  to  me  the  church  doors,  and  consequently  the  gates  of 
heaven,  are  closed  ;  for  so  the  Lord  hath  decreed,  '  Whatsoever  ye 
shall  bind  on  earth  shall  be  bound  in  heaven.'  "  At  length  it  was 
agreed  between  the  prince  and  his  favorite,  that  the  latter  should 
seek  an  interview  with  Ambrose,  and  endeavor  to  gain  him  over  to 
employ  a  privilege  of  his  order, — that  of  abridging,  in  certain  cir- 
cumstances, the  period  appointed  for  the  duration  of  church  disci- 
pline. The  eagerness  of  his  royal  master  could  not  wait  his  return, 
and,  meeting  him  on  his  way,  he  was  greeted  with  the  unwelcome 
intelligence,  that  the  faithful  bishop  considered  it  a  violation  of  his 
duty,  to  remit  any  part  of  the  just  censures  of  the  church  ;  and  that 
nothing  but  submission  to  the  shame  and  degradation  of  a  public 
confession  of  his  sins  could  accomplish  the  object  which  was  dearest 
to  the  heart  of  the  royal  penitent.  On  an  appointed  day,  accord- 
ingly, Theodosius  appeared  in  the  church  of  Milan,  clothed  in  sack- 
cloth ;  and,  acknowledging  the  heinousness  of  hi.5  offence,  the  just 
sentence  by  which  he  forfeited  the  communion  of  the  faithful,  and 


356  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CHURCH. 

the  profound  sorrow  he  now  felt  for  having  authorized  so  gross  an 
outrage  on  the  laws  of  heaven,  and  the  rights  of  humanity,  was  re- 
ceived, with  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  whole  congregation,  once 
more  info  the  bosom  of  christian  society.  Nothing  can  afford  a  bet- 
ter test  of  the  simplicity  and  godly  sincerity  of  the  christian  emperor> 
than  his  readiness  to  assume,  in  presence  of  his  people,  an  attitude 
so  humiliating.  How  deep  must  have  been  his  repentance  towards 
God,— how  strong  his  faith  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ, — and  how  many 
plausible  reasons  of  personal  honor  and  public  expediency  must  he 
have  had  to  encounter,  ere  he  could  bring  himself,  in  face  of  a 
crowded  assembly,  to  say,  as  he  entered,  "  My  soul  cleaveth  unto 
the  dust ;  quicken  thou  me,  according  to  thy  word ;"  and  ere  he 
could  throw  himself  prostrate  on  the  ground,  to  implore  the  pardon 
of  God  and  the  forgiveness  of  his  fellow  men  !  And  if  this  extraor- 
dinary history  affords  an  illustrious  example  of  genuine  repentance, 
it  exhibits,  in  no  less  memorable  a  light,  the  strictness  and  impartial- 
ity of  primitive  discipline.  What  minister  would  have  dared  to  im- 
pose,— what  prince  would  have  submitted  to  undergo,  a  course  of 
public  penitence,  so  humiliating  and  so  painful,  if  it  had  not  been 
the  established  practice  of  the  church  to  let  no  offenders  escape  with 
impunity. 

^  8.  Of  Councils.''? 

Ori^in  of  ecclesiastical  councils.  Roman  Catholic  writers  derive 
their  authority  for  ecclesiastical  councils  from  the  example  of  the 
church  at  Jerusalem,  as  recorded  in  Acts  xv.  They  regard  that  as 
the  first  ecclesiastical  council ;  and  from  the  deliberations  and  de- 
cisions of  that  body,  they  deduce  the  several  conclusions  following. 

1.  That  the  appropriate  mode  of  settling  questions  relating  to  re- 
ligious subjects  is  by  council. 

2.  That  the  laity  should  be  excluded  from  such  councils  ;  and  yet 
the  whole  church  took  part  in  the  deliberations  at  Jerusalem,  Acts  15: 
22,  23. 

3.  That  the  duty  devolves  upon  the  successor  of  St.  Peter  to  pre- 
side in  such  councils. 

4.  That  the  results  of  such  councils  are  to  be  communicated 
throughout  the  churches. 

*  From  Siegel's  Handbuch,  vol.  IV.  pp.  406—425. 


OF  COUNCILS.  357 

5.  From  the  expression,  "  It  seemed  good  to  the  Holy  Ghost  and 
to  us,"  Acts  15:  28,  they  infer  the  infallibility  of  these  decrees  of 
councils. 

6.  From  the  authoritative  command  of  this  council,  they  assert 
the  duty  of  unreserved  submission  to  the  synodical  decrees. 

In  answer  to  these  arrogant  pretensions  it  is  sufficient  to  say,  that 
no  council  is  known  to  have  been  held  for  near  one  hundred  and 
fifty  years  after  this  time.  They  then  began  to  be  held  in  Greece 
and  Asia  Minor.  But  they  were  only  provincial  synods,  local  and 
limited  in  their  jurisdiction ;  though  bishops  and  presbyters  of  other 
provinces  were  allowed  to  have  a  seat  in  them.  These  councils 
made  no  appeal  whatever  to  divine  authority  or  apostolic  usage  in 
vindication  of  their  right  of  jurisdiction  over  the  churches.  They 
were  composed  only  of  the  clergy,  of  whom  merely  the  bishops  are 
distinctly  mentioned.  They  deliberated  respecting  the  important 
affairs  of  the  church,  oltiora  quaeque  ;  and  prepared  themselves  for 
the  public  deliberations  by  watching  and  fasting.  All  this  is  fairly 
inferred  from  the  incidental  mention  of  these  councils  by  Tertullian, 
who  is  the  earliest  writer  that  takes  notice  of  them,  De  Jejunio,  c.  13, 
written  near  the  end  of  the  second  century.  The  passage  is  given 
in  the  note  below.* 

About  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  Firmilian,  bishop  of  Caesa- 
vea,  wrote  to  Cyprian  an  epistle  in  which  he  takes  occasion  to  say 
that  "  the  bishop,  and  elders  annually  assembled  to  deliberate  upon 
ecclesiastical  matters  committed  to  their  charge,  that  the  most  im- 
portant of  these  might  be  adjusted  by  mutual  consultation,"  which 
confirms  the  account  of  Tertullian  relative  to  this  subject. 

An  ecclesiastical  council  may  be  defined  to  be  a  synod,  com- 
posed of  a  number  of  representatives  from  several  independent 
christian  communities,  convened  together  to  deliberate  and  decide 
upon  matters  relating  to  the  welfare  of  the  church. 

*  Aguntur  praeter  ea  per  Graccias  ilia  certis  in  locis  concilia  ex  univer- 
sis  ecclesiis,  per  quae  et  altiora  quaeque  in  commune  tractantur  et  ipsa  repre- 
sentatio  totius  nominis  christian!  magna  celcbratione  vencratur.  Et  lioc 
quam  dignum  fide  auspicante  congregari  undique  ad  Christum?  Vide  quam 
bonum  et  jucundum  habitare  fratres  in  ununi  !  Hoc  tu  psallere  non  facile 
nosti,  nisi  quo  tempore  cum  compluribus  coenas.  Conventus  autem  isti 
stationibus  prius  et  jejunalionibus  operari,  dolere  cum  dolentibus  et  ita  de- 
mum  congaudere  gaudentibus  nonint. 


358  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CHURCH. 

Such  councils  began  to  be  held  in  Asia  Minor,  and  the  neighbor- 
ing province  of  Thrace,  towards  the  latter  part  of  the  second  cen- 
tury; particularly  from  the  year  160,  to  173.^  We  know  not  in- 
deed the  particular  reasons  for  which  these  councils  were  held,  but 
we  have  every  reason  to  suppose  that  the  occasions  were  wholly 
incidental  and  temporary.  As  soon  as  any  connection  began  to  be 
formed  between  diiferent  independent  churches,  they  might  natu- 
rally be  expected  to  form  associations  of  this  kind,  to  deliberate  up- 
on their  common  interests.  Such  a  confederation  was  first  formed 
among  those  very  churches  which  were  the  first  to  unite  in  council. 

The  clergy,  again,  who  were  most  in  harmony  with  one  another 
might  be  expected  soonest  to  form  associations  for  mutual  delibera- 
tion ;  and  such  harmony  of  views  it  is  well  known  prevailed  espe- 
cially among  the  clergy  of  those  provinces.  In  such  communities, 
where  all  had  severally  a  right  to  bear  a  j)art  in  such  deliberations, 
the  council  must,  of  necessity,  have  been  composed  of  representa- 
tives from  each.  It  is  impossible  that  all  could  have  convened  collec- 
tively in  council  ;  as  the  representatives  of  their  respective  churches, 
the  bishops  and  presbyters  would  of  course  be  chiefly  selected. 

In  this  manner,  what  was  at  first  done  by  common  consent  would, 
in  time,  become  an  established  usage,  and  a  right  confirmed  by  com- 
mon consent.  The  deacons  may  have  remained  at  home,  or  they 
might  have  attended  in  council  as  members  themselves  of  the  clergy, 
or  as  amanuenses  of  the  bishops.  No  mention  is  made  of  them  in 
the  accounts  of  these  early  councils.  It  is  therefore  to  be  presumed 
that  their  attendance  or  non-atlendance  was  a  matter  of  no  special 
interest. 

Such  being  the  state  of  things,  the  crafty  bishops  would  easily 
have  seen  that,  by  constant  and  uniform  attendance  in  council,  they 
acquired  increasing  consideration  and  respect.  Such  councils  being 
frequently  held,  the  primate,  or  metropolitan  bishop  would  of  course 
have  the  prerogative  of  convening  and  presiding  over  them. 

The  political  form  of  government  which  prevailed  in  the  Gre- 
cian states,  no  doubt  had  an  influence  in  shaping  the  administration 
of  their  ecclesiastical  afiairs.  The  famous  council  of  the  Amphyc- 
tions  were  accustomed  to  assemble  semi-annually  from  all  the  Gre- 
cian states.  Something  like  this,  we  may  easily  suppose,  would 
have  obtained  in  the  administration  of  their  church  government.  In 
the  absence  of  direct  historical  testimony  to  this  eflect,  it  is  at  least 


OF  COUNCILS.  359 

remarkable  that  both  the  council  of  Nice,  and  the  Apostolical  Con- 
stitutions direct  that  ecclesiastical  councils  be  held  semi-annually, 
and  at  the  same  seasons  of  the  year  when  the  Amphyctionic  coun- 
cil were  wont  lo  convene."^  The  council  of  Nice  only  conformed  to 
the  established  usage  in  settling  upon  these  stated  seasons  for  the 
convening  of  their  body.  This  circumstance  would  show,  beyond 
doubt,  the  influence  of  their  political  institutions  in  their  ecclesiasti- 
cal affairs,  did  not  the  letter  of  Firmilian  above  quoted,  speak  of 
their  councils  as  being  held  annually,  j9er  singulos  annos. 

These  councils  of  the  Grecian  states  must,  for  a  considerable 
length  of  time,  have  been  circumscribed  within  very  narrow  limits. 
Tertullian  knew  nothing  of  them.  Towards  the  beginning  of  the 
third  century  they  began  to  be  better  known.  The  controversy  be- 
tween the  Eastern  and  Western  church  relating  to  Easter,  threw  the 
whole  christian  world,  with  the  exception  perhaps  of  Africa,  into  com- 
motion, and  brought  them  together  in  opposing  councils.  Such  coun- 
cils were  now  held  at  Caesarea,  or  Aelia,  and  at  Home  ;  in  Pontus, 
and  France  ;  in  proconsular  Asia,  in  Mesopotamia,  and  probably  in 
Achaia.  Within  the  third  century,  councils  began  also  to  be  held 
in  Africa. 

But  without  pursuing  the  history  of  these  councils  further,  we  will 
confine  our  attention  to  the  following  inquires  relating  to  them. 
1.  What  was  the  extent  of  their  jurisdiction  ?  2.  What  was  their 
peculiar  organization  .''  3.  Who  were  appropriately  the  constituent 
members  of  them  ? 

1.  What  ivas  the  extent  of  their  jurisdiction  7  At  first  they  were, 
without  doubt,  proviiicial  synods.  This  conclusion  is  fully  implied 
from  the  fact,  that  nothing  is  said  relating  to  this  subject.  Had  their 
jurisdiction  extended  beyond  the  limits  of  their  own  provinces,  it 
must  have  been  mentioned.  The  synods  of  Asia  Minor  must  be 
understood,  therefore,  to  have  been  restricted  to  their  own  provin- 
cial limits  ;  such  as  that  of  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia,  which  was  chiefly- 
inhabited  by  the  Montanists.  Those  of  Anchiolus  were  probably  limi- 
ted in  their  jurisdiction  to  Thrace,  but  if  not,  they  were  only  an  ex- 
ception to  the  prevailing  custom.  The  councils  which  were  held  in 
many  places  respecting  the  controversy  on  the  subject  of  Easter, 
were  assuredly  provincial  synods.  Such  were  also  the  synods 
which  were  held  in  Arabia  in  the  third  century,  A.  D.  243  and  246. 
The  same  is  true  also  of  the  synod  of  Rome  held  by  Cornelius  in  the 


360  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CHURCH. 

year  251 ;  and  of  the  synod  of  Antioch,  A.  D.  252  against  the  Nova- 
tians,  and  again  at  Rome,  A.  D.  260.  Three  provincial  synods  were 
also  held  at  Antioch,  from  the  year  264  to  269,  against  Paul  of 
Samosata.  Still  it  is  not  to  be  presumed  that  all  these  were  organi- 
zed on  precisely  the  same  principles  ;  the  clergy  from  neighboring 
provinces  may  have  had  a  seat  and  a  voice  in  some  of  them.  Men 
of  great  weight  of  cliaracter,  and  whose  counsels  were  highly  res- 
pected, were  particularly  desired  to  attend  from  other  places,  and 
the  convening  of  the  council  was,  at  times,  delayed  in  order  to  se- 
cure their  attendance.  Origen,  in  this  capacity,  attended  the  coun- 
cil in  Arabia,  and,  by  his  learning  and  talents,  settled  the  point  in 
dispute  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  council.  The  bishops  of  Antioch 
also  were  so  much  embarrassed  by  the  learning  of  Paul  of  Samosata, 
whom  they  would  convict  of  heresy,  that  they  invited  the  attendance 
of  certain  bishops  from  the  Grecian  provinces  in  Asia,  including 
Palestine  and  Egypt.  The  metropolitan  of  Alexandria  excused 
himself  by  reason  of  his  great  age  ;■*  but  many  bishops  from  those 
provinces  attended  the  council, — Firmilian  from  Cappadocia,  Greg- 
ory and  Athenodorus  from  Pontus,  Heienus  of  Tarsus,  Nicomas  of 
Iconium  ;  and  the  archbishops  Hymenaeus  of  Jerusalem,  and  Theo- 
tecnus  of  Caesarea,  together  with  the  bishop  Maximus,  from  Arabia. 
Paul,  however,  by  his  talents  withstood  them  all  ;  and  the  council 
dispersed  without  gaining  any  advantage  over  him.^  Foreigners,  in 
like  manner,  attended  both  the  second  and  third  councils  which  were 
held  for  the  same  purpose.  In  the  last  council,  a  presbyter,  Mal- 
chion,  bore  a  conspicuous  part,  and  was  the  principal  agent  in  put- 
ting an  end  to  the  discussion. 

About  the  same  period  of  time  other  councils  were  held  which 
were  sometimes  more  and  at  others  less  than  provincial  synods. 
The  council  of  Iconium,  A.  D.  235,  consisted  of  bishops  from  Phry- 
gia,  Galatia,  Cilicia,  and  other  neighboring  provinces.  Another 
council  was  also  held  in  opposition  to  this  in  a  neighboring  town, 
Synnada,  of  which  we  know  only  that  it  had  litde  or  no  influence 
against  the  first  at  Iconium.  But  this  is  sufficient  to  show  that  no 
established  system  of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  at  this  time  prevailed, 
even  in  the  states  of  Greece,  where  such  councils  were  first  held. 

In  Africa,  there  was  much  less  of  system  in  these  matters  than  in 
the  Grecian  states.  Cyprian  informs  that  he  thought  it  necessary  to 
convene  a  council  of  many  of  the  clergy,  to  deliberate  respecting 


OF  COUNCILS.  361 

ihe  common  cjood,  in  wliich  council  many  topics  were  proposed  and 
discussed.  But  he  adds,  "  I  am  aware  that  some  will  never  change 
their  minds,  nor  give  over  a  cherished  purpose  ;  but  however  har- 
monious their  colleagues  may  be,  they  will  persist  in  the  support  of 
their  own  peculiar  views.  Under  these  circumstances  it  is  not  my 
business  to  attempt,  by  constraint,  to  give  laws  to  any  one  ;  but,  in 
the  administration  of  the  church,  to  leave  to  every  one  to  the  free- 
dom of  his  own  choice  who  must  answer  unto  God  for  his  conduct." 
Ep.  72. 

The  first  ecclesiastical  council  of  Africa  cannot  be  said  to  have 
been  either  provincial  or  general.  Under  Galba  this  country  had 
been  divided  into  three  provinces.  Constantino  divided  it  into  six. 
And  yet  it  appears  from  Cyprian,  Ep.  45,  that  the  former  division 
of  Galba  was  still  observed  in  the  organization  of  the  council,  and 
that  one  even  of  these  provinces  was  not  represented  ;  but  for  what 
reason  does  not  appear.  All,  however,  by  common  consent  ap- 
pear to  have  accorded  to  Cyprian  at  Carthage  the  right  of  conven- 
ing a  general  council  at  his  pleasure.  This  is  the  more  pro- 
bable from  the  ftict  that  in  the  year  255,  several  bishops  who  appar- 
ently composed  a  provincial  synod,  appealed  to  him  for  the  settle- 
ment of  certain  subjects  of  discussion  among  them. 

The  other  councils  in  Africa  were,  for  the  most  part,  provincial 
in  their  character.  Such  was  the  council  which  was  held  before  the 
time  of  Cyprian,  the  date  of  which  is  not  distinctly  known.  So  also 
were  the  councils  held  by  Cyprian  in  the  years  249,  251,  252,  255 
and  256. 

From  all  which  it  appears,  that  most  of  the  councils  which  were 
held  in  Africa  were  limited  in  their  jurisdiction,  and  provincial  in 
their  character.  Some,  however,  were  more  general  ;  and  such 
was  generally  the  character  of  the  councils  which  were  held  in  that 
country  after  the  third  century. 

2.  What  was  the  appropriate  organization  of  the  regular  provin- 
cial synods  ?  In  general,  the  ecclesiastic  within  the  province, 
whether  bishop,  metropolitan,  or  patriarch,  presided  in  these  coun- 
cils. The  popular  character  of  these  assemblies  would  indeed  have 
permitted  any  one  to  be  elevated  to  the  office  of  moderator.  But 
the  gradations  of  the  priesthood,  and  the  jealousy  of  the  several  or- 
ders were  such  that  none  but  he  that  was  highest  in  official  rank 
could  have  been  placed   in  the  chair  to  the  mutual  satisfaction  of  all 

40 


362  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CHURCH. 

classes.  The  presbyters  would  have  claimed  precedence  of  the 
deacons,  the  bishops  of  the  presbyters  ;  and  so  on  until  none  should 
be  found  to  dispute  the  claim  with  the  higliest  dignitary  of  the  pro- 
vince. The  greatest  number  of  the  members  of  the  council  would 
also  come  from  the  diocese  of  the  highest  functionary,  which  cir- 
cumstance would  give  him  the  strongest  party  in  the  election.  And 
there  are  many  other  ways  in  which  this  seat  might  have  been  se- 
cured to  him. 

The  results  or  decrees,  of  the  councils  were  usually  published  in 
the  name  of  the  moderator.  There  are  some  instances  in  which  the 
names  of  the  attending  bishops  accompany  the  decree.  Such,  how- 
ever, was  not  the  usual  custom.  The  metropolitans  were  jealous  of 
their  rights,  and  strove  earnestly  for  a  controling  influence  in  the 
councils.  For  the  same  reason  they  insisted  that  the  result  should 
be  published  under  the  sanction  of  their  authority,  and  in  their  name. 
They  usually  had  the  address  to  cause  their  own  opinions  to  prevail  ; 
and  few  had  the  independence  to  dispute  them.  Thus  the  metro- 
politan of  Alexandria  had  the  influence  to  cause  his  synod  to  banish 
Origen,  A.  D.  230.  Cornelius  effected  the  excommunication  of 
three  bishops  at  Rome,  A.  D.  251,  in  the  same  arbitrary  manner. 
By  such  strides  did  the  principal  ecclesiastics  advance  their  spiritual 
hierarchy  ;  and  so  tamely  did  the  subordinate  members  of  their  coun- 
cils suffer  the  most  esteemed  men  in  the  church  to  suffer  unjustly 
under  this  spiritual  despotism.  The  councils  were  merely  the  or- 
gan of  the  metropolitan  to  execute  his  arbitrary  decrees. 

3.  Who  were  appropriately  members  of  these  councils  ?  This  in- 
quiry is  involved  in  much  darkness  and  uncertainty.  There  is  how- 
ever satisfactory  evidence  that  bishops  and  presbyters  were  entitled 
to  bear  a  part  in  the  deliberations  of  these  assemblies.  The  letter  of 
Firmilian,  in  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  makes  distinct  mention 
of  presbyters,  seniores.  Origen,  as  a  presbyter,  attended  the  coun- 
cil of  Arabia  ;  and  Malchion  acted  in  the  same  capacity  in  the  three 
councils  of  Antioch.  Besides,  there  were  very  many  churches  un- 
der the  care  of  presbyters,  which,  if  represented  at  all  in  council  as 
they  evidently  were,  must  send  presbyters  as  their  delegates. 

Whether  the  laity  were  permitted  to  take  a  part  in  the  delibera- 
tions of  these  councils  as  constituent  members  of  them  is  an  interest- 
ing and  important  inquiry.  This  is  discussed  at  length  by  Walch, 
p.  121.     He  is  clearly  of  opinion  that  the  laity  of  the  place  where 


,  OF  COUNCILS.  363 

the  council  was  held  had  this  right.  Others  are  of  opinion  that,  in 
the  absence  of  their  bishops,  laymen  of  the  province  where  the  coun- 
cil was  held  were  delegated  to  attend  in  their  place.  And  yet  it 
seems  most  probable  that  the  laity  did  not  enjoy  the  right  of  acting 
as  members  oj  these  councils.  One  may  indeed  presume  that,  as 
representatives  of  the  churches  to  which  they  belonged,  they  would 
be  entitled  to  a  place  in  the  council  ;  but  on  this  point  history  is  si- 
lent. Had  they  exercised  this  right,  it  must  have  been  a  circum- 
stance of  such  interest  to  the  clergy  that  we  can  hardly  suppose  that 
it  would  have  been  passed  over  in  silence,  especially  in  the  earliest 
periods  of  the  history  of  ecclesiastical  councils.  Party  spirit  would, 
at  times,  have  appeared  among  them,  and  their  influence  mani- 
fested itself  on  one  side  or  tlie  other.  It  seems,  therefore,  that  care 
was  taken  that  the  deliberations  of  the  council  should  not  be  dis- 
turbed by  the  presence  of  the  laity. 

The  councils  were  usually  held  in  the  churches,  or  in  buildings 
adjacent,  and  belonging  to  them  ;  and  were  open  to  the  attendance 
of  any  as  spectators. 

A  scribe  or  recorder  is  first  mentioned  as  having  attended  the  se- 
cond council  of  Antioch  agarnst  Paul  of  Samosata.  They  are  also 
mentioned  by  Eusebius,  7.  29.  Such  clerks  became  common  in  the 
fourth  century,  who  recorded  at  length  the  discussions  and  debates 
of  the  council. 

We  close  this  view  of  the  early  ecclesiastical  councils  by  recapit- 
ulating the  conclusions  to  which  it  has  conducted  us. 

These  councils  were  not  formed  after  the  model  of  that  at  Jerusa- 
lem which  is  described  in  Acts  xv  ;  but  took  their  origin  and  char- 
acter from  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  church  in  those  primi- 
tive  times. 

They  were  first  held  in  the  Grecian  states ;  and  the  political  or- 
ganization of  these  states  probably  had  much  influence  in  the  forma- 
tion of  their  peculiar  constitution  and  organization. 

They  were  convened  at  the  call  of  the  metropolitan,  who  also 
acted  as  the  presiding  oflicer  of  the  assembly,  and  exercised  a  con- 
troling  influence  over  their  deliberations  and  decisions. 

The  several  orders  of  the  clergy,  bishops,  jnesbyters,  and  dea- 
cons, were  regular  members  of  these  councils ;  but  the  laity  were 
not  entitled  to  a  seat  in  them. 

They  were  unknown  in  Africa  in  the  time  of  TerluUian  ;  but  soon 


364  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CHURCH.  . 

after  his  deaih  they  became  common,  not  only  in  Africa,  but  also  in 
Spain,  France,  and  Italy.  Their  organization,  however,  was  less 
regular  and  systematic  than  in  the  Grecian  states. 

Both  in  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches  they  were,  for  the 
most  part,  merely  provincial  synods,  fficumenical  councils  were 
of  a  later  date  under  the  christian  emperors. 

The  practical  effect  of  these  councils,  from  the  beginning,  was  to 
give  increasing  consideration  and  influence  to  the  clergy  ;  which 
continually  increased  until  it  finally  ended  in  the  full  establishment 
of  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy.* 

*  For  ihe  sake  of  illustrating  the  manner  in  which  these  ancient  councils 
were  held,  we  have  transcribed  the  followinj^  record  of  the  third  council  of 
Carthage,  held  A.  U.  25(3 ;  or  rather  it  is  but  an  abstract  of  the  debates  of 
that  council,  for  it  was  attended  by  no  less  than  eight3r-seven  bishops,  who 
were  convened  to  decide  whether  or  not  baj)tism  administered  by  heretics 
should  be  regarded  as  valid.  It  is  found  in  Cyprian's  Works,  p.  32i),  ed. 
Baluz. 

Cum  in  unum  Cartliagine  convenissent  Kalendis  episcopi  plurimi  ex 
provincia  Africa,  Numidia  et  Mauritania,  cum  presbyteris  et  diaconis  prae- 
sente  etiamplehis  maxima  parte  et  lectae  essent  literae  Jubajani  aJ  Cyprianum 
factae,  item  Cypriani  ad  Jubajanum  rescriptae  de  haereticis  baptizandis,  quid- 
que  postmodum  Cypriano  Jubajanus  idem  rescripserit,  Cyprianus  dixit :  Aud- 
distis  coliegae  dilectissimi,  quid  mihi  Jubanus  Coepiscopus  noster  scripserit, 
consulens  mediucritatem  nostrum  de  illicito  et  profano  Haercticorum  baptis- 
mo,  et  quid  ego  ei  rescripserem,  censens  scilicet,  quod  semel  atque  iterum  et 
saepe  censuimus  haereticos  ad  ecclesiam  venientes  ecclesia  baptismo  bap- 
tizari  et  sanctificari  oportere.  Item  lectae  sint  nobis  et  aliae  Jubajani  literae, 
quibus  pro  sua  sincera  et  religiosa  devotione  ad  epistolam  nostram  rescribens 
non  tantum  consensit,  sed  etiam  instructum  se  esse  confessus,  gratias  egit. 
Superest,  ut  de  hac  re  singuli  quid  sentiamus,proferamus,neminem  judican- 
tes,  aut  a  jure  communionis  aliquem,  si  diversum  senserit,  amoventes.  Ne- 
que  enim  quisquam  nostrum  episcopum  se  esse  constituit,  aut  tryannico  tfer- 
rore  ad  obsequendi  necessitatem  collegas  suos  adigit,  quando  habeat  omnis 
episcopus  pro  licentia  libertatis  et  potestatis  suae  arbitrium  proprium,  tum- 
que  judicari  ab  alio  non  possit,  quam  nee  ipse  potest  altcrum  judicare.  Sed 
exspectemus  universi  judicium  Domini  Jesu  Christi,  qui  unus  et  solus  habet 
potestatem  et  praeponendi  nos  in  ecclcsiae  suae  gubernatione  et  de  actu  nos- 
tro  judicandi.  Caecilius  a  Bilta  dixit :  Ego  unum  baptisma  in  ecclesia  solum 
scio  et  extra  ecclesiam  nullum.     Hie  erit  unum,  ubi  spes  vera  et  fides  vera. 

Castus  a  Sicca  dixit:  Qui  contemta  veritate  praesumit  consuetudinem  se- 
qui,  et  circa  fratres  invidus  est  et  malignus,  quibus  Veritas  revelatur,  aut  cir- 
ca Deum  ingratus,  cujus  inspiratione  ecclesia  ejus  ijistrtiitur . 

Zosimus  a  Tarassa  dixit :    Revelatione  facta  veritatis  cedat  error  veri- 


OF  COUNCILS. 


365 


After  the  conversion  of  Constantinc,  the  councils  of  the  church 
fell  under  the  influence  of  the  Byzantine  emperors  ;  and  at  a  still 
later  period  they  submitted  to  the  presidency  and  dictation  of  the 
bishop  of  Rome. 

The  celebrated  council  of  Nicaea,  A.  D.  325,  is  distinguished  as 
having  been  the  first  which  pronounced  a  decision  respecting  a  chris- 
tian doctrine,  or  article  of  religious  faith  ;  as  well  as  the  first  over 
which  a  temporal  prince  presided.  It  is  also  usually  reckoned  as 
the  first  general  council ;  but  it  was,  in  fact,  a  council  of  only  the 
Oriental  church  ;  the  Spanish  bishop  Hosius,  and  two  Roman  pres- 
byters, were  the  only  ecclesiastics  from  the  West  by  whom  it  was 
attended.  All  the  particulars  respecting  this  remarkable  and  impor- 
tant council  are  given  by  the  authors  who  are  mentioned  in  the  in- 
dex.6 

The  number  of  oecumenical  or  general  councils  is  variously  reck- 
oned by  different  churches. 

The  orthodox  Greek  church  enumerates  seven,  namely  : 


tati,  quia  et  Petrus,  qui  prius  circumcidebat,  cessit  Paulo  veritalem  prae- 
dicanti. 

Pudencianus  a  CuccuU  dixit :  Novitas  episcopatus  effecit  fratres  dilectissi- 
mi,  ut  sustinercm,  quid  niajoros  judicarent.  Num  haereses  nihil  habere  nee 
posse  nianifestnm  est.  Atque  ifa,  si  qui  ex  eis  vencrint  baptizari,  acquissi- 
me  statutum  est. 

\\.em  ?L\\ns  Lucius ab  Avizl a  A\x\i:  Secundum  motum  animi  mei  et  Spiritus 
Sancti,cum  sit  unus  Deus,  et  unus  Christus,  et  una  Spes,  et  unus  Spiritus, 
et  una  ccclesia,  unum  debet  esse  baptisma. 

Victor  ab  Octavo  dixit:  Quod  et  ipsi  scitis  non  olim  sum  episcopus  con- 
stitutus  et  ideo  expectabam  praecessorum  consilium.  Hoc  itaque  existimo 
,  ut,  quicunque  ex  haeresi  venerint,  baptizcntur. 

J^atilis  ab  Oea  dixit :  Tain  ego  praesens,  quum  Pompejus  Sabratensis,  quam 
etiam  Dioga  Leptimagnensis,  qui  mihi  niandaverunt,  corpore  quidem  absen- 
tes,  spiritu  pracsentes,  censemus,  quod  et  coUegae  nostri,  quod  haeretici 
comniunicationem  habere  non  possunt  nisi  ecclesiastico  baptismo  baptizati 
fuerint.  —  Non  oportet  episcopos,  qui  vocantur  ad  Synodum,  negligere.  — 
Sed  abire  et  docere  et  doceri  ad  eccorrectionem  ecclesiae  et  reliquoruni.  Si 
quis  autem  neglexerit,  is  se  ipsum  accusabit,  praeterquam  si  propter  intem- 
periem  et  aegritudinem  non  venerit.) 

Cyprianus  Carthagine  dixit :  Meam  sententiam  plenissime  exprimit  epis- 
tola,quae  ad  Jubajanum,  collegam  nostrum  scripta  est,  haereticos  secundum 
evangelium  et  apostolicam  contcstationem  et  advorsarios  Christi  et  anti- 
christos  appellatos,  quando  ad  ecclcsiam  venerint,  unico  ecclesiae  baptismo 
baptizandos  esse,ut  possint  fieri  de  adversariis  amici  et  de  antichrislis  cliris- 
tiani. 


366 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CHURCH. 


A.  D 

The  First  of  Nicaea   .... 

325 

The  First  of  Constantinople 

381 

Ephesus             .....' 

431 

Chalcedon           ..... 

451 

The  Second  of  Constantinople     . 

553 

The  Third  of  Constantinople 

680 

The  Second  of  Nicaea 

787 

The  church  of  Rome  recognizes  eighteen  general  councils,  sanc- 
tioned by  the  pope,  of  which  the  council  of  Trent  is  the  last.  But 
Romish  writers  are  not  quite  agreed  upon  this  subject.  A  list  set  up 
in  the  Vatican,  by  command  of  Sixtus  V,  enumerates  the  following : 


AD 

The  First  of  Nicaea 325 

The  First  of  Constantinople 

381 

The  First  of  Ephesus 

431 

Chalcedon 

451 

The  Second  of  Constantinople 

553 

The  Third  of  Constantinople 

680 

The  Second  of  Nicaea 

787 

The  Fourth  of  Constantinople 

869 

The  First  Lateran 

1122 

The  Second  Lateran 

.       1139 

The  Third  Lateran    . 

.       1179 

The  Fourth  Lateran  . 

1215 

The  First  of  Lyons     . 

1245 

The  Second  of  Lyons 

1274 

Vienne      ..... 

1311 

Florence    .... 

1439 

The  Fifth  Lateran      . 

1512 

Trent 

1545 

It  appears  from  this  list  that  the  councils  of  Pisa,  A.  D.  1409,  of 
Constance,  A.  D.  1414,  and  of  Basle,  A.  D.  1431,  which  are  com- 
monly regarded  as  general  councils,  are  not  recognized  as  such  at 
Rome. 

Protestants,  for  the  most  part,  recognize  four  general  councils, 
namely : 


CHARACTER  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANS.  367 

A.  D. 
Nicaea       .......         325 

Constantinople    ......         381 

Ephesus 431 

Chalcedon 451 


Some  receive  also 


The  Second  of  Constantinople     .         .         .         553 
The  Third  of  Constantinople       .         .         .         680 


CHAPTER  XVTII. 


DOMESTIC  AND  SOCIAL  CHARACTER    OF    THE  PRIiMITIVE 
CHRISTIANS. 

This  interesting  portion  of  Christian  Antiquities  is  passed  in  si- 
lence, by  Augusli,  Rheinwald  and  Siegel.  But  it  is  indispensable 
in  order  to  form  a  just  estimate  of  the  character  of  the  primitive 
Christians,  and  of  the  true  spirit  of  their  religion. 

The  following  compilations  are  accordingly  made  from  Jamieson, 
to  whom  frequent  reference  has  been  made  in  the  progress  of  this 
work  ;  and  from  an  article  by  Prof  Stowe  in  the  Biblical  Repository 
for  July,  1840.  These  representations,  however,  should  be  under- 
stood as  relating  to  the  earliest  periods  of  the  church,  antecedent 
to  the  sad  declensions  which  soon  overshadowed  the  cloudless  light  in 
which  Christianity  arose  upon  the  world. 

§  1.    Of  their  mode  of  Life. 

Among  the  primitive  disciples,  Christianity  made  no  essential  dif- 
ference in  their  relations  to  society  and  the  external  world,  more 
than  it  does  among  their  followers  in  the  present  day.  Apart  from 
the  faith  they  had  embraced,  and  the  altered  estimate  it  led  them  to 
form  of  the  scenes  and  the  pleasures  of  the  world,  their  new  views 
occasioned  no  change  in  their  rank,  their  profession,  or  their  outwarcf 
circumstances  in  life.     In  general,  they  lived  like  other  men  around 


368  CHARACTER  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANS. 

them — speaking  the  same  language,  partaking  of  the  same  fare,  ob- 
serving the  same  intervals  of  labor  and  repose,  and  in  everything 
that  was  honorable,  pure,  and  of  good  report,  conforming  to  the  rules 
and  the  habits  which  custom  had  established.  The  mechanic  wrought 
at  his  trade,  the  husbandman  prosecuted  the  labors  of  the  field,  the 
merchant  repaired  to  his  shop,  the  soldier  continued  in  the  ranks, — 
men  went,  from  day  to  day,  and  from  place  to  place,  obeying  the  calls 
of  business  and  friendship  as  before  ;  and  instead  of  separating  from 
their  former  acquaintances,  or  withdrawing  into  solitude  from  the 
avocations  to  which  they  had  been  bred,  and  by  which  they  lived, 
they  gave  no  symptoms,  in  any  of  these  respects,  of  a  change  of 
habits,  except  that,  being  furnished  with  higher  motives,  they  attend- 
ed with  an  activity,  a  diligence,  and  fidelity  greater  than  ever,  to  all 
the  claims  of  society  and  the  offices  of  life.  In  the  earliest  times, 
indeed,  when  persecutions  were  frequent  and  severe,  there  were 
many  Christians,  male  and  female,  married  and  unmarried,  who, 
justly  persuaded  that  nothing  should  come  in  competition  with  their 
fidelity  to  Christ,  and  fearing,  at  the  same  time,  their  own  inability 
to  remain  steadfast  and  immoveable  amid  the  fiery  trials  by  which 
they  were  assailed,  resolved  on  abandoning  for  a  time  their  place 
and  possessions  in  the  world,  and  fleeing  to  distant  mountains  and 
inaccessible  deserts,  where  they  spent  their  time  in  the  service  of  God, 
and  continued,  at  a  distance  from  temptations  to  apostasy,  the  exer- 
cises of  meditation  and  prayer.  But  when  peace  was  restored,  and 
the  profession  of  Christianity  was  no  longer  proscribed  and  danger- 
ous, this  measure  of  prudence  was  no  longer  resorted  to, — those  who 
had  found  it  expedient,  for  the  preservation  of  their  christian  fideli- 
ty, to  take  such  a  step,  quitted  their  temporary  retirement :  and  al- 
though there  were  some  who  having  come,  through  habit,  to  prefer 
a  solitary  life,  remained  in  their  adopted  habitations  in  the  wilder- 
ness, the  great  majority  of  these  voluntary  exiles  returned  to  the  cir- 
cle of  their  families  and  friends,  and  mingled  as  before  in  the  wont- 
ed scenes  and  activities  of  life.  Indeed,  it  was  no  part  of  the 
creed  of  the  primitive  Christians,  that  on  embracing  the  religion  of 
Jesus,  they  were  required  to  give  up  all  concern  in  the  secular  busi- 
ness, or  to  become  dead  to  the  comforts  and  innocent  enjoyments  of 
the  world. 

"  We  are  no  Brahmins,"  says  Tertullian,  Apol.  c.  42,  "  we  are  no 
Hindoo  Fakiers,  we  are  not  eremites  or  hermits,  who  flee  from  life. 


DRESS  AND  FURNITURE.  369 

We  are  well  aware  of  the  obligalions  we  owe  to  God,  our  Creator 
and  Lord.  We  reject  the  enjoyment  of  none  of  his  gifts  ;  we  sock 
only  to  preserve  the  requisite  moderation,  and  to  avoid  abuses.  We 
do  not  live  in  this  world  without  participating  in  your  markets,  your 
baths,  your  public  houses,  your  workshops,  your  auctions,  and  every- 
thing which  pertains  to  the  commerce  of  life.  We  engage  with  you 
in  navigation,  in  military  service,  in  agriculture,  in  trade.  We  en- 
gage with  you  in  manufactures,  and  devote  our  labor  to  vour  bene- 
fit." 

§  2.  Of  their  Dress  and  Furniture. 

Nothing  may  appear  more  purely  a  matter  of  indifference,  than 
the  choice  of  the  fashion  and  color  of  dress  ;  and  yet,  in  the  circum- 
stances of  the  primitive  Christians,  articles  of  that  nature  did  acquire 
such  an  importance  in  their  eyes,  that  they  gradually  fell  into  a  style 
of  clothing  peculiar  to  themselves.  Not  that  they  affected  any  singu- 
larities in  their  personal  appearance — for  their  habiliments  were  made 
and  worn  in  the  ordinary  fashion  of  the  time  and  place, — and  Chris- 
tians, whether  they  were  found  in  the  high,  the  middle,  or  the  lower 
ranks,  were  accustomed  to  equi[)  themselves  in  a  manner  suitable  to 
the  decencies  of  the  state  or  profession  to  which  they  belonged.  But, 
looking  to  the  moral  influence  of  dress,  desirous  of  avoiding  every- 
thing that  might  minister  to  vanity,  or  lead  the  wearer  to  forget,  in 
attending  to  the  outward  man,  the  ornajnent  of  a  meek  and  quiet 
spirit,  they  studiously  rejected  all  finery  as  unbecoming  the  humility 
of  their  character,  and  confined  themselves  to  a  suit  of  apparel,  re- 
markable not  so  much  for  the  plainness  of  the  material,  as  for  the 
absence  of  all  superfluous  ornament.  Everything  gaudy  or  sumptu- 
ous, that  partook  of  the  costly  stuffs,  or  the  crimsoned  dyes  that  suit- 
ed the  luxurious  taste  of  the  times,  was  discountenanced  by  the  spir- 
itually minded  followers  of  Christ ;  and,  though  many  of  them  were 
entitled  by  birth  or  otherwise  to  appear  in  the  flowing  folds  of  the 
graceful  toga,  yet,  even  that  favorite  garb,  while  it  was  retained  for 
the  valuable  privileges  it  conferred,  was  looked  upon  as  too  gay  and 
splendid  for  ordinary  use,  and  was  by  most,  if  not  by  all  Christians, 
laid  aside  for  the  common  pallium  or  cloak,  to  which  the  preference 
was  given  on  account  of  the  air  of  greater  modesty  and  gravity  tiiat 
was  supposed  to  belong  to  it.     Moreover,  among  the  Christians  of  the 

47 


370 


CHARACTER  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANS. 


East,  the  custom  early  prevailed  of  wearing  garments  of  no  other 
color  than  while, — in  order  that  they  might  carry  about  with  them  a 
perpetual  memorial  of  the  purity  of  character  that  became  their  pro- 
fession ;  and  there  were  others  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  who 
thought  it  their  duty  to  carry  the  imitation  of  Christ  to  the  extent  of 
wearing  the  meanest  and  most  common  attire  of  one  in  the  form  of  a 
servant.  But  neither  of  these  extravagances  met  with  very  general 
countenance  ;  and  the  greater  part  contented  themselves  with  a 
dress,  free  from  all  approach  to  gaudiness  and  pomp,  betraying  no 
symploms  of  an  anxious  and  elaborate  decoration  of  the  person,  and 
conspicuous  only  for  its  neat  and  cleanly  appearance. 

The  same  simplicity  and  plainness  reigned  throughout  the  domes- 
tic establishment  of  the  Christians.  Most  of  the  primitive  disciples, 
indeed,  were  in  circumstances  that  offered  no  temptations  to  indulge 
in  the  splendor  or  variety  of  ornamental  furniture.  Their  inventory 
of  goods  embraced  only  a  few  simple  articles  of  use,  which  their  per- 
sonal and  family  wants  required,  and  it  may  be  supposed,  therefore, 
that  there  was  nothing  remarkable  in  the  absence  from  their  houses, 
of  all  traces  of  pomp  and  elegance,  which  they  neither  possessed  the 
means,  nor  entertained  the  hope  of  acquiring.  But  even  those  of 
their  number,  who  were  persons  of  rank  and  opulence,  amply  provi- 
ded with  resources  to  gratify  a  taste  for  ornament,  chose  to  content 
themselves  with  such  things  as  were  recommended  by  their  utility 
rather  than  their  elegance,  and  calculated  to  answer  the  purposes  of 
necessity  and  comfort,  rather  than  to  gratify  the  lust  of  the  eye  and 
the  pride  of  life.  Seats  and  cabinets,  finished  with  the  costly  veneer- 
ing of  tortoise-shell,  and  couches  ornamented  with  the  rich  embroid- 
eries of  Babylon  ; — vessels  of  gold  and  silver,  the  numberless  statues 
and  other  graceful  accompaniments,  of  all  sizes  and  forms,  which 
adorned  the  chambers,  the  porticoes,  and  gardens  of  the  rich,  and 
indicated  the  epicurean  taste  that  distinguished  the  age,  disappeared 
from  the  houses  of  the  Christians  as  inconsistent  with  a  humble  and 
mortified  life  ;  and  however  refined  and  exquisite  the  taste  which, 
through  education  and  the  habits  of  society,  any  of  them  had  acquir- 
ed, they  learned  to  subject  it  to  the  higher  principle  of  denying  them- 
selves to  everything  that  tended  too  much  to  captivate  the  senses, 
and  increase  their  love  to  a  world,  the  fashion  whereof  they  thought 
was  soon  to  pass  away.  This  indiscriminate  rejection  of  the  elegan- 
cies of  life,  has  frequently  exposed  the   memory  of  the  primitive 


DIET  AND  MODE  OF  TAKING  THEIU  MEALS.  371 

Christians  to  the  sneer  of  the  infidel,  and  the  unmeasured  indigna- 
tion of  the  enthusiastic  admirer  of  the  arts;  and,  perhaps,  in  some 
instances,  there  may  be  a  foundation  for  the  charge,  that  they  mani- 
fested an  uncalled-for  severity  in  their  too  great  and  unqualified  con- 
tempt of  pleasures,  which  become  sinful  only  when  indulged  to  a 
criminal  excess.  But  to  a  people  on  whose  minds  the  doctrines  of 
Christianity  had  burst  with  all  the  force  and  vividness  of  a  new  and 
important  discovery,  and  among  whom  the  impression  almost  univer- 
sally prevailed,  that  the  years  of  the  world  were  about  to  close,  it 
was  natural  to  regard  with  jealousy  and  treat  with  neglect  all  the 
forms  of  earthly  pomp  and  beauty,  that  tended  to  supplant  their  de- 
sires for  the  objects  and  glories  of  that  better  world  on  which  liieir 
hearts  were  fixed.  Although  the  indifference  and  superiority  to  the 
world  which  Christianity  requires,  lies  solely  in  the  state  and  affec- 
tions of  the  mind,  and  this  spiritual  habit  may  be  cultivated  in  the 
most  opposite  circumstances  of  affluence  or  poverty,  it  was  natural 
that  the  Christians,  in  the  first  ardor  of  their  faith  and  hope,  should 
overlook  this  distinction,  and  consider  that  their  safety  consisted  in 
the  complete  abandonment  of  luxuries  and  pleasures,  the  thought  of 
which  was  so  ready  to  come  in  competition  with  concern  for  their 
souls. 

§  3.  Of  THEIR  Diet  and  mode  of  taking  their  Meals. 

The  tables  of  the  primitive  Christians  were  distinguished  by  the 
greatest  frugality  and  temperance.  Their  grand  principle  was  to 
eat  and  drink  in  order  to  satisfy  the  cravings  of  nature,  and  invigo- 
rate their  bodies  for  a  renewal  of  their  necessary  labors  ;  and  while, 
on  the  one  hand,  they  knew  nothing  of  the  austere  and  painful  ab- 
stinence, which  after-ages  of  ignorance  and  superstition  came  to 
practise  and  extol  as  highly  meritorious,  they  were  equally  careful, 
on  the  other  hand,  to  check  the  indulgence  of  a  nice  and  fastidious 
taste  in  the  gratification  of  the  palate.  There  was  nothing,  indeed, 
which  they  seem  to  have  been  more  solicitous  to  avoid  than  any  im- 
itation of  the  excessive  luxury  and  epicurean  habits  of  their  contem- 
poraries ;  and  justly  accounting  all  excess,  whether  in  eating  or  in 
drinking,  as  incompatible  with  the  maintenance  of  purity,  and  atten- 
tion to  spiritual  duties,  they  inflexibly  adhered  to  the  rule  of  abstain- 
ing from  everything  that  tended  to  inflame  the  passions,  or  to  engen- 


372  CHARACTER  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANS. 

der  any  hankering  after  the   pleasures  of  sense.    On  no  species  of 
food  did  they  lay  an  interdict,  except  on  things  strangled,  and  on  blood, 
according  to  the  council  of  the  apostles,  which,  for  naany  ages,  con- 
tinued   in   force  among  the   Christians, — and   such  high   seasoned 
viands  as  were  heating  to  the  frame.     Those  of  the  East,  indeed, 
who,  living  in  a  warmer  climate,  were  always  distinguished  by  their 
habits  of  austerity  and  abstinence  beyond  Christians  in  other  places, 
preferred  the  flesh  offish  or  fowl  to  the  grosser  and  more  succulent 
flesh  of  quadrupeds.     Many  of  them  even   lived  wholly  on  a  diet 
consisting  of  preparations  of  milk,  or  of  vegetables,  or  such  light 
fruit  as  figs  and  dates.     Wine  was  freely  admitted   to   the   tables  of 
the  primitive  Christians— their  notions  of  propriety,  however,  forbid- 
ding the  use  of  it  to  women  and   young   people.     But  even  by  the 
other  sex  it  was  drank  sparingly  ;   and  though  chiefly  the  weak  wine 
of  the  country,  was  always,  according  to  the  practice  of  the  ancients, 
diluted  with  water.     To  have  continued   long  indulging  in  such  a 
luxury,  or  to  have  been  discovered  smelling  the  flavor  of  the  wine- 
cup, — to  have  made  sumptuous  pre])arations  for  the  table, — to  have 
betrayed  much  anxiety  about  the  cookery,  or  produced  a  great  vari- 
ety of  viands  and   spicery  at  their  entertainments,  would,  in  those 
early  days  of  Christianity,  have  brought  discredit,  if  not  ruin,  on  the 
religious  character  of  the  individual.     And  yet  there  were  no  auste- 
rities then  in   vogue  among  the  Christians.     Looking  upon  all  the 
creatures  of  God  as  good  for  food,  they  deemed  themselves  at  per- 
fect liberty  to  make  use  of  them  as  suited  their  convenience  and 
their  taste,  at  such  times  and  in  such  a  measure  as  temper,  constitu- 
tion, or  age,  required  ;  and   they  never  dreamed   of  imposing  any 
limits  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  comforts  of  life,  beyond  what  reason 
and  religion  prescribed.     But  justly  accounting  an  ill  regulated  and 
luxurious  appetite  as  the  source  of  innumerable  evils,  and   placing 
their  highest  ambition  and  pleasure  in  the  attainment  of  spiritual  ex- 
cellence, they  practised  the  greatest  abstemiousness,  confining  them- 
selves to  the  plainest  and  simplest  fare  ;  in  many  instances  taking 
only  one  meal,  in  none  more  than  two  a-day,  and  then  never  carry- 
ing their  indulgence  in  the  pleasures  of  the  table  further  than  that 
temperate  use  of  them  which   was  necessary  to  repair  the  bodily 
vigor,  and  which  left  the  mind  free  and  ready,  as  occasion  offered, 
to  engage  in  prayer  or  other  exercises  of  religion.     The  object  they 
proposed  to  themselves  by  the  practice  of  such  singular  moderation 


DIET  AND  MODE  OF  TAKING  THEIR  MEALS.  373 

was  that  of  mortifying  the  senses,  and  enabling  them  to  wield  with 
a  firmer  hand  the  reins  of  discipline  over  the  motions  and  appetites 
of  their  corrupt  nature  ;  and  that  they  entertained  not  the  most  dis- 
tant idea  of  making  a  vain  and  Pharisaic  parade  of  their  abstinence, 
or  were  accustomed  to  regard  it  in  no  other  light  than  as  simply  a 
means  of  promoting  the  great  end  of  their  moral  and  religious  im- 
provement, is  evident  from  the  following,  out  of  innumerable  anec- 
dotes, by  which  we  might  illustrate  this  branch  of  their  customs. 
Among  the  martyrs  that  fell  during  the  violent  persecution  of  the 
Christians  at  Lyons,  was  a  young  man  of  the  name  of  Alcibiades, 
distinguished  for  the  exalted  piety  of  his  character,  and  who  had  for 
years  accustomed  himself  to  a  small  and  sordid  diet.  When  thrown 
into  the  dungeons,  he  continued  the  same  habits  of  living,  which, 
though  long  custom  had  rendered  them  easy  to  himself,  gave  offence, 
it  seems,  to  several  of  his  fellow-prisoners,  who  found  it  impossible 
to  conform  to  his  standard  of  abstinence.  At  length  one  of  the  con- 
fessors, undertaking  seriously  to  remonstrate  with  him  on  the  impro- 
priety of  refusing  to  enjoy  the  gifts  of  a  bountiful  Providence,  and 
thereby  creating  jealousy  in  the  minds  of  others,  Alcibiades  listened 
in  a  christian  spirit  to  the  friendly  admonition,  and  from  that  mo- 
ment, laying  aside  all  singularity,  indiscriminately  partook  of  what- 
ever was  provided  for  himself  and  his  brethren  in  distress.  Thus 
admirably  did  the  primitive  Christians  observe  the  golden  mean,  by 
avoiding  equally  the  extremes  of  sordid  penury  and  luxurious  grati- 
fication of  the  senses.  Their  frugal  diet  acquired  a  relish  from  their 
previous  labors  ;  and  while  they  never  denied  to  themselves  any  of 
the  good  things  of  life,  as  far  as  was  consistent  with  the  ends  of  so- 
briety and  religion,  they  considered  it  their  duty  always  to  keep 
within  the  bounds  of  that  "  temperance  which  is  a  fruit  of  the 
Spirit." 

The  manner  in  which  they  conducted  their  repasts  was  itself  an 
effectual  preservative  of  temperance,  while,  at  the  same  time,  it  was 
eminently  characteristic  of  the  piety  and  spirituality  of  the  primitive 
age. — When  dinner  had  been  served,  and  the  family  had  taken 
their  seats  at  the  table,  the  master  of  the  household,  with  a  grave 
and  solemn  voice,  and  in  a  prayer  of  considerable  length,  acknow- 
ledged their  dependence  on  the  care  of  their  common  Father,  ex- 
pressed their  gratitude  for  the  past  tokens  of  his  bounty,  and  invoked 
him  to  bless,  for  their  health  and  comfort,  the  provisions  of  which 


374  CHARACTER  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANS. 

they  were  about  to  partake.  During  the  progress  of  the  meal,  some 
member  of  the  family  in  houses  of  the  lower  class,  or  some  hired 
reader,  in  tliose  of  the  richer  orders,  entertained  the  company  with 
select  portions  of  the  Scriptures  ;  for  so  strong  and  insatiable  was 
their  appetite  for  spiritual  food,  that  they  could  not  rest  satisfied  and 
happy  without  providing  suitable  refreshment  for  the  soul  at  the  same 
time  that  they  were  enjoying  the  comforts  of  the  body.  The  viands 
being  removed,  the  ftxmily  circle  was  drawn  more  closely  together, 
— for  now  were  unfolded,  and  put  into  the  hands  of  all,  the  precious 
scrolls  in  which,  in  those  days,  the  Scriptures  were  written.  Previ- 
ous to  this,  however,  each  was  expected  to  put  himself  in  an  attitude 
of  becoming  reverence ;  the  hands  were  carefully  washed,  that  not 
a  stain  might  fall  on  the  Sacred  Volume,  and,  while  the  men  re- 
mained with  their  heads  bare,  the  women  covered  themselves  with 
a  veil,  as  a  token  of  respect  for  the  Book  of  God.  The  head  of  the 
family  then  read  aloud  a  few  passages,  both  from  the  Old  and  the 
New  Testament,  accompanying  them  with  some  plain  and  simple 
admonitions  of  his  own,  or  recalling  to  the  memory  of  his  audience 
the  public  exhortations  which,  on  the  preceding  Sabbath,  had  been 
founded  on  them  in  the  church  ;  or  he  taught  the  younger  branches 
of  the  house  to  repeat  after  him  the  beautiful  prayer  which  was  dic- 
tated by  the  lips  of  the  Saviour  ;  and  told  them,  in  simple  phrase, 
of  the  love  which  God  bears  to  the  young,  and  of  the  blessedness  of 
remembering  their  Creator  in  the  days  of  their  youth.  These  read- 
ings and  exhortations  were  always  short,  and  diversified,  at  inter- 
vals, by  sacred  music, — of  which  the  primitive  Christians  were  pas- 
sionately fond.  Sometimes  one,  distinguished  by  taste  and  talents 
for  spiritual  songs,  sung  some  favorite  piece  of  sacred  melody  ;  at 
other  times,  the  shrill  voices  of  the  women  and  the  children  were 
blended  in  full  chorus  with  the  deeper  tones  of  the  men, — till,  as  the 
hour  set  apart  for  refreshment  drew  towards  a  close,  the  venerable 
parent,  whose  look  and  attitude  called  for  momentary  silence,  gave 
thanks  to  the  Giver  of  all  good,  for  the  enjoyment  of  their  natural 
and  spiritual  comforts,  and  prayed  that  his  presence  and  his  blessing 
might  be  with  them  during  the  succeeding  period  of  labor  and  duty. 
Thus,  among  the  primitive  Christians,  their  ordinary  refreshments 
were  sanctified  with  the  Word  of  God  and  with  prayer ;  and  thus 
were  the  words  of  eternal  truth  interwoven,  in  the  most  agreeable 
and  captivating  manner,  with  the  habits  and  the  pleasures  of  every- 
day life. 


DAILY  DEVOTIONS.  375 


§  4.  Of  their  daily  Devotions. 

Instead  of  consuming  their  leisure  hours  in  vacant  idleness,  or  de- 
riving their  chief  amusement  from  boisterous  merriment,  the  recital 
of  tales  of  superstition,  or  the  chanting  of  the  profane  songs  of  the 
heathen,  they  passed  their  hours  of  repose  in  rational  and  enlivening 
pursuits,  found  pleasure  in  enlarging  their  religious  knowledge,  and 
entertainment  in  songs  that  were  dedicated  to  the  praise  of  God. 
These  formed  their  pastime  in  private,  and  their  favorite  recreations 
at  their  family  and  friendly  meetings.  With  their  minds  full  of  the 
inspiring  influence  of  these,  they  returned  with  fresh  ardor  to  their 
scenes  of  toil  ;  and  to  gratify  their  taste  by  a  renewal  of  these,  they 
longed  for  release  from  labor,  far  more  than  to  appease  their  appe- 
tite with  the  provisions  of  the  table.  So  far  were  these  sacred  occu- 
pations from  being  regarded  as  mere  matters  of  routine  by  the  primi- 
tive Christians, — so  much  were  the  sentiments  and  the  melody  of  the 
sacred  songs  engraven  on  their  memories  and  dear  to  their  hearts, 
that  after  they  had  left  the  family  group  and  repaired  to  their  re- 
spective employments,  they  were  wont  to  cheer  themselves  in  pri- 
vate, amid  the  various  processes  of  labor,  with  repeating  the  songs 
of  Zion.  Young  women  sitting  at  their  distaff,  and  matrons  going 
about  the  duties  of  their  liousehold,  were  constantly  humming  some 
spiritual  airs.  And  Jerome  relates  of  the  place  where  he  lived,  that 
one  could  not  go  into  the  field  without  hearing  the  ploughman  at  his 
hallelujahs,  the  mower  at  his  hymns,  and  the  vine-dresser  singing  the 
Psalms  of  David. 

But  it  was  not  merely  at  noon,  and  in  time  of  their  meals,  that  the 
primitive  Christians  read  the  Word  of  God  and  sang  praises  to  his 
name.  At  an  early  hour  in  the  morning  the  family  was  assembled, 
when  a  portion  of  Scripture  was  read  from  the  Old  Testament,  which 
was  followed  by  a  hymn  and  a  prayer,  in  which  thanks  were  offered 
up  to  the  Almighty  for  preserving  them  during  the  silent  watches  of 
the  night,  and  for  his  goodness  in  permitting  them  to  meet  in  health 
of  body  and  soundness  of  mind  ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  his  grace 
was  implored  to  defend  them  amid  the  dangers  and  temptations  of 
the  day, — to  make  them  faithful  to  every  duty,  and  enable  them,  in 
all  respects,  to  walk  worthy  of  their  christian  vocation.  During  the 
day,  they  had,  like  the  Jews,  stated  seasons,  at  the  third,  sixth,  and 


376  CHARACTER  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANS. 

ninth  hours,  corresponding  respectively  to  nine,  twelve,  and  three 
o'clock,  according  to  our  computation,  when  those  who  had  com- 
mand of  their  lime,  were  wont  to  retire  for  a  little  to  engage  in  the 
exercises  of  devotion.  In  the  evening,  before  retiring  to  rest,  the 
family  again  assembled,  when  the  same  form  of  worship  was  ob- 
served as  in  the  morning,  with  this  difference,  that  the  service  was 
considerably  protracted  beyond  the  period  which  could  be  conve- 
niently allotted  to  it  in  the  commencement  of  the  day.  Besides  all 
these  frequent  observances,  they  were  in  the  habit  of  rising  at  mid- 
night to  engage  in  prayer  and  the  singing  of  Psalms, — a  practice  of 
venerable  antiquity,  and  which,  as  Dr.  Cave  justly  supposes,  "  took 
its  origin  from  the  first  times  of  persecution,  when  not  daring  to 
meet  together  in  the  day,  they  were  forced  to  keep  their  religious 
assemblies  in  the  night." 

While  the  Christians,  in  their  family  capacity,  observed  these 
periodical  seasons  of  devotion,  they  laid  hold  of  many  opportunities, 
both  stated  and  occasional,  of  praying  in  private.  In  addition  to  the 
secret  supplications  which  every  morning  and  evening  they  ad- 
dressed to  the  throne  of  grace,  they  were  accustomed,  on  every 
proper  and  convenient  occasion,  to  begin  and  terminate  all  their 
actions  with  prayer, — either  audible  or  silent,  according  to  circum- 
stances. On  receiving  any  personal  or  domestic  token  of  the  divine 
goodness,  when  engaged  in  any  important  undertaking,  such  as 
sowing  their  seed,  or  reaping  their  harvest, — laying  the  foundation 
of  a  house  or  taking  possession  of  it, — placing  a  web  in  the  loom,  or 
putting  on  a  new  suit  of  clothes, — entering  on  a  journey,  or  going 
into  a  bath, — forming  a  new  relation,  or  parting  with  a  friend, — 
mingling  with  company, — at  the  beginning  or  closing  of  a  letter, — 
they  indulged  in  the  aspirations  of  prayer  :  and  so  much  did  they 
familiarize  themselves  with  its  spirit  and  its  sentiments,  that  they 
seemed  to  have  cultivated  the  habit  of  constant  mental  intercourse 
with  their  heavenly  Father.  Prayer,  indeed,  was  the  grand  ele- 
ment that  pervaded  the  life  of  the  primitive  Christians  ;  for  that 
spiritual  exercise,  being  not  so  much  a  separate  and  formal  act,  as  a 
habit  and  frame  of  mind,  and  consisting  of  all  the  various  elements 
of  praise  and  thankfulness,  confidence  and  hope,  obedience  and  love, 
so  these  principles  of  a  new  nature,  being  established  in  their  minds, 
and  diffusing  a  sanctified  influence  over  the  whole  tenor  of  their 
walk  and  conversation.,  gave  vigor  to  their  faith,  stability  to  their  vir- 


DAILY  DEVOTIONS.  377 

tue,  and  fed,  like  a  perpetual  spring,  all  the  streams  of  christian  ac- 
tivity and  excellence,  for  which  they  were  so  remarkable. 

The  epistle  to  Diognetus,  written  early  in  the  second  century,* 
contains  tlic  followini^  description  of  Christians  :  "  They  are  not  dis- 
tinguished from  other  men  by  their  place  of  residence,  their  language 
or  manners.  Though  they  live  in  cities  of  the  Greeks  and  barbari- 
ans, each  where  his  lot  is  cast,  and  in  clothing,  food,  and  mode  of 
life,  follow  the  customs  qf  their  country,  yet  they  are  distinguished 
by  a  wonderful  and  universally  astonishing  walk  and  conversation. 
They  dwell  in  their  own  native  land,  but  as  foreigners ;  they  take 
part  in  everything  as  citizens,  they  endure  everything  as  foreigners. 
Every  foreign  land  is  to  them  as  their  native  country,  and  their  na- 
tive country  as  a  foreign  land.  They  live  in  the  flesh  but  not  after 
the  flesh.  They  dwell  on  the  earth,  but  they  live  in  heaven  ;  they 
obey  the  e.xisting  laws,  but  by  their  life  elevate  themselves  above  the 
laws.  They  love  all  men,  and  are  persecuted,  misunderstood,  and 
condemned  by  all.  They  are  slain  and  made  alive  ;  they  are  poor 
and  make  many  rich  ;  they  suffer  want  in  everything  and  possess 
abundance  in  everything ;  they  are  cursed  and  they  bless.  In  one 
word,  what  the  soul  is  in  the  body,  that  Christians  are  in  the  world. 
As  the  soul  is  diffused  through  all  the  members  of  the  body,  so  the 
Christians  are  spread  through  all  the  cities  of  the  world.  The  soul 
indeed  dwells  in  the  body,  but  it  is  not  of  the  body  ;  so  Christians 
dwell  in  the  world,  but  they  are  not  of  the  world.  The  invisible 
soul  is  shut  up  in  the  visible  body  ;  and  so  men  know  Christians  as 
inhabitants  of  the  world,  but  their  life  is  hid  with  Christ  in  God.  The 
flesh  hales  and  fights  the  soul,  though  the  soul  does  no  injury  to  the 
flesh,  but  only  prevents  its  giving  itself  up  to  its  lusts  ;  so  also  the 
world  hates  Christians ;  they  do  it  no  harm,  but  only  set  themselves 
against  its  lusts.  The  soul  loves  its  hating  flesh,  and  so  Christians 
love  those  by  whom  they  are  hated.  The  soul  is  shut  up  in  the 
body,  and  yet  it  is  that  by  which  the  body  is  held  together ;  and 
Christians  are  held  to  their  post  in  the  world,  and  it  is  they  who  hold 
the  world  together.  The  immortal  soul  dwells  in  the  mortal  body, 
and  Christians  dwell  as  strangers  in  the  corruptible  world,  and  await 
the  unchangeable  life  in  heaven.  So  important  a  part  has  God  en- 
trusted to  them,  which  they  dare  not  forsake." 

*  Neander,  K    G.  1. — By  Professor  Stowe. 

48 


378  CHARACTER  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANS. 


^  5.  Religious  Education  of  their  Children. 

There  is  not  among  the  many  interesting  traits  of  christian  char- 
acter with  which  the  history  of  the  early  Christians  abounds,  one 
that  stands  out  more  frequently  in  beautiful  and  prominent  relief, 
than  the  tender  solicitude  and  the  winning  arts  which  they  employed 
to  imbue  the  susceptible  minds  of  the  young  with  the  knowledge  and 
the  faith  of  the  Scripture.  While  they  were  fondled  on  the  knee, 
and  still  watched  by  the  careful  eyes  of  their  nurse,  the  first  words 
they  were  taught  to  lisp  and  articulate  were  the  sacred  names  of 
God  and  the  Saviour.  And  the  whole  range  of  nursery  knowledge 
and  amusement  was  comprised  in  narratives  and  pictures,  illustrating 
episodes  in  the  life  of  the  holy  child,  or  parables  the  most  simple 
and  interesting  in  the  ministry  of  Christ.  As  their  minds  expanded, 
they  were  taught,  along  with  the  grand  doctrines  of  Scripture,  which, 
according  to  the  approved  fashion  of  those  days,  were  rendered  fa- 
miliar by  apposite  similitudes  from  nature,  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon, 
and  those  passages  of  the  sacred  volume  which  relate  particularly  to 
the  economy  of  life. 

Religion,  in  short,  was  the  grand  basis  of  education,  the  only  sub- 
ject which,  during  the  first  years  of  life,  they  allowed  their  children 
to  be  taught ;  and  in  order  to  present  it  to  their  minds  with  the 
greater  attractions,  and  entwine  it  with  their  earliest  and  purest  as- 
sociations, they  adopted  the  happy  expedient  of  wedding  it  to  the 
graces  of  poetry,  and  rendering  it  more  memorable  by  the  melody 
of  numbers.  From  the  earliest  period  of  christian  antiquity,  there 
were  authors  who,  like  Watts  in  modern  times,  "condescended  to 
lay  aside  the  scholar,  the  philosopher,  and  the  wit,  to  write  little 
poems  of  devotion,  adapted  to  the  wants  and  capacities  of  children," 
and  these,  set  to  well-known  and  favorite  airs,  borrowed  from  the 
profaner  songs  of  the  heathen,  were  sung  by  the  Christians  at  their 
family  concerts,  which  enlivened  their  meals,  and  by  which  alone 
the  still  and  peaceful  tranquility  of  their  homes  was  ever  broken. 
Ere  long,  their  children  were  taught  common,  and  frequently  short- 
hand writing,  in  lines  taken  from  the  Psalms,  or  in  words  of  senten- 
tious brevity,  in  which  the  leading  doctrines  of  the  gospel  were 
stated ;  and  at  a  later  period,  when  the  progress  of  toleration  allow- 
ed christian  seminaries  to  be  erected,  the  school  books  in  use  con- 


SIGN  OF  THE  CROSS.  379 

sisted  chiefly  of  passages  of  the  Bible  versified,  and  of  the  poetical 
pieces  which  illustrated  or  enforced  the  great  subjects  of  faith  and 
duty.  The  most  celebrated  of  these  were  compositions  of  the  two 
Apollinares,  grammarians  of  high  reputation  in  Syria — the  elder  of 
whom,  in  imitation  of  Homer,  wrote  the  Antiquities  of  the  Jews  in 
heroic  verse,  down  to  the  reign  of  Saul,  while  the  first  of  the  sacred 
story  he  described  in  such  metrical  forms  as  corresponded  to  the 
verses  of  the  Greek  Tragedians,  and  the  lyrical  ballads  of  Pindar. 
The  department  undertaken  by  his  son,  was  that  of  reducing  the 
history  of  the  evangelists  and  the  epistles  of  Paul  into  the  form 
and  style  of  Plato's  dialogues;  and  with  so  much  taste  and  elegance 
were  both  of  these  works  compiled,  that  on  their  first  appearance 
they  took  their  place  among  the  most  esteemed  productions  of  the 
Fathers.  Besides  these,  there  was  a  collection  of  miscellaneous 
poems  on  sacred  subjects,  and  in  all  sorts  of  verse,  by  the  famous 
Gregory  Nazianzen,  in  very  extensive  circulation.  By  means  of 
these,  and  of  many  other  evangelical  books  which  have  long  ago  be- 
come the  prey  of  time,  the  christian  youth  were  introduced  to  the 
elements  of  pure  and  urtdefiled  religion,  and  their  taste  for  know- 
ledge and  the  beauties  of  learning  created  and  formed  by  works  in 
which  salvation  was  held  up  as  the  one  thing  needful,  and  no 
achievements  described,  no  characters  lauded,  but  such  as  were 
adorned  with  the  fruits  of  righteousness.  Thus  did  the  pious  care  of 
the  primitive  Christians  intermingle  religion  with  all  the  pursuits  and 
recreations  of  the  young,  and  never  allow  them  to  engage  in  the 
study  of  science,  or  to  plunge  into  the  business  of  the  world,  until 
they  had  been  first  taught  to  view  everything  in  the  spirit  and  by 
the  principles  of  the  Word  of  God. 

§  6.  Sign  of  the  Cross. 

There  was  no  feature  of  their  private  manners  more  remarkable, 
than  the  frequency  with  which  they  made  use  of  the  sign  of  the 
cross.  With  minds  filled  as  theirs  were,  with  lively  faith  in  the 
grand  doctrine  of  redemption,  and  making  it,  as  they  did  almost  ev- 
ery moment,  the  subject  of  their  meditations,  and  the  theme  of  their 
gratitude,  it  is  not  wonderful,  that  they  should  have  devised  some 
concise  mode  of  recalling  it  to  their  memories,  or  of  expressing  to 
each  other  by  some  mutual  token,  the  principles  and  hopes  they  held 


380  CHARACTER  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANS. 

in  common.     Accordingly,  the  sign  of  the  cross  naturally  suggested 
itself  as  an  appropriate  emblem,  and  so  early  was  its  introduction 
among  the  daily  observances  of  the  Christians,  that  the  most  ancient 
of  the  Fathers,  whose  writings  have  descended   to  our  times,  speak 
of  it  as  in  their  days  a  venerable  practice,  which,  though  it  would  be 
in  vain  to  seek  any  scriptural  authority  for  its  use,  tradition  had  au- 
thorized, and  faith  observed.     Although,  however,  we  have   no  au- 
thentic account  of  its  introduction,  we  can  guess  at  its  origin.     It  was 
a  beautiful  custom  of  those   who  lived   while  the  ministry  of  Christ 
was  recent,  and  who  were  suddenly  brought  from  the  depths  of  de- 
spair at  his  death,  to  indescribable  joy  at  his  resurrection,  to  break 
off  in  the  middle  of  conversation,  and  salute  one  another  with  the 
words,  "  Christ  is  risen."     The  practice  was  peculiar  to  the  contem- 
poraries of  the  Saviour ;  and  it  is  not  improbable,  that  when  time, 
by  removing  them  farther  from  that  spirit-stirring  event,  had  brought 
the  interesting  custom   into  disuse,  his  followers,  in  the  next  age, 
sought  to  substitute  in  its  place  that,  which  in  every  variety  of  time 
and  circumstance,  forms  the  chief  subject  of  interest  in  the  history 
and  religion  of  Jesus,  and  on  which,  as  the  grand  foundation,  the 
whole  superstructure  of  christian  doctrine  rests.     Accordingly,  the 
cross  was  used  by  the  primitive  Christians  as  an  epitome  of  all  that 
is  most  interesting  and  important  in  their  faith  ;  and  its  sign,  where 
the  word  could  not  be  conveniently  nor  safely  uttered,  represented 
their  reliance  on  that  event  which  is  at  once  the  most  ignominious 
and  the  most  glorious  part  of  Christianity.     It  was  used  by  them  at 
all  times,  and  to  consecrate  the  most  common  actions  of  life— when 
rising  out  of  bed,  or  retiring  to  rest — when  sitting  at  table,  lighting  a 
lamp,  or  dressing  themselves — on  every  occasion,  as  they  wished 
the  influence  of  religion  to   pervade   the  whole  course  of  their  life, 
they  made  the  sign  of  the  cross  the  visible   emblem   of  their  faith. 
The  mode  in  which  this  was  done  was  various  :  The  most  common 
was  by  drawing  the  hand  rapidly  across  the  forehead,  or  by  merely 
tracing  the  sign  in  air  ;  in  some  cases,  it  was  worn  close  to  the  bo- 
som, in  gold,  silver,  or  bronze  medals,  suspended  by  a  concealed 
chain  from  the  neck  ;  in  others,  it  was  engraven  on  the  arms  or 
some  other  part  of  the  body  by  a  colored  drawing,  made  by  pricking 
the  skin  with  a  needle,  and  borne  as  a  perpetual  memorial  of  the 
love  of  Christ.     In  times  of  persecution,  it  served  as  the  watchword 
of  the  christian  party.     Hastily  described  by  the  finger,  it  was  the 


SIGN  OF  THE  CROSS.  381 

secret  but  well-known  signal  by  wbich  Christians  recognized  each 
other  in  the  presence  of  their  heathen  enemies  ;  by  which  the  per- 
secuted sought  an  asylum,  or  strangers  threw  themselves  on  the  hos- 
pitality of  their  brethren ;  and  nothing  aj)|)eared  to  the  pagan  ob- 
server more  strange  and  inexplicable,  than  the  ready  and  open- 
hearted  manner  in  which,  by  this  concerted  means,  foreign  Chris- 
tians were  received  by  those  whom  they  had  never  previously  seen 
or  heard  of, — were  welcomed  into  their  homes,  and  entertained,  with 
the  kindness  usually  bestowed  only  on  relations  and  friends.  More- 
over, to  the  sacred  form  of  the  cross  were  ascribed  peculiar  powers 
of  protecting  from  evil ;  and  hence  it  was  frequently  resorted  to  as 
a  secret  talisman,  to  disarm  the  vengeance  of  a  frowning  magistrate, 
or  counteract  the  odious  presence  and  example  of  an  offerer  of  sa- 
crifice. It  was  the  only  outward  means  of  defending  themselves, 
which  the  martyrs  were  wont  to  employ,  when  summoned  to  the 
Eoman  tribunals  on  account  of  their  faiih.  It  was  by  signing  him- 
self with  the  cross,  that  Origen,  when  compelled  to  stand  at  the 
threshold  of  the  temple  of  Serapis,  and  give  palm-branches,  as  the 
Egyptian  priests  were  in  the  habit  of  doing,  to  them  that  went  to 
perform  the  sacred  rites  of  the  idol,  fortified  his  courage,  and  stood 
uncontaminated  amid  the  concourse  of  profane  idolaters.  But,  per- 
haps, the  most  remarkable  instance  on  record  of  the  use  of  this  sign 
by  the  primitive  Christians,  and  of  the  sense  they  entertained  of  its 
potent  virtues,  occurs  in  the  reign  of  Diocletian,  when  that  timorous 
and  superstitious  prince,  in  his  anxiety  to  ascertain  the  events  of  his 
Eastern  campaign,  slew  a  number  of  victims,  that,  from  their  livers, 
the  augurs  might  prognosticate  the  fortunes  of  the  war.  During  the 
course  of  the  sacrifice,  some  christian  officers,  who  were  officially 
present,  put  the  immortal  sign  on  their  foreheads,  and  forthwith,  as 
the  historian  relates,  the  rites  were  disturbed.  The  priests,  ignorant 
of  the  cause,  searched  in  vain  for  the  usual  marks  on  the  entrails  of 
the  beasts.  Once  and  again  the  sacrifice  was  repeated  with  a  simi- 
lar result,  when,  at  length,  the  chief  of  the  soothsayers  observing  a 
Christian  signing  himself  with  the  cross,  exclaimed,  "  It  is  the  pre- 
sence of  profane  persons  that  has  interrupted  the  rites."  Thus  com- 
mon was  the  use,  and  thus  high  the  reputed  efficacy  of  this  sign 
among  the  primitive  Christians.  But  it  was  not  in  the  outward  form, 
but  solely  in  the  divine  qualities  of  Him  whose  name  and  merits  it 
symbolized,  that  the  believers  of  the  first  ages  conceived  its  charm 


3^  CHARACTER  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANS. 

and  its  virtues  to  reside.  It  was  used  by  them  "  merely  as  a  mode 
of  expressing,  by  means  perceptible  to  tlie  senses,  the  purely  chris- 
tian  idea,  that  all  the  actions  of  Christians,  as  well  as  the  whole 
course  of  their  life,  must  be  sanctified  by  faith  in  the  crucified  Re- 
deemer, and  by  dependance  upon  him,  and  that  this  faith  is  the  most 
powerful  means  of  conquering  all  evil,  and  preserving  oneself  against 
it.  It  was  not  till  after  times,  that  men  began  to  confound  the  idea 
and  the  token  which  represented  it,  and  that  they  attributed  the  ef- 
fects of  faith  in  the  crucified  Redeemer,  to  the  outward  signs  to 
which  they  ascribed  a  supernatural  and  preservative  power." 

^  7.  Their  deportment  in  the  Business  and  Recreations  of 

Life. 

As  we  have  already  seen.  Christians  mingled  in  the  ordinary  bu- 
siness of  life  ;  they  were  engaged  in  the  various  occupations  and 
trades  of  the  people  around  them  ;  and  in  all  the  forms  of  business 
they  were  intimately  associated  with  their  heathen  neighbors.  But 
they  were  careful,  not  only  to  preserve  a  scrupulous  honesty  in  all 
their  dealings,  they  would  immediately  abandon  trade  or  profession, 
however  lucrative  it  might  be,  or  however  necessary  to  the  support 
of  their  families,  if  it  were  seen  that  the  occupation  was  in  any  re- 
spect an  immoral  one,  or  that  it  encouraged  their  heathen  neighbors 
in  the  practice  of  sin,  or  was  in  any  way  inconsistent  with  the  pre- 
cepts of  Christianity.  In  an  age  when  all  the  forms  and  business  of 
society  were  so  closely  connected  with  pagan  idolatry,  when  so 
many  arts  and  trades  centered  in  the  idol  worship,  and  lived  on  the 
vices  of  men,  vast  multitudes  of  Christians  must  have  been  thrown 
out  of  employment  and  reduced  to  extreme  poverty,  by  the  consci- 
entious abandonment  of  trades,  the  only  ones  which  they  could  prac- 
tise, and  on  which  their  livelihood  depended.  They  must  find  some 
other  mode  of  living,  or  consent  even  to  pauperism,  rather  than  vio- 
late the  precepts  of  the  religion  they  professed.  The  church  under- 
took the  support  of  such  men  and  their  families,  rather  than  let  them 
continue  in  a  doubtful  calling;  and  they  were  willing  to  be  poor  and 
live  like  paupers,  rather  than  neglect  the  slightest  admonitions  of 
conscience.  On  this  point  Teriullian  gives  ample  directions.  If 
those  are  converted  who  were  makers  of  idols,  they  must  pursue 
some  other  branch  of  their  trade,  repair  houses,  plaster  walls,  line 


THEIR  DEPORTMENT.  '  383 

cisterns,  coat  columns.  He  who  can  carve  a  Mercury  can  put  to- 
gether a  chest  of  drawers  ;  there  are  few  temples  to  be  built,  but 
many  houses;  few  Mercuries  to  be  gilded,  but  many  sandals  and 
slippers.  If  schoolmasters,  they  must  even  relinquish  their  calling 
rather  than  teach  the  adventures  of  the  heathen  gods,  consecrate  the 
first  payment  of  each  scholar  to  Minerva,  or  keep  holidays  in  honor 
of  Flora.  If  cattle  merchants,  they  are  to  buy  for  the  shambles  but 
not  for  the  altar.  If  hucksters,  they  are  at  least  not  to  deal  in  in- 
cense. 

In  an  African  church  a  stage  actor  was  converted  to  Christianity, 
and  having  no  other  means  of  living,  he  instructed  boys  for  the  stage. 
Cyprian  (Epist.  61)  wrote  that  this  must  not  be  tolerated.  "If  he 
is  poor  and  needy,  let  him  come  among  the  rest  who  are  supported 
by  the  church,  and  let  him  be  content  with  a  poorer  and  more  inno- 
cent maintenance.  But  he  must  not  imagine  that  he  deserves  wa- 
ges for  ceasing  from  sin,  for  in  this  he  is  doing  service  not  to  us  but 
to  himself.  Seek,  then,  by  all  means  in  your  power,  to  turn  him 
from  this  bad  and  disgraceful  life,  to  the  way  of  innocence  and  hope 
of  eternal  life  ;  and  that  he  be  content  with  a  more  sparing,  but  yet 
a  more  wholesome  diet,  which  the  church  will  provide  for  him. 
And  if  your  church  is  not  able  to  do  tliis,  send  him  to  us,  and  we 
will  provide  him  with  necessary  food  and  clothing  ;  that  he  may  not 
teach  others  who  are  out  of  the  church  destructive  things,  but  may 
himself  within  the  church  learn  the  things  which  pertain  to  salvation." 

All  dissipating  amusements  were  strictly  prohibited,  and  the  Chris- 
tian was  exhorted  on  all  occasions  to  demean  himself  with  a  gravity 
and  sobriety  becoming  a  soldier  of  Jesus  Christ  and  a  priest  of  the 
most  high  God.  From  most  of  the  amuserhents  of  their  heathen 
neighbors  they  conscientiously  abstained  ;  and  the  weak  and  the  vain 
who  suffered  themselves  to  be  betrayed  into  them,  were  promptly 
and  severely  rebuked. 

"The  christian  lady  (says  Tertullian,  de  Cult.  II.  11,)  visits  not 
the  heathen  plays,  and  the  noisy  amusements  of  their  feast  days,  but 
she  goes  out  to  visit  the  sick,  to  partake  of  the  sacrament,  or  to  hear 
the  word  of  God." 

It  seems  that  some  weaker  brethren  and  sisters  could  scarcely 
relinquish  the  amusements  and  gratifications  to  which  they  had  been 
accustomed  in  early  life,  and  endeavored  to  justify  themselves,  as 
Christians  now  do  who  are  fond  of  the  same  irregularities.    They 


384  CHARACTER  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANS. 

said  that  the  gifts  of  God  were  good  and  might  be  used  for  our  law- 
ful pleasure,  that  plays  and  dances  were  nowhere  expressly  forbid- 
den in  Scripture,  that  it  was  right  to  dance,  for  David  danced  before 
the  ark  ;  that  it  could  not  be  wrong  to  visit  chariot  races  and  horse 
races,  for  Elijah  went  to  heaven  in  a  chariot  and  with  horses  of  fire, 
and  the  apostle  Paul  drew  many  of  his  illustrations  from  the  race- 
course and  the  circus. 

Respecting  such  subterfuges,  Tertullian  exclaims  :  "  0  how  wise 
does  human  folly  deem  itself  in  arguing,  especially  when  it  fears  to 
love  some  worldly  pleasure.  Everything  is  indeed  the  gift  of  God, 
but  we  must  consider  to  what  end  the  things  of  God  are  given,  and 
use  them  in  accordance  with  their  original  design,  or  we  commit  sin. 
True,  we  nowhere  find  in  Scripture  an  express  verbal  prohibition  of 
theatres  and  plays  ;  but  we  find  there  the  general  principles  of  which 
this  prohibition  is  the  necessary  consequence." 

In  respect  to  the  argument  from  Paul's  illustrations,  he  remarks  : 
"  It  were  better  they  had  never  known  the  Scriptures  than  to  pervert, 
to  the  defence  of  vice,  those  words  and  examples  which  were  given 
to  excite  us  to  evangelical  virtue  ;  for  these  things  are  written  to 
raise  our  zeal  the  higher  for  useful  things,  since  the  heathen  mani- 
fest so  great  zeal  for  things  of  no  use.  Tell  me,  what  should  be  our 
desire,  other  than  that  of  the  apostle,  to  depart  and  be  with  Christ? 
There  is  thy  joy  whither  thy  desire  tends.  Art  thou  so  ungrateful 
as  to  overlook  or  be  dissatisfied  with  the  many  and  great  joys  which 
the  Lord  hath  already  given  thee  ?  For  what  is  more  joyful  than 
reconciliation  with  God,  thy  Father  and  Lord,  than  the  revelation  of 
the  truth,  the  escaping  from  error,  the  forgiveness  of  so  many  sins  .•' 
What  greater  joy  than  the  declining  of  the  vain  joys  of  the  world, 
than  the  true  freedom,  the  pure  conscience,  the  innocent  life,  the 
fearlessness  of  death  ?  *  *  *  These  are  the  amusements,  these  are 
the  plays  of  the  Christian,  which  men  cannot  pay  for  with  money. 
And  what  kind  of  joy  is  that  which  eye  hath  not  seen,  nor  ear  heard, 
nor  the  heart  of  man  conceived  .^"  (Neander  K.  §  I.  447 — 50.) 

§  8.  Their  jiutual  Love  and  Concord. 

Among  the  various  features  in  the  character  of  the  primitive 
Christians,  there  is  none  that  so  eminently  claims  our  admiration  as 
their  mutual  love.     All  the  details  transmitted  to  us  of  their  social 


MUTUAL  LOVE  AND  CONCORD.  385 

intercourse,  and  of  their  public  conduct,  bespeak  the  lively  opera- 
tion of  this  christian  spirit.  And  when  we  read  of  the  delightful 
harmony  and  concord  that  reigned  in  their  assemblies,  their  ready 
disposition  to  render  to  every  one  his  due, — the  high  condescending 
to  those  of  low  degree, — the  poor  giving  the  tribute  of  their  respect 
to  those  whom  Providence  had  placed  in  a  more  exalted  station, — 
and  all  vying,  with  amiable  rivalry,  to  promote  each  other's  happi- 
ness and  welAire,  we  perceive  the  strong  grounds  of  the  proverbial 
observation  of  the  heathen,  "  Behold  how  these  Christians  love  one 
another !"  Not  only  when  they  were  small  in  numbers,  and,  meet- 
ing together  almost  daily,  were  well  known  to  each  other,  did  this 
admirable  affection  prevail  among  them,  but,  how  widely  soever 
they  might  be  separated,  the  ardor  of  their  love  suffered  no  diminu- 
tion ;  and,  forgetting  every  other  distinction  in  that  of  being  the  fol- 
lowers and  friends  of  the  Saviour,  they  sympathized  in  each  other's 
joys  and  sorrows.  Whatever  blessing  one  of  their  number  had  re- 
ceived, was  a  subject  of  lively  gratitude  to  all ;  and  whaffever  calami- 
ty had  befallen  a  single  member,  spread  a  gloom  over  the  whole 
community.  Bound  to  each  other  by  ties  infinitely  holier  and  dear- 
er than  any  that  belong  to  the  world,  they  looked  upon  themselves 
as  members  of  the  same  common  family.  Every  time  that  they 
met,  either  in  their  own  houses  or  in  their  public  assemblies,  they 
interchanged  the  kiss,  as  a  badge  of  fellowship,  and  token  of  the 
warmest  affection.  Though  totally  unconnected  by  ties  of  consan- 
guinity, they  addressed  each  other,  according  to  their  respective  age 
and  sex,  by  the  name  of  father,  mother,  brother,  sister.  Though 
naturally  separated  by  distinction  of  rank  and  diversity  of  color,  no- 
thing could  cool  the  ardor  or  prevent  the  reciprocities  of  their  mu- 
tual love.  The  knowledge  of  the  simple  fact,  that  any  one  was  a 
follower  of  Jesus,  changed  him  at  once  from  a  stranger  into  a  friend  ; 
creating  a  union  between  them  not  to  be  described  by  the  cold  selfish 
friendship  of  the  world  ;  and  to  them  belongs  the  peculiar  distinc- 
tion of  realizing  a  state  of  society  which  many  philosophers  had  of- 
ten delighted  to  picture  to  their  fanc}',  and  wished  for  in  vain, — the 
idea  of  a  community  united  by  no  other  bond  than  the  golden  chain 
of  universal  love. 

49 


386  CHARACTER  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANS. 


§  9.  Of  THEIR  Benevolence. 

1.  Their  care  of  the  poor.  One  very  remarkable  way  in  which 
this  love  manifested  itself,  was  in  the  care  they  took  of  their  poorer 
brethren.  Among  them,  as  in  every  association  of  men,  the  needy 
and  destitute  were  found.  The  duty  of  providing  for  these  was  not 
left  to  the  gratuities  of  private  individuals,  whose  situation  gave  them 
opportunities  of  ascertaining,  and  whose  benevolence  prompted 
them  to  relieve,  their  necessities.  It  devolved  on  the  whole  commu- 
nity of  believers,  who  regarded  it  not  as  a  burden,  but  a  privilege,  to 
minister  to  the  wants  of  those  who  bore  the  image  of  Christ ;  and  by 
their  unwearied  attentions  to  the  discharge  of  this  labor  of  love,  they 
made  the  light  of  their  liberality  and  benevolence  so  shine,  as  to 
command  the  admiration  even  of  the  cold  and  selfish  heathens 
around  them.  As  duly  as  the  Sabbath  returned,  and  as  soon  as 
they  had  brought  their  sacred  duties  to  a  close,  the  lists  of  the  poor, 
the  aged,  the  widow,  and  the  orphans,  were  produced  for  considera- 
tion ;  and,  as  if  each  had  been  hastening  to  bring  forth  the  fruits  of 
faith,  and  to  prove  the  sincerity  of  that  love  they  had  just  professed 
to  their  Saviour  by  the  abundance  of  their  liberality  to  his  people, 
they  set  themselves  to  the  grateful  task,  with  a  zeal  and  enthusiasm, 
whose  fresh  and  unabated  vigor  betrayed  no  symptoms  of  their  hav- 
ing already  been  engaged  in  a  lengthened  service.  The  custom 
was  for  every  one  in  turn  to  bring  under  public  notice  the  case  of  a 
brother  or  sister,  of  whose  necessitous  circumstances  he  had  any 
knowledge,  and  forthwith  a  donation  was  ordered  out  of  the  funds  of 
the  church,  which  the  voluntary  contributions  of  the  faithful  supplied. 
No  strong  or  heart-stirring  appeals  were  necessary  to  reach  the  hid- 
den source  of  their  sympathies;  no  cold  calculations  of  prudence 
regulated  the  distribution  of  their  public  alms  ;  no  fears  of  doubtful 
propriety  suggested  delay  for  the  consideration  of  the  claim  ;  no 
petty  jealousies  as  to  the  preference  of  one  recommendation  to 
another  were  allowed  to  freeze  the  gonial  current  of  their  charity. 
By  whomsoever  the  case  was  recommended,  or  in  whatever  circum- 
stances the  claim  was  made,  the  hand  of  benevolence  had  answered 
the  call  almost  before  the  heart  found  words  to  express  its  sympa- 
thy, and  \viih  a  unanimity  surpassed  only  by  their  boundless  love, 
they  dealt  out  their  supplies  from  the  treasury  of  the  church,  when- 


OF  THEIR  BENEVOLENCE.  387 

ever  there  was  an  object  to  receive,  or  a  known  necessity  to  require 
it.  Where  the  poor  in  one  place  were  numerous,  and  the  brethren 
were  unable  from  their  hmited  means  to  aflbrd  them  adequate  sup- 
port, they  applied  to  some  richer  church  in  the  neighborhood,  and 
never  was  it  known  in  those  days  of  active  benevolence,  that  the  ap- 
peal was  fruitlessly  made,  or  coldly  received.  Though  they  had 
poor  of  their  own  to  maintain,  neighboring  and  foreign  churches 
were  always  ready  to  transmit  contributions  in  aid  of  the  Christians 
in  distant  parts,  and  many  and  splendid  are  the  instances  on  record 
of  ministers  and  people,  on  intelligence  of  any  pressing  emergency, 
hastening  with  their  treasures  for  the  relief  of  those  whom  they  had 
never  seen,  but  with  whom  they  were  united  by  the  strong  ties  of 
the  same  faith  and  hopes.  Thus,  when  a  multitude  of  christian  men 
and  women  in  Numidia  had  been  taken  captive  by  a  horde  of  neigh- 
boring barbarians,  and  wlien  the  churches  to  which  they  belonged 
were  unable  to  raise  the  sum  demanded  for  their  ransom,  they  sent 
deputies  to  the  church  that  was  planted  in  the  metropolis  of  North 
Africa,  and  no  sooner  had  Cyprian,  who  then  was  at  the  head  of  it, 
heard  a  statement  of  the  distressing  case,  than  he  commenced  a  sub- 
scription in  behalf  of  the  unfortunate  slaves,  and  never  relaxed  his 
indefatigable  efforts,  till  he  had  collected  a  sum  equal  to  nearly 
$4000,  which  he  fowarded  to  the  Numidian  churches,  together  with 
a  letter  full  of  christian  sympathy  and  tenderness. 

2,  Their  allentions  to  the  sick.  But  the  primitive  Christians  were 
not  content  with  conveying  their  eleemosynary  aid  through  the  pub- 
lic channels  of  ihe  church.  To  them  it  appeared  a  sacred  duty  to 
countenance  the  poor  with  their  presence  and  their  purse  in  their 
own  homes,  where  they  could  make  more  minute  inquiries  into  their 
wants,  and  tender  them  the  comforts  of  christian  sympathy  and 
counsel,  which,  by  the  brethren  both  of  high  and  low  degree,  were 
more  highly  prized  than  even  the  open-handed  benevolence  that 
ministered  to  their  temporal  necessities.  This  pious  office  was 
more  especially  delegated  to  the  female  members  of  the  community, 
as  it  was  thought,  both  from  the  delicate  nature  of  the  embassy,  and 
from  the  jealous  spirit  of  ancient  society,  they  possessed  facilities  of 
access  to  the  domestic  privacy  of  all  classes,  denied  to  their  breth- 
ren of  the  other  sex.  And  exemplary  was  the  prudence  and  fidelity 
with  which  they  discharged  their  trust.  Every  moment  they  could 
spare  from  the  prior  claims  of  their  own  household,  the  christian 


388  CHARACTER  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANS. 

matrons  devoted  to  those  errands  of  mercy  ;  and  while  they  listened 
to  the  widow's  tale  of  other  days,  and  her  traits  of  the  friend  who 
had  gone  to  his  rest, — or  saw  the  aged  in  their  hut  of  poverty, 
bending  under  the  weight  of  years, — or  sat  by  the  bedside  of  the 
afflicted,  and  those  that  were  ready  to  die, — or  found,  as  was  fre- 
quently the  case,  the  helpless  babe,  which  the  frigid  heart  of  a  pagan 
mother  had  exposed  and  forsaken  in  the  lonely  path,  they  provided 
for  the  wants  of  each,  and  administered  appropriate  comforts  both 
for  the  body  and  the  soul.  But  these  were  light  and  easy  attentions 
compared  wiih  the  duties  which  their  charitable  mission  frequently 
imposed  on  them.  In  those  days  there  were  no  public  institutions 
for  the  reception  of  the  poor,  and  for  the  medical  treatment  of  the 
diseased,  and  as  there  were  few  or  none  among  the  heathen  in 
private  life,  who  ever  thought  of  entering  the  abodes  of  poverty  and 
sickness,  and  helping  their  neighbors, — such  was  the  cold  and  un- 
feeling selfishness  of  the  heathen  world, — the  Christians  were  never 
without  objects,  in  every  form  of  human  wretchedness,  towards 
whom  their  benevolence  was  required.  Indeed  it  is  almost  incred- 
ible to  what  offices  the  ardor  of  their  christian  spirit  led  them  to 
condescend.  They,  though  all  of  them  were  women  moving  amid 
the  comforts  of  domestic  life,  and  some  of  them  ladies  of  the  highest 
rank  never  inured  to  any  kind  of  labor,  scrupled  not  to  perform  the 
meanest  and  most  servile  offices,  that  usually  devolved  on  the  lowest 
menial.  Not  only  did  they  sit  by  the  bedside  of  the  sick,  conversing 
with  and  comforting  them,  but  with  their  own  hands  prepared 
their  victuals,  and  fed  them — administered  cordials  and  medicine — 
brought  them  changes  of  clothing — made  their  beds — dressed  the 
most  repulsive  and  putrefying  ulcers — exposed  themselves  to  the 
contagion  of  malignant  distempers — swaddled  the  bodies  of  the 
dead,  and,  in  short,  acted  in  the  character  at  once  of  the  physi- 
cian, the  nurse,  and  the  ambassador  of  God.  Their  purse  and 
their  experience  were  always  ready,  and  the  most  exhausting  and 
dangerous  services  were  freely  rendered  by  these  christian  wo- 
men. In  process  of  time,  however,  as  the  christian  society  extended 
its  limits,  and  the  victims  of  poverty  and  sickness  became  propor- 
tionally more  numerous,  the  voluntary  services  of  the  matrons  were 
found  inadequate  to  overtake  the  immense  field,  and  hence,  besides 
the  deacons  and  deaconesses  who,  at  a  very  early  period  of  the 
church,  were  appointed  to  superintend  the  interests  of  the  poor,  a 


OF  THEIR  BENEVOLENCE.  389 

new  class  of  office-bearers  arose,  under  the  name  of  Parabolani, 
whose  province  it  was  to  visit  and  wait  on  the  sick  in  mahgnant  and 
pestilential  diseases.  These,  whose  number  became  afterwards  very 
great — Alexandria  alone,  in  the  time  of  Thcodosius,  boasting  of  six 
hundred,— took  charge  of  the  sick  and  the  dying,  under  circumstan- 
ces in  which,  while  it  was  most  desirable  they  should  have  every  at- 
tention paid  to  them,  prudence  forbade  mothers  and  mistresses  of 
families  to  repair  to  them  ;  and  thus,  while  the  heathen  allowed,  their 
poor  and  their  sick  to  pine  in  wretchedness  and  to  die  before  their 
eyes,  uncared  for,  there  was  not  in  the  first  ages  a  solitary  individual 
of  the  christian  poor,  who  did  not  enjoy  all  the  comforts  of  a  tem- 
poral and  spiritual  nature  that  his  situation  required. 

It  was  not,  however,  only  to  the  poor  of  their  own  churches  that 
the  benevolence  of  the  primitive  Christians  showed  itself.  Never, 
perhaps,  was  the  clear  and  lively  principle  of  their  character  more 
strikingly  exemplified  than  in  the  appearance  of  any  of  those  calami- 
ties— famine  or  pestilence — with  which  the  ancient  world  was  so 
frequently  visited.  In  the  accounts  that  have  reached  us  of  those 
terrible  catastrophes,  mention  is  invariably  made  of  a  sad  corruption 
of  morals  accompanying  them, — the  heathen  became  desperate  and 
reckless  amid  the  fearful  ravages  made  in  their  ranks,  their  sensi- 
bilities were  deadened,  and  a  most  unnatural  and  cold-blooded  in- 
difference shown  to  the  claims  of  their  nearest  relatives  and  friends. 
In  the  midst  of  all  these  disorders,  the  benevolence  of  the  Christians 
exhibited  an  extraordinary  contrast  to  the  unfeeling  selfishness  of 
their  heathen  neighbors.  Thus,  for  instance,  during  the  plague  that 
so  long  and  severely  afflicted  Carthage  in  the  time  of  Cyprian,  he 
and  the  rest  of  the  Christians  were  indefatigable  in  their  exertions 
for  the  relief  of  the  afflicted  ;  and  while  the  heathen  abandoned 
the  sick  and  dying  to  their  fate, — while  the  highways  were  strewed 
with  corpses  which  no  one  had  the  courage  or  the  public  spirit  to 
bury,  and  the  hardened  survivors  were  intent  only  on  pilfering  the 
clothes  and  the  chests  of  the  dead,  the  Christians  were  constantly 
facing  the  danger,  busy  on  the  streets  or  in  the  houses,  distributing 
money  or  articles  of  food  and  clothing,  and  doing  all  in  their  power 
to  alleviate  the  pangs  of  the  sufferers,  and  soothe  the  last  moments 
of  the  dying.  Nor  was  their  benevolence  confined  to  the  sick  mem- 
bers of  their  own  community, — they  extended  their  attentions  indis- 
criminately to  all ;  and,  while  the  heathen  stood  aloof  and  careless, 


390  CHARACTER  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANS. 

parents  deserting  their  children,  and  children  trampling  on  the  un- 
biiried  corpses  of  their  parents,  the  Christians  were  assiduously  em- 
ployed in  the  pious  labor  of  interring  them, — the  rich  contributing 
their  money,  and  the  poor  their  labor,  to  clear  the  houses  and  the 
streets  from  the  effluvia  of  the  mouldering  relics  of  mortality,  and 
adopt  the  most  prudent  precautions  to  free  the  city  from  the  further 
ravages  of  the  pestilence. 

In  like  manner,  when  the  Roman  empire,  especially  that  part  of  it 
that  lay  in  the  east,  was  overtaken,  in  the  reign  of  Gallienus,  by  the 
simultaneous  calamities  of  plague,  famine,  and  earthquake,  the  calm 
fortitude  and  unswerving  resignation  of  the  Christians, — their  inde- 
fatigable benevolence  towards  all  who  were  seized  by  the  dreaded 
sickness,  and  the  kind  sympathising  attentions  they  bestowed  on 
them,  at  the  risk  of  their  own  lives,  were  very  strikingly  exemplified 
in  Alexandria,  thechief  seat  of  the  disasters.  In  a  letterof  Dionysius, 
who  was  then  pastor  of  the  church  in  that  city,  a  most  impressive 
account  is  given,  of  which  we  subjoin  a  translation  :  —  That  pesti- 
lence appeared  to  the  heathen  as  the  most  dreadful  of  all  things, — 
as  that  which  left  tliein  no  hope ;  not  so,  however,  did  it  seem  to  us, 
but  only  a  peculiar  and  practical  trial.  The  greater  part  of  our  peo- 
ple, in  the  abundance  of  their  brotherly  love,  did  not  spare  them- 
selves ;  and,  mutually  attending  to  each  other,  they  cheerfully  visited 
the  sick  without  fear,  and  ministered  to  them  for  the  sake  of  Christ. 
Many  of  them  died,  after  their  care  had  restored  others  from  the 
plague  to  health.  The  best  among  our  brethren,  priests  and  dea- 
cons, and  some  who  were  celebrated  among  ilic  laity,  died  in  this 
manner;  and  such  a  death,  the  fruit  of  great  piety  and  strong  faith, 
is  hardly  inferior  to  martyrdom.  Many  who  took  the  bodies  of  their 
christian  brethren  into  their  hands  and  bosoms,  closed  their  mouth 
and  eyes,  and  buried  them  with  every  attention,  soon  followed  them 
in  death.  But  with  the  heathen  matters  stood  quite  differently  ;  at 
the  first  symptom  of  sickness,  they  drove  a  man  from  their  society, 
they  tore  themselves  away  from  their  dearest  connections,  they  threw 
the  half  dead  into  the  streets,  and  left  thousands  unburied, — endeav- 
oring by  all  the  means  in  their  power  to  escape  contagion,  which, 
notwithstanding  all  their  contrivances,  it  was  very  difficult  for  them 
to  aiccomplish. 

3.  Their  charities  to  those  who  were  persecuted  for  righteousness' 
sake.     The  benevolence  of  the  primitive  Christians  being  thus  readi- 


OF  THEIR  BENEVOLENCE.  391 

ly,  and  on  all  occasions  exerted  in  the  cause  of  suffering  hunnanity, 
it  need  not  surprise  us  that  the  most  frequent  and  distinguished  ob- 
jects of  it  were  the  sufferers  for  righteousness'  sake.  Many  of  these 
were  immured  in  prisons,  and  no  sooner  did  Fame  spread  abroad 
the  sad  intelligence  that  one  of  them  was  lying  in  the  dungeons  of  a 
city,  than  the  Christians  of  the  place  flocked  in  crowds  to  the  doors  of 
the  cell,  begging  admission.  Patiently  did  they  bear  the  caprice  and 
rebuffs  of  the  surly  guards  and  jailors  ;  anxiously  did  they  resort  to 
every  means  of  conciliation,  by  persuasions,  entreaties,  and  bribes; 
— often,  when  all  proved  fruitless,  did  they  lie  for  days  and  nights 
together  outside  the  walls  of  a  dungeon,  praying  for  the  deliverence 
or  for  the  happy  and  triumphant  exit  of  the  imprisoned  confessor. 
If  admitted,  as  they  sometimes  were,  these  Christians,  most  of  whom 
were  always  women,  carried  v.'ith  them  beds,  materials  of  food, 
clothing,  and  fuel, — they  kissed  their  chains,  washed  their  feet,  and 
rendered  them  all  the  most  tender  and  endearing  ofliccs  they  could 
think  of  Witness  the  well  known  case  of  the  impostor  Peregrinus. 
This  person,  who  lived  in  the  second  century,  had  been  obliged  to 
flee  from  his  native  country,  Armenia,  on  account  of  some  great 
crime,  and  having  settled  in  Judea,  became  acquainted  with  the 
principles  of  the  Gospel,  appeared  an  illustrious  penitent,  and  made 
public  profession  of  the  faith.  His  fame  as  a  Christian  spread  far 
and  wide,  and  when  his  religious  tenets  brought  him  the  distinction 
of  imprisonment,  the  Christians,  deeply  afflicted  at  his  fate,  made  ex- 
traordinary efforts  to  procure  his  release.  These,  however,  proving 
unsuccessful,  they  strove  to  mitigate  the  evils  of  confinement  by 
loading  him  with  every  attention.  At  break  of  day,  numbers  of  old 
women,  widows,  and  orphans,  were  seen  surrounding  the  walls  of 
the  prison,  their  hands  filled  with  every  delicacy,  and  even  with  large 
sums  of  money,  which  the  liberality  of  foreign  Christians  had  sent 
to  ihem  for  their  support. 

But  many  of  the  sufferers  for  the  cause  of  religion,  instead  of  be- 
ing thrown  into  prison,  were  sent  to  labor,  like  slaves,  in  distant  and 
unwholesome  mines.  Thither  the  benevolence  of  their  brethren  fol- 
lowed them,  and  never  were  contributions  more  frequently  and  lib- 
erally made  by  the  Christians,  than  when  they  were  destined  for  the 
relief  of  the  mutilated  martyrs,  who  labored  amid  the  darkness  and 
noxious  vapors  of  these  subterranean  dungeons.  Nay,  many  even 
undertook  long  and  toilsome  pilgrimages,  in  order  to  comfort  and 


392  CHARACTER  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANS. 

support  those  victims  of  oppression  with  their  christian  sympathy ; 
and,  in  the  performance  of  these  pious  journeys,  encountered  perils, 
amid  which,  nothing  but  benevolence  of  the  purest  and  most  exalted 
character  could  have  preserved  their  resolution  firm  and  unshaken. 
A  party  of  Christians,  for  instance,  set  out  from  Egypt  in  the  depth 
of  winter,  to  visit  their  brethren  in  the  mines  of  Cilicia.  Some  of 
them,  when  the  object  of  their  journey  became  public,  were  arrested 
on  their  arrival  at  Cesarea,  and  had  their  eyes  pulled  out,  and  their 
feet  dislocated.  Others  shared  a  worse  fate  at  Ascalon,  being  burnt 
or  beheaded.  Various  companies,  who  successively  went  from  dif- 
ferent quarters,  on  the  benevolent  errand  of  expressing  their  sympa- 
thy with  the  interesting  miners,  prosecuted  their  undertaking  amid 
similar  dangers.  But  nothing  could  repress  the  ardent  wish  to  pour 
the  balm  of  consolation  into  the  hearts  of  men,  who  were  suffering 
the  worst  species  of  slavery  for  the  sake  of  the  truth.  And  highly 
were  those  honored  who  lived  to  tell  the  tale  that  they  had  seen  the 
martyrs  in  the  mines, — to  describe  how  they  toiled,  and  wrought, 
and  bore  the  chain, — and  to  carry,  above  all,  the  glad  tidings  of  the 
fortitude,  the  patience,  resignation,  and  christian  joy  with  which  they 
endured  their  hard  lot. 

4.  Their  love  for  the  souls  of  men.  This  was  another  manifesta- 
tion of  the  benevolence  of  the  primitive  Christians,  that  deserves 
a  particular  notice.  It  was  a  remarkable  feature  of  their  charac- 
ter, and  though  inseparable  from  the  anxiety  they  displayed  on  every 
occasion  to  promote  the  best  interests  of  men,  it  yet  occupied  exclu- 
sively the  minds  of  some  of  them,  and  gave  rise  to  exertions  which 
nothing  but  interests  of  eternal  moment  could  have  originated.  Not 
to  speak  of  those  who  dedicated  themselves  to  the  preaching  of  the 
Gospel,  there  were  many  in  private  life,  who  expended  everything 
they  could  spare  from  the  bare  support  of  life  on  the  purchase  of  Bi- 
bles, and  on  every  suitable  occasion,  distributed  them  to  the  poor, — 
a  gift,  the  value  of  which  cannot  be  estimated,  without  taking  into 
consideration  the  scarcity  and  the  immense  price  which  in  those 
days  a  single  copy  of  the  Scriptures  cost.  But  besides  this  excel- 
lent species  of  charity,  which  many  of  the  wealthier  Christians  de- 
vised for  themselves,  there  were  others,  who  volunturily  submitted 
to  the  most  extraordinary  sacrifices,  with  the  generous  view  of  bring- 
ing men  from  darkness  to  light,  and  from  the  power  of  Satan  unto 
God.     One  man,  for  instance,  is  recorded  to  have  sold  himself  into 


OF  THEIR  BENEVOLENCE.  393 

the  family  of  a  hcallien  actor,  and  continued  for  years  cheerfully  per- 
forming the  most  servile  offices,  till  having  heen  the  honored  instru- 
ment of  converting  the  husband  and  wife,  and  whole  family  to  Chris- 
tianity, he  received  from  the  grateful  converts  the  reward  of  his  lib- 
erty. And  not  long  after,  during  a  visit  to  Sparta,  the  same  individ- 
ual learning  that  the  governor  of  that  city  had  fallen  into  dangerous 
errors,  offered  himself  again  as  a  slave,  and  continued  for  two  years 
in  ttiat  humble  and  ignominious  situation,  when  his  zealous  efforts 
for  the  conversion  of  his  master  being  crowned  with  fresh  success, 
he  was  treated  no  longer  as  a  servant,  but  a  brother  beloved  in  the 
Lord. 

Time  would  fail  us  "  to  enumerate  all  the  various  channels 
through  which  the  benevolence  of  the  primitive  Christians  flowed. 
Some  dedicated  themselves  to  the  task  of  searching  out  desolate  or- 
phans, helpless  widows,  unfortunate  tradesmen,  and  heathen  found- 
lings— in  those  times  the  most  numerous  class  of  unfortunates.  Some 
carried  their  charity  so  far  as  to  sit  on  the  highways,  or  hire  persons 
whose  office  was  to  perambulate  the  fields,  for  the  purpose  of  direct- 
ing wanderers,  and  especially  benighted  travellers,  into  the  way; 
while  others  delighted  to  lead  the  blind,  to  succor  the  bruised,  and 
to  carry  home  such  as  were  lame,  maimed,  and  unable  to  walk. 

Various  were  the  sources  whence  the  Christians  drew  the  ample 
means  necessary  to  enable  them  to  prosecute  so  extensive  a  system 
of  benevolence.  The  most  steady  and  available  fund  was  the  com- 
mon treasury  of  the  church,  which  was  supplied  every  Sabbath  by 
the  voluntary 'contributions  of  the  faithful,  and  out  of  which  there 
was  a  weekly  distribution  of  alms  to  multitudes  of  widows,  orphans, 
and  old  people,  who  were  stated  pensioners  on  her  bounty.  In  cases 
of  great  or  public  calamity,  fasts  were  appointed,  which  by  the  sav- 
ing efTected  in  the  daily  expenses  of  all,  even  of  the  poor,  were  an 
approved  and  certain  means  of  raising  an  extraordinary  collection, 
and  when  that  was  found  insufficient  to  meet  the  emergency,  it  not 
unfrequently  happened  that  the  pastors  sold  or  melted  the  gold  and 
silver  plate  that  had  been  presented  to  their  churches  for  sacred  pur- 
poses. Many  persons  too,  were  in  the  habit  of  observing  in  private, 
quarterly,  monthly,  or  weekly  fasts,  on  which  occasions,  they  either 
took  little  food  or  none  at  all,  and  transmitted  the  amount  of  their 
daily  expenditure  to  the  funds  of  the  church,  while  others  voluntarily 
bound  themselves  to  set  aside  a  tenth  part  of  their  income  for  the 

50 


394  CHARACTER  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANS. 

use  of  the  poor,  and  placed  it,  in  like  manner,  in  the  church's  trea- 
sury. Besides,  there  were  many  wealtliy  individuals  who,  on  their 
conversion  to  Cliristianity,  from  a  spirit  of  ardent  gratitude  to  the 
Saviour,  sold  their  estates,  and  betaking  themselves  to  manual  labor 
or  to  the  preaching  of  the  Word,  devoted  the  price  of  their  properly 
to  benevolent  purposes.  Others,  who  gave  up  their  patrimony  to 
objects  of  christian  benevolence,  chose  to  retain  the  management  in 
their  own  hands  ;  as  for  example,  a  rich  merchant  who  with  part  of 
his  money  built  a  spacious  house,  and  with  the  rest  of  it  entertained 
all  strangers  travelling  in  his  neighborhood,  took  charge  of  the  sick, 
supported  the  aged  and  infirm,  gave  slated  alms  to  the  poor,  and  on 
every  Saturday  and  Sabbath  caused  several  tables  to  be  furnished 
for  the  refreshment  of  all  who  needed  his  bounty. 

§  10.  TiiEiK  Hospitality  and  mode  of  Salutation. 

It  is  impossible  to  speak  in  terms  of  less  admiration  of  the  hospi- 
tality exercised  in  that  age  towards  christian  strangers.  The  follow- 
ers of  Christ,  how  widely  soever  they  were  scattered  throughout  the 
world,  were  then  united  as  one  great  family,  and  agreeing,  as  they 
did,  in  the  happiest  spirit  of  concord,  to  regard  any  local  varieties  of 
custom  as  matters  of  indifference,  kept  up  a  constant  and  friendly 
correspondence  with  all  the  branches  of  the  church  universal,  so  that 
whenever  any  of  them  went  abroad,  either  on  their  own  private  af- 
fairs, or  on  missions  connected  with  the  state  and  progress  of  reli- 
gion, they  were  received  with  open  arms  by  the  Clwistians  of  the 
place  as  brethren.  Go  under  whatever  name  they  might,  and  travel 
to  the  remotest  places,  among  people  of  foreign  manners  and  an  un- 
known tongue,  the  pilgrims  of  the  faith  were  sure,  whenever  they 
met  with  a  Christian,  to  find  a  friend,  whose  house  would  be  thrown 
open  for  their  reception,  whose  table  would  be  spread  for  their  en- 
tertainment, and  who  would  welcome  them  with  a  warmer  heart  and 
a  kindlier  smile,  than  they  were  often  met  with  by  their  kinsmen 
and  acquaintance  at  home.  In  the  eyes  of  the  unconverted,  it 
seemed  an  inexplicable  mystery,  that  men,  who,  as  Jews,  had  felt  a 
contempt  for  all  other  people,  and,  as  Gentiles,  would  not  enjoy  the 
hearth  in  common  with  strangers,  should  be  on  terms  of  the  closest 
friendship  with  Christians,  indiscriminately  of  every  color  and  of 
every  name  ;  and  they  looked  upon  it  as  accomplished  by  some  se- 


HOSriTALITY  AND  MODE  OF  SALUTATION.  395 

cret  token, — the  watchword  of  a  deep  and  wide-spread  conspiracy, 
— when  they  saw  the  hand  of  fellowship  given,  and  the  rites  of  hos- 
pitality performed  hy  such  people  to  foreigners,  whose  person  and 
character  had  been  previously  unknown  to  them.  The  heathen 
knew  nothing  of  those  inward  feelings,  that  brotherly  love,  that  fel- 
lowship of  the  Spirit,  which  created  between  the  Christians  spiritual 
ties,  independent  alike  of  the  natural  and  political  boundaries  of  the 
earth,  and  one  manifestation  of  which  was  their  pleasure  and  fheir 
readiness  to  open  their  doors,  and  render  every  hospitable  attention 
to  those  of  the  same  faith  from  all  quarters  of  the  world.  The 
way  was  for  a  traveller,  on  arriving  at  any  town,  to  seek  out  the 
church,  in  or  about  which  liberal  accommodation  was  always  provi- 
ded, both  for  the  temporal  and  spiritual  comforts  of  the  wayfaring 
man.  But  it  was  seldom  that  the  burden  of  lodging  him  was  allowed 
to  be  borne  by  the  common  funds  of  the  church, — for  no  sooner 
was  the  news  of  his  arrival  spread  abroad,  than  the  members  vied 
with  each  other,  which  should  have  the  privilege  of  entertaining  the 
christian  stranger  at  their  homes ;  and  whatever  was  his  rank  or 
calling,  he  soon  found  himself  domiciled  with  brethren,  whose  cir- 
cumstances were  similar  to  his  own.  A  minister  was  entertained  by 
one  of  his  own  order  ;  a  mechanic  by  one  of  the  same  craft  or  sta- 
tion ;  and  even  the  poorest  would  have  been  readier,  and  have  count- 
ed it  a  greater  honor,  to  share  his  hut  and  his  crust  with  a  disciple 
like  himself,  than  to  have  sat  at  table  with  the  emperor  of  Rome. 
In  course  of  time,  however,  this  generous  and  open-hearted  hospitali- 
ty was  abused.  Persons  unworthy  to  enjoy  it — spies  and  impostors, 
under  the  assumed  name  of  Christians, — introduced  themselves  to 
the  brethren  in  distant  places,  and  by  misrepresenting  afterwards 
what  had  been  told  them  in  the  unsuspecting  confidence  of  brother- 
hood, and  circulating  calumnies  prejudicial  both  to  individuals  and 
to  the  body  of  Christians  at  large,  threatened  to  bring  on  the  church 
a  variety  of  evils, — not  the  least  of  which  would  have  been,  that  of 
putting  an  end  to  the  ancient  kindly  intercourse  with  christian  stran- 
gers, had  not  a  plan  been  happily  devised,  and  introduced  into  uni- 
versal practice,  by  which  travellers  were  known  at  once  to  be  good 
men  and  true.  The  plan  was  this :  every  one  on  setting  out  on  a 
journey,  was  furnished  by  the  minister  of.  the  church  to  which  he 
belonged  with  a  letter  of  credence  to  the  spiritual  rulers  of  the  place 
where  he   meant  to  sojourn,  the  presentation  of  which  having  satis- 


396  CHARACTER  OF  THE  TKIMITIVE  CHRISTIANS. 

fied  them  as  to  his  christian  character,  was  instantly  followed  by  a 
welcome  invitation  to  partake  of  the  hospitality  of  the  church  or  the 
brethren.  To  prevent  forgeries,  these  letters  were  folded  in  a  par- 
ticular form,  which  procured  them  the  name  of  lUerae  formatae,  be- 
sides containing  some  secret  marks  within,  by  which  the  Christians 
of  foreign  parts  knew  them  to  be  genuine.  By  these  testimonials, 
slightly  varied  in  external  appearance  according  to  their  several  pur- 
poses,— such,  for  instance,  as  their  certifying  the  bearer's  claim 
merely  to  the  common  entertainment  of  Christians,  or  his  right  to 
participate  in  all  the  privileges  of  the  church,  or  his  being  sent  on 
some  embassy  pertaining  to  the  common  faith,  Christians  were  ad- 
mitted to  the  fellowship  of  their  brethren  in  all  parts  of  the  world, — 
were  treated  by  the  family  that  received  them  as  one  of  themselves, 
had  their  feet  washed  by  the  wife  on  their  first  arrival,  and  at  their 
departure  were  an.xiously  and  tenderly  committed  to  the  divine  care, 
in  a  prayer  by  the  master  of  the  house.  This  last  was  a  never-fail- 
ing part  of  the  hospitality  of  the  times  ;  and  to  liave  betrayed  any 
symptoms  of  preferring  the  temporal  good  cheer  of  the  friendly  host 
to  his  parting  benediction,  would  have  been  a  death-blow  to  the  fur- 
ther credit  of  the  stranger. 

In  the  general  intercourse  of  society,  the  primitive  Christians,  act- 
ing according  to  the  rules  of  Scripture,  were  careful  to  render  to  all 
their  dues  ;  honor  to  whom  honor  is  due,  tribute  to  whom  tribute, 
and  to  practise  everything  that  is  just,  honest,  and  of  good  report. 
Their  salutations  to  one  another  were  made  by  imprinting  on  each 
other's  cheek  a  kiss, — the  token  of  love — the  emblem  of  brother- 
hood ;  and  this,  except  in  times  of  trouble  and  persecution,  when 
they  hastily  recognised  each  other  by  the  secret  sign  of  the  cross, 
was  the  constant,  and  the  only  form  observed  by  Christians  when 
they  met  together.  It  was  practised  in  their  private  houses,  at  their 
public  meetings,  and,  indeed,  on  all  suitable  occasions,  though  it  was 
considered  better  and  more  prudent  to  dispense  with  it  on  the  public 
streets,  to  avoid  giving  unnecessary  offence  to  their  heathen  fellow- 
citizens.  Whenever  they  met  their  pastor,  they  were  accustomed, 
from  the  earliest  times,  to  bow  their  heads  to  receive  his  blessing, — 
a  ceremony  which,  in  later  times,  when  increased  respect  was  paid 
to  the  clerical  order,  was  accompanied  with  kissing  his  hands  and 
embracing  his  feet. 


rATlENCli  UNDER  INJURIES.  397 


§  11.  Their  patience  under  Injuries. 

Let  the  reader  place  himself,  by  an  eflurt  of  imagination,  in  the 
state  of  society  in  which  tlie  Christians  lived  ;  let  him  figure  to  his 
mind  an  humble,  unobtrusive,  and  peaceable,  but  somewhat  peculiar 
class  of  people,  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  multitudes  knowing  little 
or  nothing  of  them  or  their  principles,  and  from  the  little  they  knew, 
feeling  a  sovereign  contempt  for  both,  which  the  heathen  were  al- 
lowed with  impunity  to  take  every  opportunity  of  expressing,  by 
jostling  thertf  on  the  streets — pointing  to  them  with  the  finger  of  ridi- 
cule— addressing  them  by  cant  terms  of  reproach,  and  persecuting 
them  by  a  thousand  petty  annoyances  in  every-day  life,  and  he  will 
form  some  idea  of  the  severe  ordeal  to  which  the  patience  of  the 
primitive  Christians  was  daily  subjected.  But  inured  as  they  were 
to  calumny  and  reproach,  and  taught  to  expect  these  as  the  inheri- 
tance in  this  life  of  all  who  will  live  godly  in  Christ  Jesus,  they  bore 
them  with  meekness,  and  sought  deliverance  from  the  malice  of 
their  enemies  by  no  other  weapons  than  that  of  exemplifying  the  ex- 
cellence of  their  principles  by  the  dignified  and  holy  propriety  of 
their  lives.  Their  property,  their  liberty,  and  even  their  lives,  they 
freely  surrendered,  rather  than  lose  that  peace  of  mind  which  they 
found  in  the  performance  of  christian  duty,  or  sutler  those  principles 
to  be  violated,  which  they  valued  more  highly  than  their  dearest  pos- 
sessions. Some  of  them,  indeed,  from  a  mistaken  interpretation  of 
several  passages  of  Scripture,  carried  their  views  of  christian  obedi- 
ence so  far,  as  when  smote  upon  the  one  cheek,  to  turn  the  other, 
and  when  robbed  of  their  coat,  to  give  the  cloak  also.  But  the  great 
majority  of  them  more  wisely  considering  these  as  proverbial  forms 
of  speech  designed  to  inculcate  a  general  spirit  of  patience  and  for- 
bearance, scrupled  not  to  defend  themselves  from  violence  and  ra- 
pine whensoever  assailed  ;  to  avail  themselves  of  the  protection  and 
redress  of  their  wrongs,  which  the  laws  of  their  country  afforded, 
and  to  assert,  as  Paul  did  before  them,  wiien  occasion  required,  the 
rights  of  citizenship  against  the  arbitrary  procedure  of  the  magis- 
trates themselves.  In  matters  of  dispute,  however,  between  one 
another,  the  Christians  seldom  or  never  resorted  to  the  tribunals  of 
the  heathen  deputies,  but  were  in  the  habit  of  submitting  their  sub- 
jects of  contention  to  the  arbitration  of  some  of  their  christian  breth- 


398 


CHARACTER  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANS. 


ren.  From  the  earliest  times,  this  office  of  arbiter  was,  by  common 
consent,  devolved  on  the  pastors  of  the  church  ;  and  hence,  as  the 
degree  of  respect  and  veneration  in  which  the  sacred  order  was 
held  increased  rather  than  diminished  in  the  succeeding  centuries, 
and  as  such  unbounded  contidence  was  placed  in  their  christian  wis- 
dom and  impartiality,  that  all  parties  were  disposed  cheerfully  to  ac- 
quiesce in  the  awards  of  the  spiritual  judges, — one  constant  source 
of  employment  to  the  bishops  of  the  primitive  church  was  the  deter- 
mination of  secular  causes  referred  to  them  by  the  members  of 
their  flock.  Ambrose  and  Augustine  have  both  left  it  upon  record, 
that  they  devoted  the  early  part  of  every  day  to  hearing  and  con- 
sidering the  disputed  points  on  which  they  were  requested  to  sit  in 
judgment.  Such  being  the  popular  influence  of  the  christian  minis- 
ters ;  and  the  good  effects  of  the  prudence,  mildness,  and  integrity, 
that  characterized  their  arbitrations  being  so  manifest,  the  power 
was  legally  conferred  on  them,  after  the  establishment  of  Christianity, 
of  deciding  all  secular  and  other  causes,  with  the  exception  of  crim- 
inal cases  alone,  wliich,  as  more  immediately  affecting  the  peace 
and  tranquility  of  the  state,  the  emperors  reserved  to  themselves  and 
their  deputies. 

We  close  this  rapid  sketch  of  the  social  manners  of  the  primitive 
Christians,  with  the  high  tribute  paid  to  their  public  and  civic  virtues 
by  two  of  their  contemporaries,  whose  e.xalted  rank  and  strong  pre- 
dilections for  heathenism  give  a  weight  to  their  testimony  which 
none  of  the  christian  apologists,  however  faithful  and  honest,  possess. 
The  emperor  Julian,  in  a  letter  to  Arsacius,  high  priest  of  Galatia, 
among  other  things  relating  to  the  Christians,  lakes  occasion  to  dwell 
upon  it  as  a  well  known  fact,  that  the  Christians  were  preeminent  in 
their  attentions  to  the  sick,  the  infirm,  and  the  aged, — in  their  hos- 
pitality to  strangers,  in  their  peaceable  deportment  to  others,  and 
their  pious  care  of  the  dead;  and  presses  home  on  his  illustrious 
correspondent,  that  there  was  no  hope  of  paganism  regaining  the  as- 
cendency, except  by  its  adherents,  especially  the  priests,  imitating 
the  virtues  of  the  Christians,  in  abstaining  from  the  theatre,  the  tav- 
ern, and  all  scandalous  pursuits  and  pleasures, — in  a  diligent  atten- 
tion to  business,  charity  to  the  indigent,  and  a  hospitable  entertain- 
ment of  the  friendless  and  the  stranger.  The  emperor  Severus  pas- 
sed, perhaps,  a  higher  eulogy  than  even  this  of  Julian,  on  the  social 
manners  of  the  Christians.     Observing  the  excellence  of  their  con- 


OF  CHRISTIAN  MARRIAGES.  399 

duct,  as  citizens,  soldiers,  and  servants,  and  their  fidelity  in  every 
departnnent  of  public  and  private  life,  he  inquired  into  their  princi- 
ples ;  and  having  been  informed  that  one  grand  rule  of  theirs  was, 
"  Not  to  do  to  others  what  they  would  not  have  done  to  themselves," 
he  was  so  charmed  with  it,  that  at  ail  public  executions  he  ordered 
it  to  be  proclaimed  aloud  by  a  herald,  and  caused  it  to  be  inscribed, 
in  legible  characters,  on  the  walls  of  his  palace,  and  on  all  public 
buildings,  that  in  every  street,  and  on  every  occasion,  his  subjects 
might  not  be  without  so  excellent  a  monitor  to  regulate  their  social 
manners. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


§  1.  Of  Christian  Marriage. 

The  laws  of  christian  marriage  seem,  at  first  view,  to  be  derived 
from  the  Mosaic  regulations  on  this  subject,  and  yet  it  is  remarkable 
that,  until  the  sixth  or  seventh  century,  the  marriages  of  the  early 
Christians  were  regulated  rather  by  the  Roman  than  by  the  Mosaic 
laws.  But  all  this  was  only  the  natural  result  of  the  peculiar  circum- 
stances under  which  the  christian  community  was  formed.  Converts 
from  the  Jews  might  be  expected  to  adhere  to  the  Jewish  rites, 
whilst  those  from  the  Gentiles  would  conform  to  the  Roman  laws 
and  customs.  For  this  reason  the  marriages  of  the  christian  church 
were  of  a  mixed  character,  in  which  the  influence  of  the  Roman  law 
was,  at  first,  predominant.  By  this  law,  as  well  as  by  the  law  of 
Christ,  polygamy  was  strictly  forbidden.-  In  many  other  respects, 
it  was  also  so  far  conformed  to  the  law  of  God,  that  many  of  the 
early  fathers  scrupled  not  to  borrow  from  it  some  of  the  most  impor- 
tant marriage  ceremonies  ;  and  objected  to  the  adoption  of  heathen 
customs,  in  this  respect,  only  so  far  as  they  militated  against  the 
spirit  of  Christianity."' 

Much  controversy  prevailed  in  the  ancient  church  on  the  subject 
of  second  marriages,  particularly  with  the  Novatians  and  Montanists, 
who  denounced  such  marriages  as  unlawful.     This  opinion  was  also 


400 


OF  MAERIAGE. 


upheld  by  many  councils.''  A  concession  in  favor  of  second  mar- 
riages was  afterwards  made  to  the  laity,  but  refused  to  the  clergy.^ 
The  law  of  celibacy  finally  rendered  this  rule  nugatory  with  respect 
to  the  priesthood. 

The  celibacy  of  the  clergy  was  gradually  established.  It  was  at 
first  partially  adopted  in  compliance  with  the  advice  of  zealous 
leaders  of  the  church,  who  judged  it  expedient,  or  supposed  it  to  tend 
to  the  promotion  of  piety ;  afterwards  it  was  represented  as  a  moral 
duty,  and  was  enforced  by  the  decrees  of  councils  ;  and  at  last  it 
was  enjoined  and  established  by  the  papal  authority  of  Hildebrand 
in  the  eleventh  century.  The  constrained  celibacy  of  the  clergy, 
therefore,  does  not  come  within  the  range  of  christian  antiquities ; 
and  the  whole  question  belongs  rather  to  a  history  of  the  opinions 
and  doctrines  of  the  church,  than  to  a  survey  of  its  institutions  and 
practices. 

The  state  claimed  the  right  of  regulating  the  laws  of  marriage  ; 
the  church  at  the  same  time  possessing  a  subordinate  or  concurrent 
jurisdiction.  This  concurrence,  however,  was  chiefly  of  a  negative 
and  passive  character,  and  was  the  occasion  of  continual  discord 
between  church  and  state.  For  the  first  five  centuries  the  church 
had  no  farther  concern  with  the  laws  of  marriage  than  to  censure 
them,  as  occasion  required,  and  to  restrict  the  observance  of  them, 
by  her  discipline  and  authority.  The  laws  of  the  stale  and  the  regu- 
lations of  the  church,  on  this  subject,  were  first  made  to  harmonize 
under  the  emperor  Justinian.  Under  the  dynasty  of  Charles,  the 
sanction  of  the  church  was  fully  established  while  the  law  still  origi- 
nated with  the  state.^  In  the  middle  ages,  from  the  tenth  to  the  six- 
teenth centuries,  the  church  possessed  a  preponderating  influence  in 
these  matters ;  but  even  then,  her  claim  to  an  exclusive  jurisdiction 
was  neither  asserted  nor  allowed.  To  assert  this  prerogative  was 
regarded  as  a  direct  attack  upon  the  state.'^  In  protestant  states  it  is 
regarded  as  a  civil  institution,  established  in  conformity  with  the  law 
of  God,  and  appropriately  solemnized  by  the  rites  of  religion. 

The  regulations  in  relation  to  prohibited  marriages  were,  in  the 
lapse  of  time,  gradually  assimilated  to  the  law  of  Moses  ;  but  these 
have  never  been  strictly  observed  in  the  christian  church.  The 
canonists  have  very  carefully  specified  the  several  degrees  of  con- 
sanguinity and  affinity  within  w^hich  marriage  could  not  lawfully  be 
contracted.     They  were  thirteen  in  number,  whilst  under  the  Mo- 


OF  DIVORCE.  401 

saic  economy  they  were  seventeen,  or  according  to  others  nineteen. 

The  prohibited  grades,  in  the  ancient  church,  are  comprised  in  the 

following  lines  : 

Nata,  soror,  ncptis,  matcrtcra  fratris  et  uxor 
Et  patrui  conjux,  mater,  privigna,  noverca 
Uxorisque  soror,  privigni  nata,  nurusque 
Atque  soror  patris  ;  conjungi  lege  vetantur. 

Whether  it  is  lawful  to  marry  a  brotlier's  wife,  or  a  wife's  sister, 
was  a  question  much  controverted  in  the  church.  The  general  sense 
of  the  church  was  against  such  connections,  as  appears  from  the  dis- 
pensation which  was  made  in  such  cases  in  favor  of  the  clergy.  This 
point  has  been  discussed  at  length  by  Schlegel.^'^ 

Mixed  marriages  between  the  Jews  and  Gentiles  were  strictly 
prohibited  by  the  law  of  Moses.  This  prohibition  is  not  repeated  in 
the  New  Testament  in  regard  to  the  marriage  of  Christians  with 
idolaters.  The  apostle  Paul,  however,  decidedly  objects  to  such 
connections  as  inexpedient,  1  Cor.  vii.  2  Cor.  6:  14 — 18.  The  early 
fathers  denounced  them  as  dangerous  and  immoral  ;^  and  they  were, 
at  a  later  period,  positively  prohibited  by  the  decrees  of  councils  and 
the  laws  of  the  empire.^''  By  these  regulations  it  was  unlawful  for 
Christians  to  marry  either  Jews,  pagans,  Mohammedans  or  heretics.^' 
If,  however,  such  marriages  had  already  been  contracted,  they  ap- 
pear not  to  have  been  annulled  upon  the  conversion  of  either  party 
to  Christianity.  There  are  indeed  examples  of  the  violation  of  these 
rules,  as  in  the  case  of  Monica,  the  mother  of  Augustine,  and  Clotil- 
dis,  the  wife  of  Clovis,  both  of  whom  were  instrumental  in  the  con- 
version of  their  husbands.i^ 

§  2.  Of  Divorce. 

On  this  subject  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  the  church,  with  few  ex- 
ceptions, has  uniformly  adhered  to  the  rules  laid  down  by  our  Lord 
and  his  apostles,  Mark  10:  2,  12.  Luke  16:  18.  Matt.  5:  31,32.  19: 
2—10.  1  Cor.  7:  10,  11.  Rom.  7:  2,  3.  But  under  the  term  adul- 
tery the  primitive  church  included  idolatry  and  apostasy  from  the 
Christian  faith,^  to  which  may  be  added  witchcraft  and  other  magical 
arts.  The  laws  of  Constantine,  Honorius,  Theodosius  the  younger, 
Valentinian  the  Third,  Anastasius,  and  Justinian,  also  favor  this  con- 
struction.-     The  canonists   enumerate  twelve  causes  of  divorce, 

51 


402  OF  MARRIAGE. 

which  are  also  regarded  as  suitable  reasons  for  not  assuming  the 
marriage  vow,  imjjedimenta  quae  matrimonium  conlrahendum  impedi- 
unt  et  contractuin  dirimunl.  The  same  causes  which  are  a  bar  to 
assuming  the  marriage  covenant  dissolve  it.  These  causes  are  set 
forth  in  the  following  lines  : 

Error,  conditio,  votum,  cognatio,  crimen, 
Cnltus  disparitas,  vis,  ordo,  ligamen,  bonestas, 
Si  sis  adfinis ;  si  forte  coire  nequibis  (al  negabis) 

The  reader  is  directed,  in  the  index,  to  a  full  explanation  of  these 
terms.3 

The  error  relates  to  a  mistake  in  regard  to  the  parties,  as  in  the 
case  of  Leah  and  Rachel,  conditio  to  the  marriage  of  freemen  with 
those  who  are  in  bondage,  cognatio  to  prohibit  degrees  of  consan- 
guinity, votum  and  ordo  relate  to  the  marriage  of  monastics,  ligamen 
to  cases  of  bigamy,  honestas  to  prohibited  connections  between  per- 
sons already  related  by  marriage. 

'^  3.    Marriage  Eites  and  Ceremonies. 

It  vv^as  a  rule  of  the  primitive  church  that  the  parties  who  were 
about  to  be  united  in  marriage,  both  male  and  female,  should  signify 
their  intentions  to  their  pastor,  that  the  connection  might  be  formed 
with  his  approbation.  The  church  were  expected,  in  this  manner, 
not  only  to  take  cognizance  of  the  proposed  marriage,  but  to  deter- 
mine whether  it  was  duly  authorized  by  the  principles  of  the  chris- 
tian religion.  The  marriage  was  indeed  valid  in  law  without  this 
ecclesiastical  sanction  ;  but  it  was  open  to  censure  from  the  church, 
and  was  followed  by  the  imposition  of  penance,  or  the  sentence  of 
excommunication.* 

This  notice  originally  answered  the  purpose  of  a  public  procla- 
mation in  the  church.     No  satisfactory  indication  of  the  modern  cus- 

*  UgsTtEi,  ds  toiq  yctfioiitn  xal  xaig  yotfiovaatg  ixsTci  yvojfAtjg  tov  iniaxo- 
nov  ji)v  ivoitriv  noifia&at,,  'iva  o  yayog  y  xaxu  KvQtov,  xai  (it]  y.ax  ini— 
&vfilav.  Ignat.  Ej).  ad.  Polycarp.  ii.  5. — Unde  sufiicianius  ad  enarrandam 
felicitatem  ejus  matrimonii,  quod  ecclesia  conciliat,  et  confirmat  oblatio,  et 
obsignat  benedictio,  Angeli  renuntiant.  pater  rato  habet  ?  Nam  nee  in  ter- 
ris  filii  sine  consensu  patrum  rite  ct  jusle  nubont.  Tertull.  ad  Ihor.  lib.  ii. 
c.  8,  9. — Occultae  conjunctiones,  id  est,  non  prius  apud  ecclesiam  professae, 
juxta  moechiam  et  fornicationem  judicari  periclitantur.  Tertull.  De  Pudi- 
cit.  c.  4.^ 


MARIUAGE  KITES  AND  CE KEAIONIES.  403 

torn  of  publishing  the  banns  appears  in  the  history  of  the  church  un- 
til the  twelfth  century,  when  it  was  required  by  the  authority  of  eccle- 
siastical councils.^  According  to  the  rules  of  the  Romish  churcii, 
this  publishment  should  be  made  on  three  market  days.  In  some 
countries  the  banns  were  published  three  limes;  in  others,  twice  ; 
and  in  others,  once.  The  intentions  of  marriage  were  sometimes 
posted  upon  the  doors  or  other  parts  of  the  church  ;  sometimes  pub- 
lished at  the  close  of  the  sermon  or  before  singing.  The  word 
banns,  according  io  Du  Cange,  means  a  public  notice  or  proclama- 
tion. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  no  distinct  account  of  the  mode  of  sol- 
emnizing marriage,  nor  any  prescribed  form  for  this  purpose  is  found 
in  any  of  the  early  ecclesiastical  writers,  although  they  have  many 
allusions  to  particular  marriage  rites  and  ceremonies.  It  appears 
that  the  propriety  or  necessity  of  religious  exercises  in  solemnizing 
the  marriage  covenant,  was  not  recognized  by  the  civil  law  until  the 
ninth  century  ;  but  that  such  religious  rites  were  required  by  the 
church  as  early  as  the  second  century.* 

The  rites  of  marriage  in  the  ancient  Greek  church  were  essen- 
tially three  :  the  sponsalia — the  espousals,  the  investing  with  a  crown, 
and  the  laying  off  of  the  crown. 

1.  The  ceremony  of  the  espousals  was  as  follows  :  the  priest,  af- 
ter crossing  himself  three  times  upon  the  breast,  presents  the  bridal 
pair,  standing  in  the  body  of  the  house,  each  with  a  lighted  wax  can- 
dle, and  then  proceeds  to  the  altar,  where  he  offers  incense  from  a 
cruciformed  censer,  after  which  the  larger  collect  is  sung  with  the 
responses  and  doxologies. 

Then  follows  the  ceremony  of  presenting  the  ring.  With  a  gol- 
den ring  the  priest  makes  a  sign  of  the  cross  upon  the  head  of  the 
bridegroom,  and  then  places  it  upon  a  finger  of  his  right  hand,  thrice 
repeating  these  words  :  "  This  servant  of  the  Lord  espouses  this 
handmaid  of  the  Lord,  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  both  now  and  forever,  world  without  end,  Amen." 
In  like  manner,  and  with  the  same  form  of  words,  he  presents  the 


*  Cum  ipsum  conjugium  velamine  sacerdotali  et  benedictione  sanctificari 
oporteat,  quoinodo  potest  conjugium  dici  ubi  nonest  fidei  concodia?  Jimbros., 
Ep.  70. — Etiamsi  nostrae  ahsolutac  sit  polestatis  quainlibet  puellam  in  con- 
jugium tradere,  tradi  a  nobis  Cbristianam  nisi  Christiano  iion  posse.  .'Jrigus- 
tin.,  Ep.  234,  ad  Rusticum.  —  Jtov—if(jta?  xakth';  xai  ^i  fyojv  iv?.oyi(^ir  t?/V 
otiot'oiav  Tov  awoiy.talov  avarpyytiv  x   r  /..^ 


404  OF  MARRIAGE. 

bride  a  silver  ring.  The  grooms-man  then  changes  the  rings,  whilst 
the  priest,  in  a  long  prayer,  sets  forth  the  import  of  the  rings.  After 
which  the  whole  is  closed  with  a  prescribed  form  of  prayer.  These 
espousals  usually  took  place  some  time  previous  to  the  consumma- 
tion of  the  marriage.  According  to  some  authorities  two  years  usu- 
ally intervened  between  the  espousals  and  the  marriage. 

2.  The  act  of  crowning  the  parlies  was  appropriately  the  initiatory 
rite  in  solemnizing  the  marriage  covenant.  The  preliminaries  of 
this  were  the  same  as  those  of  the  espousals,  with  4he  exception  that 
in  this  instance  the  128th  psalm  was  sung  with  the  responses  and 
doxologies.  After  this  a  discourse  was  delivered  setting  forth  the 
importance  and  responsibilities  of  the  marriage  relation.  Then  va- 
rious interrogaiions,  relating  to  the  marriage  covenant  and  the  un- 
married state,  were  presented  :  next  followed  the  larger  collects,  va- 
ried according  to  circumstances  ;  after  which  a  long  prayer  was  of- 
fered, in  three  parts,  each  of  which  was  announced  in  the  customary 
form  by  the  deacon,  tou  kvqIov  dsi'i&tofiEv.  After  this,  the  priest  sets 
the  nuptial  crowns,  which  have  been  lying  on  the  altar,  first  upon  the 
head  of  the  bridegroom  and  then  upon  that  of  the  bride,  saying, 
"  This  servant  of  the  Lord  hereby  crowns  this  handmaid  of  the  Lord? 
in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
world  without  end,  Amen."  This  ceremony  is  followed  by  prayers, 
doxologies,  and  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures,  particularly  Eph.  5: 
20 — 33  and  John  2:  1 — 11,  and  the  alternate  prayers  of  the  priest 
and  the  deacon.  The  whole  is  concluded  by  the  assembly,  repeat- 
ing the  Lord's  prayer  with  the  cu.stomary  responses  ;  and  the  usual 
form  of  benediction. 

During  these  solemnities  the  priest  presents  to  the  newly  married 
couple  a  glass  of  wine,  of  which  each  drinks  three  times,  and  then 
the  glass  is  immediately  broken,  to  denote  the  transitory  nature  of  all 
earthly  things. 

The  minister  then  joins  the  hands  of  the  parties,  and  leads  them 
three  times  around  in  a  circle,  whilst  the  whole  assembly  unite  in 
singing  a  nuptial  song,  the  grooms-man  meanwhile  accompanying  the 
married  couple  with  his  hands  resting  upon  their  heads,  which  are 
still  adorned  with  the  crown. 

3.  The  laying  off  of  the  croion.  Upon  the  eighth  day,  the  mar- 
ried pair  present  themselves  again  in  the  church,  when  the  minister, 
with  appropriate  prayer,  lays  oft'  the  nuptial  crown,  and  dismisses 


REMARKS  UPON  THE  MARRIAGE  RITES.  405 

them  with  his  benediction,  offered  in  a  prescribed  form  of  words. 
This  ceremony  however  was  not  uniformly  observed. 

In  all  these  rites  the  reader  will  observe  a  studied  analogy  to  those 
of  baptism. 

The  second  and  third  marriage  was  solemnized  in  much  the  same 
manner,  the  ceremonies  being  abridged,  and  the  prayer  of  penance 
substituted  in  the  place  of  the  nuptial  prayer.  The  church  thus 
treated  these  as  just  occasions  for  discipline,  and  refused  altogether 
to  sanction  a  fourth  marriage,  but  regarded  it  as  a  criminal  offence. 

§  4.  Remarks  upon  the  marriage  Rites  and  Ceremonies  of  the 
Ancient  Church. 

In  the  works  of  early  ecclesiastical  writers,  especially  in  those  of 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  Tertullian,  Augustine,  Jerome,  Basil,  and 
Chrysostom,  we  find  many  allusions  to  particular  rites  and  ceremo- 
nies, but  no  entire,  or  general  account  of  them.  In  the  former  part 
of  the  seventh  century,  a  writer  attempted  to  enumerate  the  mar- 
riage ceremonies  which  the  church  had  recognized  as  innocent  and 
convenient,  or  symbolical. ^  We  possess  also  an  oflicial  account 
of  the  ceremonies  used  in  the  Roman  church,  A.  D.  860,  from  the 
pen  of  the  pope  Nicolas  I.* 

*  Morem  quern  sancta  Romana  suscepit  antiquitus  et  hactenus  in  hujus- 
modi  conjunctionibus  tenet  ecclesia,  vobis  monstrare  stiidebimus.  Nostra- 
tes  siquidem  tarn  mares  qnam  t'eininae  non  ligaturam  auream,  vol  argenteam, 
aut  ex  quolibet  nietallo  composilain,  quando  niiptialia  focdera  contrahunt, 
in  capita  dcf'erunt.  Sed  post  sponsalia,  quae  f'uturaruni  sunt  nuptiarum 
promissa  foedera,  quaecunque  consensu  eorum,  qui  haec  contrahunt,  et  eo- 
rum,  in  quorum  potentate  sunt,  cclebraiitur,  et  poslquam  arrhis  sponsani  sibi 
sponsus  per  digltum  fidei  a  se  annulo  insignitum  desponderit,  dotemque  utri- 
que  placitam  sponsus  ei  cura  scripto  pactum  hoc  continente  coram  invilatis 
ab  utroque  parte  tradiderit ;  aut  mox,  aut  apto  tempore,  ne  videhcet  ante 
tempus  lege  definitum  tale  quid  fieri  praesumatur,  ambo  ad  nuptialia  foedera 
perducuntur.  £t  primum  in  ecclesia  Domini  cum  oblationibus,  quas  offerre 
debent  Deo  per  sacerdotis  manuni,  statuuntur,  sicque  demum  benedictio- 
nem  et  velamen  coeleste  suscipiunt.  .  .  .  Verumtamen  velamen  illud  non 
suscipit,  qui  ad  secundas  nuptias  migrat.  Post  haec  autem  de  ecclesia  egres- 
si  coronas  in  capitibus  gestant  quae  in  ecclesia  ipsa  sunt  solitae  reservari. 
Et  ita  festis  nuptialibus  celebratis  ad  ducendam  individuam  vitam  Domino 
disponente  de  cetero  diriguntur.  .  .  .  Tanta  solet  arctare  quosdam  rernm  in- 
opia,  ut  ad  haec  praeparanda  nullum  his  suft'ragetur  auxilium  :  ac  per  hoc 


406  OF  BIARRIAGE. 

To  proceed  however  with  our  general  remarks.  1.  The  office 
of  grooms-man,  or  attendant  of  the  bridegroom,  is  of  high  antiquity  ; 
common  alike  to  the  Hebrews,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  He  is  desig- 
nated by  the  names  natjawfjcfog,  vvpqnymyog,  vvijq,n'T)'ic,  etc.  He 
had  various  duties  to  perform  in  connection  with  the  nuptial  con- 
tract and  dowry,  such  as  the  following, — to  accompany  the  parties 
to  the  church  at  their  marriage, — to  act  as  sponsor  for  them  in  their 
vows, — to  assist  in  the  marriage  ceremonies, — to  accompany  them 
to  the  house  of  the  bridegroom, — to  preside  over,  and  direct  the  fes- 
tivities of  the  occasion,  etc.^ 

2.  The  use  of  the  ring,  in  the  rites  both  of  espousal  and  of  mar- 
riage is  very  ancient.  It  is  mentioned  both  by  TertuUian,"^  and 
Clement  of  Alexandria  ;"*  the  latter  of  whom  says,  "  It  was  given 
her  not  as  an  ornament,  but  as  a  seal,  to  signify  the  woman's  duty 
in  preserving  the  goods  of  her  husband,  because  the  care  of  the  house 
belongs  to  her."  Isodorus  Hispalensis  says,  "  that  it  was  presented 
by  the  husband  either  as  a  pledge  of  mutual  affection,  or  rather  as  a 
token  of  the  union  of  their  hearts  in  love."^ 

3.  The  crowning  of  the  married  pair  with  garlands,  was  a  mar- 
riage rite  peculiar  to  many  nations  professing  different  forms  of  re- 
ligion. Tertullian  inveighs  against  it  with  all  the  zeal  of  a  gloomy 
Montanist  f  but  it  is  spoken  of  with  approbation  by  the  fathers  of 
the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  from  whom  it  appears  that  the  friends 
and  attendants  of  the  bridal  pair  were  adorned  in  the  same  manner.''' 
These  chaplets  were  usually  made  of  myrtle,  olive,  amarinlh,  rose- 
mary, and  evergreens  intermingled  with  cypress  and  vervain.  The 
crown,  appropriately  so  called,  was  made  of  olive,  myrtle,  and  rose- 
mary, variegated  with  flowers,  and  sometimes  with  gold  and  silver, 
pearls,  precious  stones,  etc.  These  crowns  were  constructed  in  the 
form  of  a  pyramid,  or  tower. 

Both  the  bride,  and  the  bridegroom  were  crowned  in  this  manner, 
together  with  the  grooms-man,  and  the  brides-maid.     The  bride  fre- 

sufficiat,  secundum  leges,  solus  eorum  consensus,  de  quorum  conjunctioni- 
bus  agitur.  Qui  consensus,  si  solus  in  nuptiis  forte  defuerit,  cetera  omnia 
etiam  cum  ipso  coitu  ceiebrata  frustantur.  .  .  .  Haec  sunt  praeter  alia,  quae 
ad  memoriam  non  occurrunt,  pacta  conjugiorum  solemnia.  Peccatum  au- 
tem  esse,  si  haec  cuncta  in  nuptiali  foedere  non  interveniant,  non  dicimus, 
quemadmodurn  Graecos  vos  adstruere  dicitis.— iNicol.  /.  Rcspons.  ad  Con- 
sulta  Buls''ir.  c.  3. 


REMARKS  UPON  THE  MARRIAGE  RITKS.  407 

quently  appeared  in  church  tlius  attired  on  the  day  when  proclama- 
tion of  the  banns  was  made. 

Chaplets  were  not  worn  by  tiie  parties  in  case  of  second  marriage, 
nor  by  those  who  had  been  guilty  of  impropriety  before  marriage. 

In  the  Greek  church  the  chaplets  were  imposed  by  the  ofliciating 
minister  at  the  altar.  In  the  Western  church  it  was  customary  for 
the  parties  to  present  themselves  thus  attired. 

4.  The  wearing  of  a  veil  by  the  bride,  was  borrowed  from  the 
Romans.*  It  was  also  conformable  to  the  example  of  Rebecca, 
Gen.  x.xiv. 

From  this  marriage  rite  arose  the  custom  oi  taking  the  veil  in  the 
Catholic  church.  By  this  act,  the  nun  devotes  herself  to  perpetual 
virginity  as  the  spouse  of  Christ,  the  bridegroom  of  the  church. 

5.  It  appears  to  have  been  customary  also  to  spread  a  robe  over 
the  bridegroom  and  bride,^  called  vitta  nuplialis,  pallium  jugale, 
etc.,  and  made  of  a  mixture  of  while  and  red  colors. t 

6.  Torches  and  lamps  were  in  use  on  such  occasions  both  among 
the  Jews  and  pagan  nations.^  No  mention  is  made  of  them  in  the 
church  previous  to  the  time  of  Constantine,  though  they  may  have 
been  in  use  at  an  earlier  date. 

7.  All  the  marriage  rites  and  ceremonies  indicate  that  the  day 
was  observed  as  a  festive  occasion,  while  measures  were  carefully 
taken  to  guard  against  all  excesses  and  improprieties  of  conduct. 
These  festivities  were  celebrated  by  nuptial  processions,  going  out 
to  meet  the  bridegroom  and  conducting  him  home, — by  nuptial 
songs,  and  music, ^'^  and  marriage  feasts.  These  festivals  are  fre- 
quently the  subject  of  bitter  animadversion  by  the  fathers,  especially 

*  Tertull.  De  Veland.  Virg.  lib.  xvii.  c.  11. — The  velamen  nuptiale,  of 
which  Ambrose  {Ep.  70)  says,  "  Conjugium  velamine  saccrdotali  sanctificari 
oportel,"  is  usually  regarded  as  "  signuin  pudoris  et  verecundiae."  Accord- 
ing to  Isidor.  Hispal.  {^Dc  Off.  EccL  ii.  c.  19)  it  is  rather  "  signum  humilita- 
tis  et  subjectionis  erga  maritum."  He  says,  Feminae,  dum  niaritantur,  ve- 
lantur,  ut  noverintper  hoc  se  viris  esse  subjectas  et  humiles. 

t  Qoud  nubentes  post  benedictionem  vitta  irivicern  quasi  uno  vinculo  cop- 
ulantur,  videlicet  ideo  fit,  ne  compagern  conjugalis  unitatis  disruinpant. 
Ac  eadem  vitta  candido  purpureoque  colore  periniscetur ;  candor  quippe  est 
ad  niunditiein  vitae,  purpura  ad  sanguinis  posleritatein  adhibetur,  ut  hoc 
signo  et  continentia  et  lex  conlincndi  ab  utrisque  ad  teitipus  admoneantur, 
et  post  hoc  reddendum  debitum  non  negetur. — Isidor.  Hispal.  (/e  0^".  £ccL 
lib.  ii.c.l9. 


408  FUNERAL  RITES  AND  CEREMONIES. 

by  Chrysostom,'!  and  often  called  for  the  interposition  of  the  au- 
thority of  the  church.  It  appears,  however,  that  the  efforts  of  the 
church  were,  not  to  abolish  these  convivial  entertainments  and  fes- 
tivities, but  to  restrain  them  within  the  bounds  of  decency  and  good 
order.^2  The  clergy  were  expected  to  refrain  from  attending 
them.i^* 

8.  In  connection  with  these  festivities,  it  was  customary  to  distri- 
bute alms  to  the  poor,  and  instead  of  the  old  Roman  custom  of  scat- 
tering about  nuts,  to  throw  out  pieces  of  money  to  the  children,  and 
to  the  poor. 


CHAPTER  XX. 


FUNERAL  RITES    AND  CEREMONIES.^ 


§  1.  Treatment  of  the  Dead. 

The  early  Christians  were  distinguished  by  their  care  for  the 
dead,  and  their  sympathy  with  the  afflicted.  Their  funeral  solem- 
nities they  celebrated  with  gravity  and  propriety,  with  the  intent  of 
showing  due  respect  for  the  deceased,  and  of  administering  conso- 
lation to  survivors.  These  funeral  services  were  performed  as  a 
public  religious  duty.-  This  is  one  of  the  three  points  for  which 
they  were  commended  by  the  apostate  Julian.^ 

The  christian  church  manifested,  from  the  beginning,  a  decided 
preference  for  the  custom  of  hurying  the  dead,"*  for  which  they  had 
the  example  of  Jews,  Gen.  3:  9.  23:  19.  Deut.  24:  6.  Matt.  19:  28, 
etc.  But  the  custom  of  burning  the  dead  at  that  time  prevailed 
throughout  the  Roman  empire,  to  which  they  were  zealously  oppos- 

*  Presbyteri,  diaconi,  sub-diaconia  vel  deinceps,  quibus  ducendi  uxores 
licentia  modo  non  est  etiam  aliarum  niiptiarum  evitent  convivia,  nee  his 
coetibus  miscantur  ubi  amatoria  cannntur  et  turpia,  aut  obsceni  motus  cor- 
porum  cboreis  et  saltationibus  efferuntur,  ne  auditus  etobtuilus  sacris  minis- 
teriis  deputati  turpium  spectaculorum  atque  verboruin  contagione  polluan- 
tur.— Conil.  Agath.  c.  39. 


TREATMENT  OF  THE  DEAD.  409 

ed.*  They  had  at  first,  no  separate  burying  places  ;  nor  would 
their  circumstances  admit  of  any  such  design.  The  public  burial 
places,  according  to  both  Jewish  and  Roman  laws,  were  on  the  out- 
side of  cities,5  Matt.  26:60.  Luke  7:  12.  John  11:  30.  In  the 
fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  centuries  an  open  space  around  the  church 
was  appropriated  for  the  burial  of  princes,  bishops,  and  other  clergy, 
and  afterwards  of  those  wiio  died  in  the  communion  of  the  church. 
This,  like  everything  which  was  appropriated  to  the  service  of.  the 
church,  was  formally  consecrated.  The  first  instance  of  this  kind 
occurred  in  the  sixth  century.^  In  the  ninth  century  began  the  cus- 
tom of  interring  the  dead  within  the  walls  of  the  church. 

Burial  places  were  styled  Koi^iiTt]Qia,  places  of  repose,  cemeteries, 
denoting  hereby,  not  only  that  the  dead  rest  from  their  earthly  la- 
bors and  sorrows ;  but  pointing  out  the  hope  of  a  future  resurrec- 
tion.7  The  grave  yard  was  also  styled  the  Lord^s  ground,  because 
it  enjoyed  the  immunities  of  the  church,  or  more  properly  perhaps, 
because  of  the  sacred  communion  which  those  who  sleep  in  the 
Lord  were  supposed  to  hold  with  him. 

The  church  did  not  approve  of  the  custom  of  interring  the  dead 


*  The  Romans,  in  ancient  times,  used  to  bury  tlieir  dead.  The  dictator 
Cornelius  Sylla  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  among  them  whose  corpse 
was  burnt,  and  that  was  done  in  compliance  with  his  own  desire.  After- 
wards this  practice  became  general,  especially  among  the  higher  orders  ; 
and  continued  to  prevail  until  the  fourth  century  of  the  Christian  era.  Cic. 
De  LeiriT.  ii.  c.  25 ;  Virg.  Mti.  vi.  177  ;— Plin.  Hist.  J^'ut.  vii.  c.  54,  "  ipsum 
cremare  apud  Romanos  non  fait  veteris  instituti,  terra  condiebantur  ;"'— 
conf.  Plutarch.  Fit.  Kiimae  ;  Stobaei,  Serw..  122 ;  Macrob.  Saturn,  vii.  c.  7; 
Cod.  Theodos.  lib.  ix.  tit  6,  leg.  6.— The  first  Roman  emperor  whose  corpse 
was  interred  was  Commodus,  as  we  learn  from  Xlphilinus.  The  early  Chris- 
tians protested  against  the  custom  of  burning  the  bodies  of  the  dead,  and  ad- 
vocated inhumation,— a  practice  which  was  always  observed  in  the  christian 
church.— Corpus  omne,  sive  arescit  in  pulverem,  sive  in  humorem  solvitur, 
vel  in  cinerem  comprimitur,  vel  in  nidorem  tenuatur,  subducitur  nobis  ;  sed 
Deo,  elenientorum  custodi,  reservatur.  Nee,  ut  creditis,  ullum  damnum 
sepulturae  tiinemus,  sed  veterem  et  meliorem  consuetudinem  humandi  fre- 
quentamus.  Minuc.  Fel.  Odav.  c.  34.- Ego  magis  ridebo  vulgus,  tunc  quo- 
que  cum  ipsos  defunctos  atrocissime  exurit,  quos  post  modum  gulosissime 
nutrit,  iisdem  ignibus  et  promercns  et  ofFendens.  O  pietatem  de  crudelitate 
ludentem  !  Tertull.  De  Resurr.  c.  1 .  Conf.  TertuU.  De  Jlnima,  c.  51  ;  Lac- 
tant.  Instit.  Dir.  lib.  vi.  c.  12  ;  Oug.  contr.  Cels.  hh.  vVn.;  Augustin.  Z)c. 
Civ.  Dei,  lib.  i.  c.  13 ;  Euseb.  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  4.  c.  16  ;  v.  1. 

52 


410  FUNERAL  KITES  AND  CEREMONIES. 

in  family  graves  and  private  sepulchres.  It  was  supposed  to  be  in- 
vidious, and  encourage  the  pride  of  distinction. 

Like  the  Greeks  and  Ronoans,  Christians  erected  ntionuments  and 
marked  them  with  inscriptions,  jlxXoig,  tilulis,  in  memory  of  their 
friends.^  Their  luxury  and  extravagance  in  these  matters  are  se- 
verely censured  by  Basil  the  Great,  Chrysostom  and  others.  Frus- 
ira  struimt  homines  preiiosa  sepulcra^  quasi  ea  animae,  nee  solius 
corporis^  receptacula  essenL     Ambrose  De  Bono  Mortis. 

Tlie  funeral  solemnities  of  the  Romans  were  held  by  night.^ 
Those  of  Christians,  on  the  other  hand,  were  solemnized  by  day,  but 
with  lighted  tapers.  In  times  of  persecution,  the  Christians  were  of- 
ten compelled  to  bury  their  dead  by  night,  and  with  all  possible  se- 
crecy. But  under  Constantine  and  his  sons,  christian  funerals  were 
attended  by  day,  and,  at  times,  with  great  pomp.  Probably  they  en- 
acted laws  on  this  subject  in  favor  of  christian  burials,  for  the  apos- 
tate Julian  was  compelled  to  issue  a  positive  decree  to  restore  the 
nocturnal  celebration  of  funeral  rites.* 

The  Jews,  and  the  Eastern  nations  generally  were  accustomed  to 
bury  very  soon  after  death.  The  nature  of  the  climate  might  direct 
to  this  custom  ;  but  the  principal  reason  probably  was,  that  by  the 
speedy  removal  of  the  corpse,  they  might  avoid  ceremonial  pollu- 
tion. The  custom  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  corresponded  in  this 
respect  with  that  of  the  Oriental  nations.  The  early  Christians  also 
conformed  to  the  custom  of  the  country,  in  the  early  removal  of  the 
corpse,  but  they  utterly  discarded  the  idea  that  any  ceremonial  pol- 
lution could  be  contracted  by  contact  with  the  dead.  On  the  con- 
trary, they  fearlessly  exposed  themselves  to  contagion  by  their  faith- 
ful offices  to  those  who  had  died  of  malignant  diseases  as  well  as  by 
administering  to  their  necessities  in  sickness.^^  The  corpse,  after 
being  removed  from  the  house,  was  usually  kept  for  a  day  or  more 
in  the  church,  and  from  this  originally  arose  the  custom  of  keeping 


*  Efferri  cognovimus  cadavera  niortuornin  per  confertam  popnli  freqnen- 
tiam  el  per  maximam  insistentium  densitatem  :  quod  quidem  oculos  homi- 
num  infaustis  infestat  adspectibus.  Qui  eiiim  dies  est  bene  auspicatus  a  fu- 
nere  ?  aut  quomodo  ad  Deos  et  templa  venietur  ?  Ideoque  quoniam  et  do- 
lor inexsequiis  secretum  amat,  et  diem  functis  nihil  interest,  utriim  per  noc- 
tes  an  per  dies  efFerantur,  liberari  convenit  totius  populi  adspectus,  ut  dolor 
esse  in  faneribus,  non  pompa  exequiarum,  nee  ostentatio  videatur.  Cod.  The- 
odos.  lib.  ix.  tit  17,  1,  Ft. 


AFFECTION  FOR  THE  DYING.  411 

vigils  for  ihe  dead.^^     The  funeral  was  sometimes  delayed  for  sev- 
eral days, 

§  2.  Affection  for  the  Dying. 

The  greatest  attention  was  bestowed  by  the  early  Christians  upon 
the  dying,  and  the  highest  respect  entertained  for  their  final  counsels, 
instructions,  and  prayers.  Their  exhortations  to  surviving  friends,^ 
and  their  prayers  in  their  behalf,  were  treasured  up  with  pious  care.^ 
Their  will  in  regard  to  the  disposal  of  their  effects,  and  the  appro- 
priation  of  them  for  objects  of  charity  and  benevolence,  were  reli- 
giously observed.3  The  sign  of  the  cross  was  administersd  to  them.^ 
The  bishop  and  the  several  orders  of  the  clergy,  as  well  as  relatives 
and  friends,  sought  to  offer  them  consolation.  Prayers  were  offered 
in  the  church  for  them.-'  Friends  pressed  around  them  to  give,  and 
receive  the  parting  kiss,  and  the  last  embrace.*'  To  such  as  were 
restored  to  christian  fellowship  in  their  dying  moments,  the  sacra- 
ment was  administered.  This  was  afterwards  united  with  the  cere- 
mony of  extreme  unction. 

Friends  and  relatives  closed  the  eyes  and  mouth  of  the  dying'^ — 
a  becoming  rite  which  all  nations  have  observed.  But  to  the  early 
Christians  this  was  an  emblem  of  the  peaceful  slumber  of  the  de- 
ceased, from  which  he  was  expected  to  awake  at  the  resurrection 
of  the  just.^  The  body  was  then  washed  and  clothed  in  a  garment 
usually  of  white  linen,  but  sometimes  made  of  more  costly  materials 
and  ornamented  with  gold,  precious  stones,  etc.^  The  corpse  was 
laid  out  in  its  best  attire  ;  and  in  addition  to  these  rites  it  was  fre- 
quently anointed  and  embalmed. 

Christians,  contrary  to  the  custom  of  the  Jews,  deposited  the  body 
in  a  coffin.  This  custom  they  observed  in  common  with  many  hea- 
then nations.  The  corpse  was  exposed  to  view  for  some  time  before 
interment  either  at  home,  or  in  the  streets,  or  more  frequently  in  the 
church.io  During  this  time  it  was  attended  by  the  nearest  relatives 
and  friends,  whose  duty  it  was  to  perform  these  last  offices  of  affec- 
tion for  the  dead.  The  wailings  of  mourning  women  were,  on  no 
account,  allowed  as  was  customary  among  the  Jews  and  many  pa- 
gan nations.  Such  lamentations  were  exceedingly  incongruous  to 
the  Christian  who  regarded  death  as  no  loss,  but  unspeakable  gain. 

The  office  of  sexton  was  of  very  early  date,  and  held  in  high  re- 
pute, as  an  honorable  occupation. 


412  FUNERAL  RITES  AND  CEREMONIES. 


§  3.  Funeral  Solemnities. 

The  body  was  borne  on  a  bier  in  solemn  procession  to  the  burial 
place,  and  followed  by  the  relatives  and  friends  of  the  deceased  as 
mourners,  among  whom  the  clergy  and  some  others  were  reckoned. 
Besides  these  many  others,  as  spectators,  joined  in  the  procession. 
These  processions  were  sometimes  so  thronged  as  to  occasion  seri- 
ous accidents,  and  even  the  loss  of  ViCeA  It  was  the  duty  of  the 
acolyths  to  conduct  the  procession.  The  bier  was  borne  sometimes 
on  the  shoulder,  and  sometimes  by  the  hands.  The  nearest  rela- 
tions or  persons  of  rank  and  distinction  were  the  bearers.  Even  the 
bishops  and  clergy  often  officiated  in  this  capacity. 

The  tolling  of  bells  at  funerals  was  introduced  in  the  eighth  and 
ninth  centuries.  This  office  is  expressed  in  the  following  distich, 
which  was  inscribed  upon  the  church  bell : 

Laudo  Deum  verum  ;  plcbem  voco  ;  coiigrcsso  clerum, 
Dcfunctos  plvru  ;  niiubuni  fugo  ;  festaque  honoro. 

Previous  to  the  use  of  bells  the  trumpet  and  wooden  clappers  were 
used  for  similar  purposes. 

Palms  and  olive  branches  were  carried  in  funeral  processions  for 
the  first  time  in  the  fourth  century,  in  imitation  of  Christ's  triumphal 
entry  into  Jerusalem.  The  cypress  was  rejected  because  it  was  a 
symbol  of  mourning.  The  carrying  of  burning  lamps  and  tapers 
was  earlier  and  more  general.  This  was  a  festive  representation  of 
the  triumph  of  the  deceased  over  death,  and  of  his  union  with  Christ, 
as  in  the  festival  of  the  Lamb  in  the  Apocalypse.^  The  Christians 
repudiated  the  custom  of  crowning  the  corpse  and  the  coffin  with 
garlands,  as  savoring  of  idolatry .3  But  it  was  usual  with  them  to 
strew  flowers  upon  the  grave.'* 

Psalms  and  hymns  were  sung  while  the  corpse  was  kept,  while 
it  was  carried  in  procession,  and  around  the  grave.  Notices  of  this 
custom  are  found  in  several  authors.^  These  anthems  were  alto- 
gether of  a  joyful  character.  But  Bingham  has  well  remarked  that 
"  we  cannot  e.xpect  to  find  much  of  this  in  the  first  ages,  while  the 
Christians  were  in  a  state  of  persecution  ;  but  as  soon  as  their  peace- 
able times  were  come,  we  find  it  in  every  writer.  The  author  of 
the  Apostolical  Constitutions  (lib.  vi.  c.  30)  gives  this  direction,  that 


FUNERAL  SOLEMNITIES.  413 

they  should  carry  forth  their  dead  with  singing,  if  they  were  faithful. 
'  For  precious  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord  is  the  death  of  his  saints.' 
and  again  it  is  said,  '  Return  to  thy  rest,  O  my  soul,  for  the  Lord 
hath  rewarded  thee.  And  the  memory  of  the  just  shall  be  blessed  : 
and  the  souls  of  the  just  are  in  the  hand  of  the  Lord.'  These,  pro- 
bably, were  some  of  the  versicles  which  made  up  their  psalmody  on 
such  occasions.  For  Chrysostom,  speaking  of  this  matter,  not  only 
tells  us  ihe  reason  of  their  psalmody,  but  also  what  particular  psalms 
or  portions  of  them  they  made  use  of  for  this  solemnity.  '  What 
mean  our  hymns  ?'  says  he  ;  '  do  we  not  glorify  God  and  give  him 
thanks,  that  he  hath  crowned  him  that  is  departed,  that  he  hath  de- 
livered him  from  trouble,  that  he  hath  set  him  free  from  all  fear  ? 
Consider  what  thou  singest  at  that  time  ;  Turn  again  unto  thy  rest, 
O  my  soul,  for  the  Lord  hath  rewarded  thee.  And  again,  I  will  fear 
no  evil,  because  thou  art  with  me.  And  again.  Thou  art  my  refuge 
from  the  affliction  which  compasselh  me  about.  Consider  what 
these  psalms  mean.  If  thou  believest  the  things  which  thou  sayest 
to  be  true,  why  dost  thou  weep  and  lament,  and  make  a  mere  pa- 
geantry and  mock  of  thy  singing  ?  If  thou  believest  them  not  to  be 
true,  why  dost  thou  play  the  hypocrite,  so  much  as  to  sing.?'  (Chry- 
sost.  Horn.  4  in  Hehr.)  He  speaks  this  against  those  who  used  ex- 
cessive mourning  at  funerals,  showing  them  the  incongruity  of  that 
with  this  psalmody  of  the  church."  (Book  xxiii.  c.  3.) 

Funeral  prayers  also  constituted  an  appro|)riate  part  of  the  burial- 
service  of  the  dead. 

Funeral  orations,  loyoi  iniy.r,8sioi^  irrnucpict,  were  also  delivered, 
commemorative  of  the  deceased.  Several  of  these  are  still  extant, 
as  that  of  Eusebius  at  the  funeral  of  Constantine  ;  those  of  Ambrose 
on  the  deaths  of  Theodosius  and  Valentinian,  and  of  his  own  brother 
Satyrus  ;  those  of  Gregory,  and  of  Nazianzum  upon  his  father,  his 
brother  Caesarius,  and  his  sister  Gorgonia. 

The  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper  was  administered  at  funerals 
and  often  at  the  grave  itself  ^  By  this  rite,  it  was  intimated  that  the 
communion  of  saints  was  still  perpetuated  between  the  living  and  the 
dead.  It  was  a  favorite  idea  that  both  still  continued  members  of 
the  same  mystical  body  one  and  the  same  on  earth  and  in  heaven. 
This  mode  of  celebrating  the  supper  was  also  an  honorable  testimo- 
ny to  the  faith  of  the  deceased,  and  of  his  consistent  christian  pro- 
fession in  life.     The  Roman  Catholic  superstition  of  offerings  and 


414  FUNERAL  RITES  AND  CEREMONIES. 

masses  for  the  dead  took  its  vise  from  this  ancient  usage  of  the 
church.  Some  time  previous  to  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries,  it 
became  customary  to  administer  the  elements  to  the  dead — to  depo- 
sits a  portion  of  the  elements  in  the  coffin — to  give  a  parting  kiss  of 
charity,  and  to  conclude  the  funeral  solemnities  whh  an  entertain- 
ment similar  to  the  agapae.  Of  these  usages  the  first  mentioned 
were  speedily  abolished,'''  and  the  last  was  gradually  discontinued. 

It  was  universally  customary  with  Christians  to  deposite  the  corpse 
in  the  grave,  as  in  modern  times,  facing  the  east ;  and  in  the  same 
attitude  as  at  the  present  day.  The  reasons  for  this  are  given  in  the 
following  extract :  Christiani  solent  sepelire.  1.  Supinos,  quia  mors 
nostra  proprie  non  est  mors,  sed  brevis  quidam  somnus.  2.  Vultu 
ad  coelum  coiiverso,  quia  solo  in  coelo  spes  nostra  fundata  est.  3. 
Versus  orientem,  argumento  sperandae  et  exoptandae  resurrectionis.^ 

The  burial  service  was  concluded,  like  all  other  religious  solem- 
nities, with  the  Lord's  prayer  and  the  benediction. 

§  4.  Mourners. 

Death  was  regarded  by  the  early  Christians  not  as  an  afflictive  but 
joyful  event.  All  immoderate  grief  or  mourning  was  accordingly 
inconsistent,  in  their  view,  with  christian  faith  and  hope.*  For  this 
reason  they  severely  reproved  the  Jewish  and  Roman  custom  of  hir- 
ing women  to  make  lamentations  for  the  dead.^  It  must  not  be  sup- 
posed, however,  that  they  either  condemned  the  exercise  of  natural 
affection,  or  affected  a  stoical  indifference.  On  the  contrary,  there 
are  many  passages  of  ancient  authors  in  which  the  right  and  power 
of  nature  in  this  respect  are  recognized,  and  a  becoming  sorrow, 
occasioned  by  the  death  of  friends,  is  justified,  both  on  principles  of 
reason,  and  by  reference  to  examples  in  Scripture.t 

*  Fratres  nostri  non  lugendi  accersione  Dominica  de  saeculo  liberati,  cum 
sciamus,  non  eosomitti,  sed  praemitti,  recedentes  praecedere,ut  proficiscen- 
tes  et  navigantes,  desiderari  eos  debere,  non  plangi ;  nee  accipiendas  lieic 
atras  vcstes,  quando  illi  ibi  indumenta  alba  jam  sumserint :  occasionem  non 
dancJam  esse  gentilibus,  ut  nos  merito  et  jure  reprehendant,  quod  quos  vive- 
re  apud  Ueum  dicimus  ut  exstinctos  et  perdilos  lugeamus,  et  fidem,  quam 
sermone  et  voce  depromimus,  cordis  et  pectoris  testimonio  reprobemur. — 
Cifprian,  Dc  Mortal.  Omnibus  Christianis  prohibitum  defunctos  Acre. — 
Condi  Talct.  1)1. 

f  Non  omnis  inlidelitatis  aut  infirmitatis  est  fletus  ;  alius  est  naturae  do- 


OF  MOURNERS.  415 

In  conformity  with  their  views  of  death,  Christians  also  utterly 
discarded  the  Jewish  badges  of  mourning — sackcloth  and  ashes,  and 
garments  rent.  Some  of  the  fathers  severely  censure  the  Roman 
custom  of  wearing  black.-  Augustine  especially  is  peculiarly  severe 
on  this  point.  "  Why,"  says  he,  "  should  we  disfigure  ourselves 
with  black,  unless  we  would  imitate  unbelieving  nations,  not  only  in 
their  wailing  for  the  dead,  but  also  in  their  mourning  apparel !  Be 
assured  these  are  foreign  and  unlawful  usages ;  but  if  lawful,  they 
are  not  becoming."-'  Black  however  was,  from  the  beginning,  the 
customary  mourning  habit  in  the  Greek  church,  and  the  use  of  it 
soon  became  general. 

No  precise  rules  were  made  respecting  the  duration  of  mourning 
for  the  dead.  This  matter  was  left  to  custom  and  the  feeling  of  the 
parlies  concerned.  "  The  heathen  had  a  custom  of  repeating  their 
mourning  on  the  third,  seventh,  and  ninth  day,  which  was  particu- 
larly called  the  Novendiale  ;  and  some  added  the  twentieth,  thirti- 

lor,  alia  est  tristitia  in  diffidentia,  et  plurimum  refert,  desiderare,  quod  habu- 
eris,  et  lugere,  quod  arniseris  .  .  .  Fecerunt  et  fletum  magnum  sui,  cum  Pa- 
triarchae  sepelirentur.  Lacrymae  ergo  pietatis  indices,  non  illices  sunt  do- 
loris.  Lacryniatus  sum  ergo,  fateor,  et  ego,  sed  lacrymatus  est  et  Dominus  ; 
ille  alienum,  ego  IVatrem. —  Jlmbrvs.  Orat.  in  obit.  Fralris.  —  Quorum  nos 
vita  propter  amicitiae  solatia  de  lectabat,  unde  fieri  potest,  ut  eorum  mors  nul- 
lam  nobis  ingerat  moestitudinem  ?  Quam  qui  prohibet,  prohibeat,  si  potest, 
arnica,  colloquia,  interdicat  amicalem  societatem,  vel  intercidat  adfectum 
omnium  humanaruni  necessitudinum,  vincula  mentis  immiti  stupore  disrum- 
pat,  aut  sic  eis  utendum  esse  censeat,  ut  nulla  ex  eis  animum  dulcedo  per- 
fundat.  Quod  si  fieri  nullo  modo  potest,  etiam  hoc,  quo  pacto  futurum  est, 
ut  ejus  nobis  amara  mors  non  sit,  cujus  dulcis  est  vita?  Hinc  enim  est  luc- 
tus  quidem  [al.  quidam]  humano  corde  quasi  vulnus  aut  ulcus,  cui  sanando 
adhibentur  ofEciosae  consolationes.  Non  enim  propterea  non  est,  quod  sane- 
tur;  quoniam  quanto  est  animus  melior,  tanto  in  eo  citius  faciliusque  sana- 
tur. — Autrustin.  De  Civ.  Dei,  lib.  xix.  c.  8.  —  Premebam  oculos  ejus  [sc. 
matris],  et  confluebat  in  praecordia  mea  moestitudo  ingens,  et  transfluebat 
in  lacriinas,  ibidemque  oculi  mei  violcnto  animi  imperio  resorbebant  fontem 
suuni  usque  ad  siccitatem,  et  in  tali  luctamine  valde  male  mihi  erat.  Turn 
vero  ubi  efflavit  extremum  spiritum,  puer  Adeodatus  exclamavit  in  plane- 
turn,  atque  ab  omnibus  nobis  coercitus  tacuit.  Hoc  modo  etiam  meum 
quiddam  puerile,  quod  labebatur  in  fletus,  juvenili  voce  cordis  cogrcebatur 
et  tacebat.  Neque  enim  decere  arbitrabamur,  funus  illud  questibus  lacri- 
raosis  gemitibusque  celebrare,  quia  his  plerumque  solet  deplorari  qusedam 
miseria  morientium,  aut  quasi  omnimoda  exstinctio.  At  ilia  nee  misere 
moriebatur,  nee  omnino  moriebatur. — Augustin.  Confess,  lib.  ix.  c.  12,  — 
Conf.  Chrysost.  Horn.  29,  Dc  Dormient. ;  Horn.  61,  in  Johann. 


416 


FUNERAL  RITES  AND  CEREMONIES. 


eth,  and  fortieth,  not  without  a  superstitious  opinion  of  those  parti- 
cular days,  wherein  they  used  to  sacrifice  to  their  manes  with  milk, 
and  wine,  and  garlands,  and  flowers,  as  the  Roman  antiquities  inform 
us.  Something  of  this  superstition,  abating  the  sacrifice,  was  still 
remaining  among  the  ignorant  Christians  in  St.  Austin's  time  ;  for 
he  speaks  of  some  who  observed  a  novendial  in  relation  to  their  dead 
(Quaest.  127  in  Gen.^)  which  he  thinks  they  ought  to  be  forbidden, 
because  it  was  only  an  heathen  custom.  He  does  not  seem  to  inti- 
mate that  they  kept  it  exactly  as  the  heathen  did  ;  but  rather  that 
they  were  superstitious  in  their  observation  of  nine  days  of  mourning, 
which  was  without  example  in  Scripture.  There  was  another  way 
of  continuing  the  funeral  offices  for  three  days  together,  which 
was  allowed  among  Christians,  because  it  had  nothing  in  it  but  the 
same  worship  of  God  repeated.  Then  Euodius  writing  to  St.  Austin 
{Euodii,  Ep.  258  i7tler  Ep.  August.,)  and  giving  him  an  account  of 
the  funeral  of  a  very  pious  young  man,  who  had  been  his  votary, 
says  that  he  had  given  him  honorable  obsequies,  worthy  of  so  great 
a  soul :  for  he  continued  to  sing  hymns  to  God  for  three  days 
together  at  his  grave,  and  on  the  third  day  offered  the  sacraments 
of  redemption.  The  author  of  the  ConsiUuiions  [Const.  Apost.  lib. 
viii.  c.  42)  takes  notice  of  the  repetition  of  the  funeral  office  on  the 
third  day,  and  the  ninth  day,  and  the  fortieth  day,  giving  peculiar 
reasons  for  each  of  them  : — '  Let  the  third  day  be  observed  for  the 
dead  with  psalms,  and  lessons,  and  prayers,  because  Christ  on  the 
third  day  rose  again  from  the  dead  ;  and  let  the  ninth  day  be  ob- 
served in  remembrance  of  the  living  and  the  dead  ;  and  also  the 
fortieth  day,  according  to  the  ancient  manner  of  the  Israelites 
mourning  for  Moses  forty  days  ;  and  finally  let  the  anniversary 
day  be  observed  in  commemoration  of  the  deceased.' 

"  On  the  anniversary  days  of  commemorating  the  dead,  they  were 
used  to  make  a  common  feast  or  entertainment,  inviting  both  the 
clergy  and  people,  but  especially  the  poor  and  needy,  the  widows 
and  orphans,  that  it  might  not  only  be  a  memorial  of  rest  to  the 
dead,  but  an  odor  of  sweet  smell  to  themselves  in  the  sight  of  God, 
as  the  author  under  the  name  of  Origen  words  it.  St.  Chrysostom 
says  (Chri/sost.  Horn.  47  in  1  Ep.  ad  Cor.)  that  they  were  more 
tenacious  of  this  custom,  than  they  were  of  some  others  of  greater 
importance. — But  this  often  degenerated  into  great  abuses.  {Aug' 
de  Morihus  Eccles.  c.  34;  Ep.  64  ad  Aurelium.y — Bingham,  An- 
tiq.  book  23,  chap.  3. 


PRAYERS  FOR  THE  DEAD.  417 


§  5.  Prayers  for  the  Dead. 

Our  author  appears  to  have  omitted  tliis  peculiarity  of  the  early 
Christians.  But  it  is  discussed  at  length  by  Riddle,  who  has  brought 
many  authorities  to  illustrate  the  senliments  and  practice  of  the  fa- 
thers on  this  subject,  some  of  which  are  ji;iven  below,  with  the  result 
of  his  investigation  of  this  subject. 

TertuJlian  (died,  220),  in  his  treatise  on  the  Soldier's  Chaplet, 
speaks  of  prayer  for  the  dead  as  a  custom  of  the  church  at  the  time 
of  his  writing  that  treatise,  which  was  probably  not  long  after  the 
year  200  :  "  We  make  anniversary  oblations  for  the  dead,  for  their 
birthdays,"  meaning,  the  days  of  their  death.*  In  another  of  his 
works  the  same  author  says,  that  it  was  the  practice  of  a  widow  to 
pray  for  the  soul  of  her  deceased  husband,  desiring  on  his  behalf 
present  refreshment,  or  rest,  and  a  part  in  the  first  resurrection ; 
and  offering  annually  an  oblation  for  him  on  the  day  of  his  falling 
asleep,  i.  e.  his  death.  And  elsewhere  he  represents  a  bereaved 
husband  as  praying  for  the  soul  of  his  deceased  wife,  and  offering 
annual  oblations  for  her.t 

Origen  (d.  254)  tells  us,  that  Christians  in  his  time  "  thought  it 
right  and  useful  to  make  mention  of  the  saints  in  their  public  prayers, 
and  to  improve  themselves  by  the  commemoration  of  their  worthies.| 

Cyprian  (d.  258)  affirms,  that  in  his  time  it  was  the  practice  of 
Christians  to  offer  oblations  and  sacrifices  of  commemoration  for 
martyrs,  on  the  anniversary  days  of  their  martyrdom,  with  thanks- 
giving ;  and  he  refers  also  to  the  oblations  and  supplications,  or 
deprecatory  prayers,  on  behalf  of  other  departed  members  of  the 


*  Oblationes  pro  defunctis,  pro  natalitiis,  annua  die  facimus. —  Tertull.  De 
Corona  M'ditis,  c.  3. 

t  Pro  anima  ejus  oral,  et  refrigerium  inleriiu  adpostulat  ei,  et  in  prima 
resurrectione  consortium,  et  ofFert  annuls  diebns  dormitionis  ejus — Id.  De 
Monogamia,  c.  10.  —  Jam  repete  apud  Deum  pro  cujus  spiritu  postules,  pro 
qua  oblationes  annuas  reddas. —  Eihort.  ad  Castit  c.  11.  —  Tertullian  held 
that  every  little  offence  of  the  faithful  would  be  punished  by  delaying  their 
resurrection.  Modicum  quodque  delictum  mora  rosurrectionis  luendum. — 
De  Jlnivia,  c.  58. 

I  Meminisse  sanctorum  sivc  in  collectis  solennibus,  si\'e  pro  eo  ut  ex  re- 
cordatione  eorum  proficiamus,  aptum  ct  conveniens  wideiar— Or  ig.  lib.  ix. 
in  Rom.  12. 

53 


418  FUNERAL  RITES  AND  CEREMONIES'. 

church.*  In  another  place  Cyprian  says,  "  When  we  have  departed 
hence,  there  is  no  place  left  for  repentance,  and  no  effect  of  satis- 
faction."t 

Arnohius,  in  his  treatise  against  the  heathen,  written  probably 
about  the  year  305,  speaking  of  the  prayers  offered  after  the  conse- 
cration of  the  elements  in  the  Lord's  supper,  says  that  Christians 
prayed  for  pardon  and  peace,  on  behalf  of  the  living  and  the  dead.| 

Cyril  of  Jerusalem  (d.  386),  reports  the  prayer  made  after  con- 
secration of  the  elements  at  the  holy  communion,  in  these  words : 
— "  We  offer  this  sacrifice  in  memory  of  all  those  who  have  fallen 
asleep  before  us,  first,  patriarchs,  prophets,  apostles,  and  martyrs, 
that  God  by  their  prayers  and  intercessions  may  receive  our  suppli- 
cations ;  and  then  we  pray  for  our  holy  fathers  and  bishops,  and  all 
that  have  fallen  asleep  before  us,  believing  that  it  is  a  great  advan- 
tage to  their  souls  to  be  prayed  for,  whilst  the  holy  and  tremendous 
sacrifice  lies  upon  the  altar."     {Catech.  Mystag.  5,  n.  6.) 

The  same  writer  furnishes  evidence,  that  in  his  time  many  persons 
doubted  the  efficacy  of  prayer,  as  a  means  of  procuring  benefit  to 
the  dead.  "  I  know  many,"  he  observes  in  the  same  book,  "  who 
say,  what  profit  does  the  soul  receive  that  goes  out  of  this  world, 
either  with  sins,  or  without  sins,  if  you  make  mention  of  it  in 
prayer  .•'" 

Gregory  of  Nazianzum  (d.  390),  prayed,  that  God  would  receive 
the  soul  of  his  brother  Caesarius.  (Greg.  Naz.  Orat.  10.)  Arch- 
bishop Usher  quotes  the  following  passage  from  this  father,  in  testi- 
mony of  his  dissent  from  the  opinion  that  the  dead  could  be  profited 
by  the  prayers  of  the  living  :  "  Then  in  vain  shall  one  go  about  to 
relieve  those  that  lament.     Here  men  may  have  a  remedy,  but  after- 


*  Celebrentur  hie  a  nobis  oblationes  et  sacrificia  ob  eommemorationes 
eorum  Cypr.  Ep.  '37,  al.  y2,  ad  Clcrum.  —  Sacrificia  pro  eis  semper,  ut  me- 
ministis,  oft'erimus.  quoties  niartyrum  passioiies  et  dies  anniversaria  com- 
memoratione  celebrainus. — 1//.  34,  al.  3:^.  —  Men  est  quod  pro  dormitione 
ejus  apnd  vos  fiat  oblatio,  aut  deprccatio  aliqna  nomine  ejus  in  ecclesia  fre- 
quentetur. —  Ep.  tiU,  a5.  1. 

t  Quando  isthinc  excessurn  fuerit,  nullus  jam  locus  poenitentiae  est,  nul- 
lus  satisfactionis  effeclus. —  Cypr.  ad  Demetrimi,  §  16. 

X  Cur  immaniter  conventicula  nostra  dirui  meruerint  ?  In  quibus  sum- 
mus  oratur  Deus,  pax  cunctis  et  venia  postulatur,  magistratibus,  exercitibus, 
regibus,  familiaribus,  inimicis,  adhuc  vitam  degentibus,  et  resolatis  corporum 
vinctione. — Arnob.  Adv.  Gcntcs,  lib.  iv. 


PRAYERS  FOR  THE  DEAD.  419 

wards  there  is  nothing  but  bonds,  or  all  things  are  fast  bound." 
(Greg.  Naz.  in  Carm.  de  Rebus  Suis.)  It  may  be  observed,  that  this 
passage  proves  only  that  Gregory  esteemed  prayer  of  no  avail  to 
those  who  may  die  in  sin. 

In  the  wrhhigs  of  Avihrose  (d.  397),  we  meet  with  prayers  of  that 
father,  on  behalf  of  the  deceased  Tlieodosius  and  Valentinian,  and 
his  own  brother;  and  we  find  him  giving  instructions  to  a  Christian 
not  to  weep  for  a  deceased  sister,  but  to  make  prayers  and  oblations 
for  her.  (Ambros.  De  Ohiiii  Thcodosii ;  De  Obit.  Valentin.;  De 
Obilu  Fratris  ;  Ep.  8,  ad  Faust.)  The  same  author  affirms,  in  an- 
other place,  that  "  death  is  a  haven  of  rest,  and  makes  not  our  con- 
dition worse  ;  but  according  as  it  finds  every  man,  so  it  reserves  him 
to  the  judgment  that  is  to  come."  {De  Bono  Mortis,  c.  4.) 

Aerius  appears  to  have  been  the  first  who  publicly  protested 
against  the  practice  of  praying  for  the  dead  ;  which  he  did  upon  the 
ground  of  the  uselessness  of  such  prayers  to  those  who  were  the 
subjects  of  them.  His  objections  were  met  by  Epiphanius,  (d.  403,) 
who  maintained  (Haeres.  75),  first,  that  prayer  for  the  dead  was 
useful,  as  testifying  the  faith  and  hope  of  the  living,  inasmuch  as  it 
showed  their  belief  that  the  departed  were  still  in  being,  and  living 
with  the  Lord  ;  and  secondly,  as  a  further  argument,  that  "  the 
prayer  which  is  made  for  them  does  profit,  although  it  do  not  cut  off 
all  their  sins;  yet,  forasmuch  as  whilst  we  are  in  the  world  we 
oftentimes  slip,  both  unwillingly  and  with  our  will,  it  serves  to  signify 
that  which  is  more  perfect.  For  we  make,"  continues  he,  "  a  me- 
morial both  for  the  just  and  for  sinners;  for  sinners,  entreating  the 
mercy  of  God;  for  the  just,  (both  the  fathers  and  patriarchs,  the 
prophets,  and  apostles,  and  evangelists,  and  martyrs,  and  confessors  ; 
bishops  also,  and  authorities,  and  the  whole  order,)  that  we  may 
serve  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  from  the  rank  of  ajl  other  men,  by  the 
honor  that  we  do  unto  him,  and  that  we  may  yield  worship  unto 
hira." 

Chrysostom  (d.  407,)  speaking  of  the  death  of  the  wicked,  says, 
"  They  are  not  so  much  to  be  lamented,  as  succoured  wath  prayers, 
and  supplications,  and  alms,  and  oblations.  For  these  things  were 
not  designed  in  vain,  neither  is  it  without  reason  that  we  make  men- 
tion of  those  that  are  deceased  in  the  holy  mysteries,  interceding  for 
them  to  the  Lamb  that  is  slain  to  take  away  the  sins  of  the  world  ; 
but  that  some  consolation  may  hence  arise  to  them.     Neither  is  it  in 


420  FUNERAL  UITES  AND  CEREMONIES. 

vain  tliat  he  who  stands  al  the  altar,  when  the  trennenclous  mysteries 
are  celebrated,  cries,  '  We  ofler  unto  thee  for  all  those  that  are 
asleep  in  Christ,  and  all  that  make  commemorations  for  them.'  For 
if  there  were  no  commemorations  made  for  them,  these  things  would 
not  be  said.  Let  us  not  therefore  grow  weary  in  giving  them  our 
assistance,  and  offering  prayers  for  them." 

Jerome  (d.  420)  says,  "  While  vve  are  in  this  present  world  we 
may  be  able  to  help  one  another,  either  by  our  prayers  or  by  our 
councils;  but  when  we  shall  come  before  the  judgment  seat  of 
Christ,  neither  Job,  nor  Daniel,  nor  Noah,  can  entreat  for  any  one, 
but  every  one  must  bear  his  own  burden."  (Lib.  iii.  Comment,  in 
Galat.  c.  6.) 

On  the  whole,  therefore,  it  appears,  that  from  the  time  of  Tertul- 
lian,  at  least,  and  probably  from  a  still  earlier  date,  the  church  was 
accustomed  to  offer  prayers  for  the  dead.  Many  teachers  of  the 
church  during  the  third  and  fourth  centuries  sanctioned  this  super- 
stitious practice  ;  some  of  them  encouraging  a  belief  that  the  prayers 
of  the  living  were  a  means  of  procuring  certain  imaginary  benefits 
for  those  who  had  died  in  sin,  as  well  as  for  those  who  had  departed 
in  the  faith  ;  but  others  affirming  that  the  dead  could  derive  no  bene- 
fit from  the  prayers  of  survivors.  So  that  while  it  was  the  erroneous 
opinion  that  prayers  and  oblations  ought  to  be  made  for  the  dead, 
and  was  the  received  and  universal  doctrine  of  the  church,  it  was 
yet  a  question  among  christian  doctors,  on  which  they  were  allowed 
to  differ,  whether  the  dead  received  any  profit  from  such  prayers. 
The  entire  abandonment  of  a  custom  so  much  at  variance  with  di- 
vine truth  was  reserved  for  that  brighter  period  in  the  history  of  the 
church,  in  which  "  the  Bible,  the  Bible  alone,"  began  (perhaps  for 
the  first  lime  since  the  commencement  of  the  second  century)  to  be 
recognized  as  the  sole  depositary  of  tlie  principles  of  our  religion, 
and  the  only  unerring  guide  of  christian  practice. 

When  the  prayers  of  the  early  church  were  offered  on  behalf  of 
persons  supposed  to  have  died  in  the  faith,  who  were  regarded  as 
about  to  enter  into  happiness.  Christians  were  understood  to  beseech 
God  that  he  would  receive  those  persons  lo  himself; — ihey  gave 
thanks  for  their  deliverance  out  of  this  sinful  world  ; — they  petition- 
ed for  the  divine  forgiveness  of  all  remains  of  sin  and  imperfection 
in  the  departed  ; — they  intended  to  offer  a  tribute  of  respect  and  af- 
fectiou  to  the  deceased,  and  to  testify  their  own  belief  of  the  immor- 


CEMETERIES  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIANS.  421 

tality  of  tlic  soul  and  a  future  life  ;— and  they  sought  to  procure  for 
their  departed  friends  the  hlessiiigs  of  an  early  share  in  the  millen- 
nial reiffn  of  Christ  upon  earth  (which  was  confidently  expected  by 
the  early  Christians), — as  well  as  favor  at  the  day  of  judgment, 
(when  they  supposed  that  all  men  would  pass  through  a  fire  of  pur- 
gation,)— and  an  augmentation  of  their  reward  and  glory  in  the 
state  of  final  blessedness. 

It  is  certain  also,  that  prayers  were  offered  for  those  who  had  died 
in  sin,  in  the  hope  of  mitigating  their  sufferings,  or  rendering  their 
condemnation  more  tolerable.  (Chrysost.  Horn.  3,  in  Phil. ;  Conf. 
Horn.  21,  in  Act. ;  Horn.  32,  in  Mail.  ;  August.  Enchirid,  ad  LaU' 
rent.  c.  110;  Paulin.  Ej).  19;  Athanas.  Qaesl.  ad  Antioch.\x.  34; 
Prudent.  Calhemerin.  Carm.  5,  De  Cereo  Paachuli.) 

§  6.  Of  the  Cemeteries  of  the  Early  Christians, 

By  far  the  greater  number  of  the  primitive  Christians  were  buried 
in  subterranean  sepulchres.  As,  during  the  first  three  hundred  years 
the  sword  of  persecution  was  constantly  impending  over  their  heads, 
and  dear-bought  experience  taught  them,  that  their  only  safety  lay 
either  in  withdrawing  to  uninhabited  deserts,  or  sheltering  them- 
selves in  inaccessible  hiding  holes,  multitudes  who  preferred  the  lat- 
ter alternative,  died,  and  were  interred  in  their  places  of  retreat. 
These  served  at  once  as  their  home  and  their  burying  place  ;  and, 
as  it  was  natural  that  they  should  wish  to  have  the  bodies  of  their  de- 
parted brethren  conveyed  to  the  same  peaceful  and  inviolable  sanc- 
tuaries, it  became,  first  from  necessity,  and  afterwards  from  choice, 
the  approved  and  invariable  practice  of  the  Christians  to  deposit  their 
dead  in  deep  and  obscure  caverns.  These,  owing  to  the  vast  mul- 
titudes who  fell  simultaneously  in  times  of  persecution,  and  to  whom, 
except  in  some  few  cases,  the  rites  of  burial  were  not  refused,  evi- 
dently required  to  be  of  no  ordinary  magnitude  ;  and  accordingly, — 
at  what  time  is  uncertain,  but  at  an  early  period, — the  charity  of 
some  wealthy  friends  of  their  body  put  them  in  possession  of  ceme- 
teries which  remained  ever  after  the  common  property  of  the  believ- 
ers. Among  the  monuments  of  christian  antiquity,  none  are  more 
singular  than  these  abodes  of  the  dead  ;  and  one  feels  at  a  loss 
whether  most  to  admire  their  prodigious  extent,  the  laborious  indus- 
try that  provided  them,  or  the  interesting  recollections  with   which 


422  FUNERAL  RITES  AND  CEREMONIES. 

they  are  associated.  Like  the  Moorish  caves  in  Spain,  they  were 
generally  excavated  at  the  base  of  a  lonely  hill,  and  the  entrance  so 
carefully  concealed  that  no  aperture  appeared,  and  no  traces  were 
discernible — except  by  an  experienced  eye — of  the  ground  having 
been  penetrated,  and  of  the  vast  dungeons  that  had  been  hollowed 
underneath.  The  descent  was  made  by  a  ladder,  the  foot  of  which 
stood  in  a  broad  and  spacious  pathway,  which  extended  like  a  street 
along  the  whole  length  of  the  place.  This  principal  entrance  open- 
ed, at  intervals  into  smaller  passages,  which  again  led  into  a  variety 
of  chambers  ;  and  on  either  side  of  them  were  several  rows  of  nich- 
es, pierced  in  the  wall,  serving  as  catacombs,  and  filled  with  coffins. 
The  chambers  were  painted,  for  the  most  part  like  the  churches, 
with  passages  of  history  from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  In  the 
centre  of  the  largest  street  was  an  open  square,  large  and  commo- 
dious as  a  market-place,  in  which  those  who  took  refuge  there,  in 
those  troublous  times,  were  wont  to  congregate  for  worship  ;  and  the 
comfort  of  which,  as  a  place  of  abode,  was  greatly  promoted  by  the 
liberal  use  which  the  Christians  made  of  spices  and  perfumes  on  their 
dead.  In  the  more  distant  of  these  cemeteries,  whose  remoteness 
rendered  them  less  liable  to  be  disturbed,  there  were  small  apertures 
left  in  the  surface  of  the  ground,  through  which  a  dim  twilight  was 
admitted  ;  but  the  others,  where  these  were  closed,  were  absolutely 
dark,  and  except  by  the  aid  of  lights,  impassable  ;  so  that,  on  any 
sudden  surprise,  the  refugees  had  only  to  extinguish  their  lamps  to 
insure  their  safety  from  the  invasion  of  their  enemies.  The  depth  of 
these  vaults  was  sometimes  so  great,  that  two  or  three  stories  were 
ranged  one  above  another ;  and  the  whole  aspect  conveyed  the  im- 
pression of  a  city  under  ground. 

Many  of  them,  however,  never  came  to  the  knowledge  of  the  en- 
emy ;  and  one  was  only  discovered  about  three  miles  from  Rome, 
so  late  as  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  size  and  various  apart- 
ments of  which  excited  universal  astonishment.  Numbers  still  re- 
main, bearing  the  names  of  their  respective  founders,  and  af- 
fording, by  their  inscriptions,  and  the  monuments  of  antiquity 
found  in  them,  the  most  satisfactory  proofs  of  their  having  been  used 
as  hiding-places  by  the  Christians.  From  their  habit  of  courting 
the  obscurity  of  the  catacombs,  the  Christians  obtained,  from  their 
heathen  contemporaries,  the  name  of  the  "  Light-hating  Peonle  ;" 
and  to  their  religious  familiarity  with  these  abodes  of  the  dead,  the 


PRELIMINARY  REMARKS.  423 

reflecting  reader  will  be  disposed  lo  trace  that  general  desire  for 
martyrdom  which,  in  the  second  and  third  centuries,  astonished  the 
authorities  of  Rome,  and  crowded  the  tribunals  of  all  the  provinces. 
Strange  as  that  insensibility  to  suffering  and  death  may  seem,  its  ori- 
gin is  naturally  to  be  imputed  to  the  strong  influence  of  place,  ope- 
rating on  the  minds  of  men  who,  by  daily  contact  with  the  venerable 
remains  of  their  ancestors,  had  overcome  the  instinctive  dread  of 
dissolution,  and  in  whom  vivid  impressions  of  religion,  and  the  hope 
of  immortal  glory,  together  with  the  extraordinary  estimation  in 
which  the  memory  of  the  martyrs  was  held,  had  created  a  passion- 
ate longing  for  similar  honors. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

OF  SACRED  SEASONS.       FESTIVALS  AND  FASTS. 

<§,  1.  Preliminary  Remarks.^ 

The  primitive  church  were  not  careful  to  prescribe  a  specific  time 
or  place  for  the  celebration  of  their  religious  festivals.  The  apos- 
tles and  their  immediate  successors  proceeded  on  the  principle  that 
these  should  be  observed  at  stated  times,  which  might  still  be  varied 
as  circumstances  should  direct.  These  seasons  were  regarded  as 
sacred,  not  for  any  peculiar  sanctity  belonging  to  the  day,  or  hour, 
in  which  they  were  solemnized,  in  itself  considered,  but  merely  as 
being  set  apart  from  a  common  to  a  religious  use.^  Some  however 
have  maintained,  that  these  festive  days  should  be  observed  as  Tioly 
time? 

The  reckoning  of  chronology  by  the  christian  era  was  introduced 
in  the  sixth  century  by  Dionysius,  a  Roman  abbot,  and  in  the  seventh 
and  eighth  centuries,  was  denominated  the  Dionysian  era.^  Previ- 
ous to  the  introduction  of  this  system  of  chronology,  time  was  reck- 
oned, by  the  Jews  from  the  creation  of  the  world,  by  the  Romans 
from  the  founding  of  Rome,  or  by  consulships,  or  by  the  reign  of 
their  emperors.  The  calendar  was  revised  by  Julius  Caesar  forty- 
five  years  before  Christ,  and  the  year  made  to  begin  on  the  first  of 


424  OF  SACRED  SEASONS. 

January  instead  of  the  first  of  March.  The  Dionysian  era  began 
A.  D.  531,  but  it  has  since  been  subject  to  certain  modifications,  of 
which  the  most  important  are  the  correction  of  the  epact,  and  the 
reduction  from  the  25th  of  March  to  the  25th  of  December. 

It  is  not  distinctly  known  when  the  reckoning  of  time  by  an  eccle- 
siastical year  began  in  the  church.  The  Jews  had  a  civil  year 
which  dated  from  the  creation  of  the  world,  and  began  on  the  first 
day  of  the  month  Tisri,  corresponding  to  the  first  half  of  September 
and  styled  n:'ii;r;  wNh.  Their  ecclesiastical  ov religious  year  hav- 
ing the  same  name  began  on  the  first  of  the  month  Nisan,  corres- 
ponding with  the  latter  part  of  March.  The  passover  followed  im- 
mediately, and  all  their  festivals  were  reckoned  from  this  date.^ 
From  the  authorities  quoted  in  the  above  reference,  it  is  probable 
that  the  ecclesiastical  year  in  the  christian  church  was  adopted  from 
the  Jewish,  and  corresponded  with  it.  In  the  fifth  century  the  feast 
of  the  annunciation.,  March  25th,  which  also  has  an  intimate  relation 
to  the  25th  of  December,  was  accounted  the  beginning  of  the  eccle- 
siastical year,  corresponding  very  nearly  with  the  religious  reckon- 
ing of  the  Jews.  This  became  a  fixed  point  for  the  church  from  which 
to  date  all  their  festivals,  or  as  Chrysostom  expresses  it,  it  was  nqfa- 
rrj  y.al  ql'Ca  tmv  iOQiMv  tov  Xqiotov.  This  feast,  according  to  the 
council  of  Toletum,  X.  c.  1,  was  to  be  held  on  the  18th  of  Decem- 
ber, on  the  last  sabbath  of  Christmas,  as  in  Milan  ;  or  on  the  5th  or 
6th  of  January,  as  in  the  Ethiopian  and  Armenian  churches  respec- 
tively. In  France  it  was  observed  on  the  25th  of  March  as  late  as 
the  sixteenth  century,  and  in  England  even  down  to  the  eighteenth 
century. 

The  Western  church  generally  may  very  naturally  be  supposed 
to  date  their  ecclesiastical  year  from  the  advent  of  Christ,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  church  at  Rome.  Between  the  seventh  and  ninth  centu- 
ries this  festival  was  extended  to  include  six  sabbath  days.  This 
number  was  afterwards  reduced. 

The  Eastern  church,  like  the  Western,  celebrated  the  Advent  for 
a  series  of  days,  but  differed  entirely  from  that  church  in  the  reck- 
oning of  their  religious  year.  This  they  began  from  the  feast  on  the 
erection  of  the  cross,  crouch-mas-day,  Sept.  14th.^ 

This  mode  of  reckoning  time,  by  ecclesiastical  and  civil  years 
must  have  caused  much  confusion  and  inconvenience.  And  some 
important  reasons  must  have  led  to  the  adoption  of  a  system  of  chro- 


PRELIMINARY  REMARKS.  425 

nology  so  complicated  and  inconvenient.  The  primitive  church 
were  probfibl}'  influenced  in  their  adherence  to  this  arrangement  by 
their  desire  to  embrace  in  their  sncred  seasons  all  the  leading  inci- 
dents of  our  Saviour''s  life.  The  .lulian  reckoning  of  time  from  the 
first  of  January  they  rejected  because  of  its  relation  to  pagan  chro- 
nology. For  many  centuries  this  day  was  stigmatized  by  them  as  a 
day  for  fasting  and  penance,  or  as  a  day  fit  only  to  be  observed  by 
fools  and  hypochondriacs,  the  observance  of  which  was  forbidden  by 
various  ecclesiastical  councils  in  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries.''' 

The  names  of  months  and  weeks,  and  the  consequent  division  of 
time  by  them,  the  church  in  general  derived  from  the  Roman  calen- 
dar. But  they  rejected  the  names  of  January  and  February  as  be- 
ing associated  with  paganism.  For  the  same  reason  they  rejected 
the  reckoning  by  Calends,  Nones,  and  Ides.  They  divided  the  year 
into  fifty-two  weeks,  and  gave  to  each  a  specific  name  as  hehdomas 
magna,  hebdomas  aulhentica,  muta,  poenosa,  luctuoso,  crucis,  indul- 
gentiae,  jmschalis,  pentecostalis,  irinitalis,  etc.  They  uniformly 
began  the  week  on  Sunday,  which  they  styled  the  Lord^s  day,  xvqi— 
«x»/  rjfiiQa,  and  the  weeks  which  followed  were  denominated.  Advent, 
Epiphany,  etc.  They  manifested  the  same  zealous  opposition  to 
paganism  by  rejecting  the  Roman  names  of  the  days  of  the  week, 
Monday,  Tuesday,  dies  Lunae,  Martis,  etc.  each  being  named  af- 
ter some  pagan  god.  Some  ascetics  retained  Sunday,  dies  Solis, 
but  only  in  a  mystical  sense  relating  to  the  sun  of  righteousness. 
But  the  names  of  the  others  they  uniformly  refused,  and  substituted 
in  their  place  the  appellations  Feria  prima,  secunda,  etc.  for  Mon- 
day, Tuesday,  etc.* 

The  festivals  of  the  church  are  divided  into  the  following  classes  : 
weekly  and  anmial;  moveable  and  immoveable,  i.  e.  fixed  to  a  certain 
day  of  the  month  on  which  they  always  occur  ;  higher,  middle  and 
lower ;  universal  and  particular  ;  ancient  and  modern ;  civil  and  ec- 
clesiastical ;  secular  and  religious.     Even  as  early  as  the  second 

*  It  is  a  little  singular  that  our  names  of  the  days  of  tlie  week  had  an  ori- 
gin similar  to  that  which  was  so  obnoxious  to  the  primitive  church,  as  may 
lie  seen  by  observing  tiieir  Saxon  derivation.  Siinnaclaeg,  Sun's  day;  Mon- 
andaerr,  Moon's  diy  ;  Tuesdacg,  day  of  Tuscio,  i.  e.  Mars;  Wodensdaeg,  day 
of  Woden,  or  Odm,  a  northern  deity  ;  Tnrsdaeg,  day  of  Thor,  a  deity  an- 
swerinof  to  Jupiter  ;  Frijdaeg,  day  of  Frigga,  the  Venus  of  the  North  ;  Sae 
terdaeg,  day  of  Sacter,  i.  e.  Saturn.'* — Tr. 
54 


426  OF  SACRED  SEASONS. 

century  the  birth  day  of  the  emperor  was  celebrated  in  the  church 
as  a  day  of  thanksgiving  and  prayer.  Under  Constantino  the  Great, 
these  secular  festivals  became  very  numerous.^  It  is  worthy  of  re- 
mark that  by  the  naiivUy,  lu  ytvs&lia,  the  church  generally  denoted 
not  the  natural  birth  but  the  death  of  the  person  commemorated  by 
the  festival,  the  deceased  being  supposed  at  death  to  he  born  to  a 
neio  andnobler  state  of  being.  The  nativity  however  of  our  Lord, 
of  John  the  Baptist,  and  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  is  to  be  understood  in 
its  appropriate  and  obvious  signification. 

All  their  religious  festivals  were  observed  by  \he  primitive  church 
as  a  voluntary  act.,  and  never  as  an  imperative  duty.  Their  senti- 
ments on  this  subject  are  fully  expressed  by  Socrates,^"^  and  reca- 
pitulated by  Nicephorus.il  "  Neither  Paul  nor  the  evangelists  im- 
posed any  yoke  of  bondage  upon  those  who  received  instruction 
from  them  ;  but  they  submitted  the  observance  of  the  passover  and 
of  other  festivals  to  the  option  of  all. — So  that  neither  the  Lord  Jesus, 
nor  his  apostles  gave  any  law  respecting  these  observances  to  en- 
force them  by  penalties  and  threatenings,  as  were  the  laws  of  Moses 
upon  the  Jews."  For  similar  sentiments  of  the  fathers  see  referen- 
ces.^^  There  were,  however,  some  who  very  early  maintained  a 
different  opinion ;  and  in  the  fourth  century  various  decrees  of  ec- 
clesiastical councils  were  passed  enjoining  the  observance  of  feast- 
days  as  a  duty.i3  But  even  then,  these  duties  were  required  rather 
as  a  rule  o(  christian  practice,  \han  as  a  doctrinal  precept. 

The  number  of  religious  festivals  was  at  first  small.  The  most 
ancient  rubrics  mention  only  those  of  the  Passion,[of  Easier,  and  of 
Whitsunday,  commemorative  of  ihe  death  and  resurrection  of  Christ, 
and  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Christmas  was  not  observed  as 
a  sacred  religious  festival  until  the  fourth  century,  when  it  became 
customary  to  observe  saints'  days ;  among  which,  this  was  the  most 
sacred.  The  earliest  authorities  on  this  [)oint,  are  Clemens  of  Alex- 
andria, Origen,  and  Jerome,  as  quoted  above.  From  the  council  of 
Trent  we  learn  that,  for  the  first  four  hundred  years,  the  festivals  of 
the  church  were,  L  The  Lord's  day  ;  2.  that  of  the  Passion  ;  3.  of 
the  Resurrection  ;  4.  the  Ascension  ;  5.  Pentecost ;  6.  the  Nativity 
and  Baptism  of  Christ. i'*     For  later  acts  of  councils,  see  references.!^ 

The  object  and  end  proposed  in  observing  those  sacred  seasons, 
was  to  call  to  mind  the  benefits  of  the  christian  dispensation, — to 
excite  Christians  to  holy  living, — to  offer  thanks  for  providential 


PPxELIMINARy  REMARKS.  427 

mercies  ;  and  to  aid  in  the  cultivation  of  the  cliristian  graces.  These 
graces  the  primitive  Christians  sought  pnriicularly  to  cultivate  on 
such  occasions.  Freed  from  worldly  cares,  that  they  might  devote 
themselves  to  the  duties  of  religion,  they  joyfully  celebrated  their 
religious  festivals.  So  carefully  were  they  conscientiously  to  guard 
against  all  improper  indulgences,  and  idolatrous  customs  on  those 
days,  that  they  sought  the  interposition  of  the  civil  authority  to  pro- 
tect them  in  the  quiet  observance  of  them,  and  to  prohibit  the,  vain 
amusements  and  recreations  which  were  inconsistent  with  the  solem- 
nities of  the  occasion. 

It  is  an  interesting  characteristic  of  the  discourses  which  were  de- 
livered on  these  occasions,  that  they  related  to  the  most  important 
topics  of  religion  ;  all  the  benefits  of  Christianity,  and  the  whole  sa- 
cred history  were  set  forth  ;  the  incarnation,  the  life  and  death  of 
our  Lord,  and  all  the  mysteries  of  the  sacred  Trinity,  were  particu- 
larly the  topics  of  discourse.  Even  the  Sabbath  day,  according  to 
Eusebius,  had  a  three-fold  origin,  iQug  oiQ/rtg  tyovau,  emblematical 
of  the  sacred  Trinity.  So  the  three  great  feasts  were  supposed  to 
embrace  the  three  great  principles  of  the  christian  religion,  and  were 
organized  in  accordance  with  the  belief  in  a  triune  God.  For  the 
same  reason,  it  became  customary  at  a  later  period  to  celebrate 
each  festival  for  three  days  only.  Epiphanius,  in  one  of  his  dis- 
courses on  such  an  occasion,  dwells  upon  the  incarnation  of  Christ, 
God  manifest  in  the  flesh  ;  on  his  death,  and  baptism  by  water  and 
the  Holy  Ghost ;  the  fall  of  Adam,  and  his  restoration  to  eternal 
life  ;  the  heavenly  state,  etc.  In  the  references,  the  reader  is  direc- 
ted to  this  and  other  discourses  of  the  fathers  on  these  festivals. ^^ 

It  is  particularly  striking  to  observe  how  differently  christian  and 
pagan  festivals  were  celebrated.  Philo  the  Jew  mentions  the  fol- 
lowing, as  common  scandals  which  occur  at  such  idolatrous  festivals, 
— negligence, indolence, carousing,  surfeiting,  noisy  mirth, sensuality, 
convivial  meetings  at  unseasonable  hours,  the  gratification  of  particu- 
lar lusts,  inordinate  excess,  intemperance,  self-inflicted  ignominy  ; 
sleeping  on  the  day  which  invites  peculiar  watchfulness,  in  a  word, 
every  unnatural  excess.  Every  virtue  is  derided,  everything  praise- 
worthy is  condemned,  and  every  unworthy  deed  commended.^''' 
Gregory  Nazianzen,  on  the  contrary,  earnestly  remonstrates  against 
the  celebration  of  Epiphany  by  ornamental  decorations,  music,  or 
sweet  odors,  or  any  voluptuous  enjoyment.     Extravagant  expendi- 


428  OF  SACRED  SEASONS. 

lures  in  dress,  feasting  and  carousing,  and  wanton  excesses  of  every 
kind  he  condemns.  "  Let  us  leave  all  such,"  he  adds,"  to  the  Gen- 
tiles and  their  gods,  who,  themselves  devoted  to  every  sensual  pleas- 
ure, are  fitly  worshipped  in  the  same  way.  But  we  who  worship 
the  incarnate  Word,  if  we  find  pleasure  in  anything,  let  it  be  in 
meditating  upon  the  divine  law,  and  especially,  in  the  recital  of  those 
things  which  liarmonize  with  the  present  occasion."'^ 

Constantine  the  Great  enacted  particular  laws  for  the  due  observ- 
ance of  those  days,i9  which  were  again  revised  both  by  the  elder 
and  younger  Theodosius.^o  By  those  laws  all  theatrical  exhibitions 
were  forbidden,  except  on  secular  festivals  commemorative  of  the 
birth  or  coronation  of  the  emperor.  Neither  were  they  allowed  in 
the  interval  between  Easter  and  VVhitsunday.^i  Courts  of  justice 
were  also  suspended  on  most  of  those  days,  and  civil  persecutions 
prohibited.-^  Among  the  positive  duties  required  on  such  occasions 
were  deeds  of  mercy  and  charity,  attendance  on  public  worship,  not 
only  of  the  house  of  worship,  but  of  private  dwellings,  and  the  wear- 
ing of  suitable  apparel.  The  rich  were  to  send  presents  of  food  to 
the  poor,  and  prayers  were  to  be  offered  by  the  congregation  not 
kneeling,  but  standing.  If  any  master  proposed  to  manumit  his 
slaves,  this  was  also  required  to  be  done  on  those  days.--^ 

Since  the  fourth  century,  it  has  been  customary  to  celebrate  joy- 
ful festivals  by  decorations  with  evergreens,  by  strewing  of  flowers, 
illuminations,  and  the  burning  of  incense. 

It  is  uncertain  whether  the  love  feasts  of  the  primitive  church  were 
a  part  of  the  sacrament  or  not.  That  they  were  celebrated  in  con- 
nection, is  sufficiently  evident.-"*  At  first  they  preceded  the  sacra- 
mental season,  and  were  an  ordinance  introductory  to  this.  It  was 
afterwards  made  to  follow  that  season.  In  the  fourth  century  these 
feasts  became  the  occasion  of  such  excesses  that  the  intervention  of 
ecclesiastical  councils  was  required  to  correct  them.  They  were 
subsequently  prohibited  altogether,  and  discontinued  in  the  sixth  or 
seventh  century .^^     See  chap.  XVI.  §  13. 

The  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper  was  celebrated  on  all  reli- 
gious festivals,  as  the  most  important  of  the  festivities  of  the  occa- 
sion. 

§  2.  Of  the  Sabbath. 

The  primitive  church  observed  both  the  Jewish  and  the  christian 
sabbath.     The  Jewish  converts  considered  the  abrogation  of  the  cere- 


OF  THE  SABBATH.  429 

monial  law,  and  of  the  sabbath,  to  relate  only  to  their  exemption 
from  its  burdensome  rites  ;  and  religiously  observed  the  day  as  holy. 
Converts  from  paganism,  on  the  contrary,  contemplated  Cliristianity 
as  a  dispensation  altogether  new,  and  the  religion  of  the  Jews  as  to- 
tally abrogated.  The  resurrection  of  Christ  was  to  them  a  fixed 
point,  the  beginning  of  this  new  dispensation,  the  new  passover  from 
bondage  to  freedom,  from  death  to  life.  This  great  event  they  re- 
fused to  commemorate  on  the  same  day  which  the  Jews  observed 
for  another  end,  and  for  this  purpose  they  selected  the  first  day  of 
the  week.  The  import  of  the  christian  sabbath  they  accounted  more 
significant  and  important  than  that  of  the  Jewish.  The  one  com- 
memorated the  completio7i  of  the  work  of  creation ;  the  other,  the 
beginning  of  a  nobler  work  by  the  great  Creator  himself,  who  was 
light  and  life  to  all. 

The  silence  of  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  relative  to  the 
christian  sabbath,  is  no  matter  of  surprise.  It  is  in  strict  accordance 
with  that  law  of  liberty  which  is  the  basis  of  the  christian  dispensa- 
tion. But  there  are  A'arious  passages  which  evidently  refer  to  this 
institution.  The  divine  Word,  by  whom  all  things  were  made,  is 
styled  Light  and  Life,  with  evident  reference  to  the  work  of  creation. 
To  this  we  may  add  Acts  20:  7.  1  Cor.  16:  2.  Mark  16:  2,  9.  John 
20:  19,  26,  and  especially  Rev.  1:  10. 

The  author  of  the  epistle  of  St.  Barnabas  introduces  the  Lord  as 
saying,  '  The  sabbaths  which  you  now  keep  are  not  acceptable  to 
me ;  but  those  which  I  have  made,  when,  resting  from  all  things,  I 
shall  begin  the  eighth  day,  that  is,  the  beginning  of  the  other  world.' 
"  For  which  cause,"  he  adds,  "  we  observe  the  eighth  day  with  glad- 
ness, in  which  Jesus  rose  from  the  dead,  and,  having  manifested 
himself  to  his  disciples,  ascended  into  heaven."- 

Justin  Martyr,  who  lived  in  the  fore  part  of  the  second  century, 
says  that  they,  Christians,  neither  celebrated  the  Jewish  festivals,  nor 
observed  their  sabbaths,  nor  practised  circumcision.^  In  another 
place  he  says  that  they,  both  those  who  lived  in  the  city  and  they 
who  lived  in  the  country,  were  all  accustomed  to  meet  on  the  day 
which  is  denominated  Sunday,  for  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures, 
prayer,  exhortation,  and  communion.  See  chap.  XVI.  §  4.  The 
assembly  meet  on  Sunday,  because  this  is  the  first  day  on  which 
God,  having  changed  the  darkness,  and  the  elements,  to  crxoTog  xal 
X7jv  uhjv  JiJBTKTag,  created  the  world  :  and  because  Jesus  our  Lord  on 
this  day  arose  from  the  dead. 


430  OF  SACRED  SEASONS. 

Pliny  asserts  that  they^  the  Christians,  were  wont  to  meet  on  a  cer- 
tain day,  stato  die,  and  sing  hymns  to  Christ  as  God.^ 

Ignatius,  in  the  first  century,  exhorts  the  Magnesians,  c.  9,  no 
longer  to  sabbatize,  i.  e.  obseroe  the  Jeioish  sabbaths,  but  to  keep  the 
Lord's  day.  Other  authorities  are  quoted  from  Tertullian,*'  Clemens 
Alexandrinus,'^  and  Cyprian,^  from  all  which  it  must  be  admitted 
that  the  observance  of  the  Christian  sabbath  had  already  become  uni- 
versal in  the  second  century,  as  a  usage  enforced  by  common  con- 
sent and  the  authority  of  tradition,  agreeably  to  the  declaration  of 
Augustine.^ 

Athanasius,  however,  in  the  beginning  of  the  third  century,  ex- 
pressly declared  that  the  Lord  changed  the  sabbath  into  the  Lord's 
day,  and  adds,  "  We  observe  the  Lord's  day  because  of  the  resur- 
rection.'*^ 

The  account  which  Eusebius  gives  of  this  subject  is,  that  the 
Logos,  the  Word,  in  the  New  Testament,  transferred  the  sabbath 
of  the  Lord  God  unto  this  day,  i.  e.  to  the  christian  sabbath,  as  the 
true  image  of  divine  rest,  and  the  first  day  of  light,  when  the  Saviour, 
bursting  the  bars  of  death,  completed  a  work  more  excellent  than 
that  of  the  six  days  of  creation,  and  entered  the  gates  of  heaven,  to 
enjoy  his  glorious  rest.  "  This  day,"  he  observes,  "  Christians 
throughout  the  world  celebrate,  in  strict  obedience  to  the  spiritual 
law.  Like  the  Jews  they  offer  the  morning  and  evening  sacrifice, 
with  incense  of  sweeter  odor  ;"  referring  to  their  confessions,  suppli- 
cations, and  prayers,  and  the  melody  of  their  psalms  and  hymns  and 
spiritual  songs.  The  day,  he  also  says,  was  universally  observed  as 
strictly  as  the  Jewish  sabbath,  whilst  all  feasting,  drunkenness,  and 
recreation,  was  rebuked  as  a  profanation  of  the  sacred  day. — Com- 
menl.  in  Ps.  91. 

The  Jewish  Christians,  while  they  observed  the  seventh  day  as 
the  sabbath,  did  not  omit  the  Jirst  day  in  commemoration  of  the  re- 
surrection. This  would  probably  have  been  a  forfeiture  of  the  chris- 
tian name.  But  the  exhortations  which  were  given  •dgainst  jtidaizing 
and  sabbatizing,  are  directed  apparently  against  an  undue  care  in 
keeping  the  Jewish  sabbath.''  This  was  uniformly  censured  as 
prejudicial  to  the  freedom  of  christian  worship  ;  but  no  specific  limi- 
tations were  set  to  those  things  which  might  bo  done  consistently 
with  christian  liberty  and  a  good  conscience  in  celebration  of  the 
Jewish  sabbath.  Neither  did  the  decrees  of  councils  and  of  empe- 
rors, relating  to  the  observance  of  Sunday,  interfere  with  the  usages 


OF  THE  SABBATH.  431 

relating  to  the  Jewish  sabbath.'-  It  was  even  styled  by  Gregory 
Nazianzen  the  kindred  of  the  christian  sabbalh.^'^  Both  were  ob- 
served as  joyful  festivals,  on  which  it  was  forbidden  to  fast,  with  the 
exception  of  Easter  eve,  commemorative  of  that  night  when  our 
Lord  lay  entombed  in  the  sepulchre. 

The  rules  relating  to  the  observance  of  Saturday,  or  the  .lewish 
snbbath,  were  chiefly  of  a  negative  and  prohibitory  character.  Fast- 
ing and  kneeling  in  prayer  were  forbidden,  as  on  the  sabbath.  La- 
bor was  not  prohibited,  which  is  the  more  remarkable  inasmuch  as 
it  was  suspended  even  on  other  festivals. ^^  Neander  erroneously 
asserts  that  the  communion  was  administered  on  this  day.!**  But 
public  worship  was  held,  and  the  mysteries  celebrated,  as  on  the 
Lord's  day.  To  this  remark,  however,  the  church  at  Rome  and 
Alexandria  are  an  exception.  It  was  at  a  later  period  observed  as 
an  evening  festival  preparatory  to  the  Lord's  day,  and  was  solem- 
nized by  vespers  and  vigils.  This  is  the  true  import  of  the  religious 
observance  of  Saturday.  It  was  prejHwatory  to  the  Lord's  day, 
designed  to  lead  on  and  rightly  introduce  this  great  day  of  our  Lord. 
But  the  Roman  and  the  Oriental  churches  differed  essentially  in  their 
observance  of  the  day.  The  former  kept  it  as  afasi,^'^  the  latter  as 
afesf.ivalJ^ 

The  Lord's  day,  however,  was  uniformly  regarded  as  more  sa- 
cred than  Saturday,  And  after  the  fourth  century  was  thus  honored 
not  only  in  the  church,  but  also  in  the  state.  Ignatius  says  that  all 
who  loved  the  Lord  kept  the  Lord's  day  as  the  queen  of  days,  a  re- 
viving, life-giving  day,  best  of  all  our  days.  Such  epithets  abound 
in  the  ancient  homilies  of  the  fathers.  But  the  appropriate  name  of 
the  day  was  the  Lord''s  day.  The  name  of  Sunday,  die  solis,  was 
rejected,  because  of  its  relation  to  idolatry;  and  when  at  length  it 
was  received  into  use,  it  was  only  in  a  metaphorical  sense,  in  rela- 
tion to  Christ  as  the  Light  of  the  World  and  the  Sun  of  Righteous- 
ness.13  It  is  also  worthy  of  note  that  the  first  day  was  very  gene- 
rally called  the  eighth  day. 

The  heretical  sects  of  the  day  are  severely  censured  by  the  fathers 
for  their  disregard  of  the  sabbath.  And  yet  it  does  not  appear  that 
any  one  absolutely  neglected  the  day.  It  would  seem  rather  that 
they  were  less  scrupulous  in  the  two  cardinal  points  by  which,  in  the 
view  of  the  primitive  Christians,  the  day  was  desecrated— /as/iwg', 
and  kneeling  in  prayer.     To  fast  in  token  of  sorrow  on  this  glad  day, 


432  OF  SACRED  SEASONS. 

and  to  knee!  whilst  commemorating  the  day  when  our  Lord  arose, 
was  a  violent  impropriety,  which  failed  not  to  awaken  the  sore  dis- 
pleasure of  the  church,  and  call  forth  the  anathemas  of  her  councils. 
It  is  not  distinctly  known  whether  these  sects  allowed  labor  to  be 
performed  on  the  Lord's  day  or  not. 

^  3.    General,  View  of  the  sacred  Seasons,  and  of  the  Period 

OF  THE  three  GREAT  FESTIVALS. 

The  most  ancient  of  all  the  festivals  of  the  church  is  that  of  Eas- 
ter, in  memory  of  our  Lord's  resurrection.  The  high  antiquity  and 
importance  of  this  festival  is  sufficiently  evident  from  the  fact  that  the 
ecclesiastical  year  began  with  it,  and  that  originally  it  was  commem- 
orative both  of  the  death  and  resurrection  of  our  Lord.  It  is  known 
in  the  oldest  writings  extant  as  naaxa  avacndai^ov,  feast  of  the  re- 
surrection. 

After  this,  the  most  ancient  feast  is  that  of  Whitsunday,  commem- 
orative of  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  day  of  Pentecost. 
It  is  really  a  continuation  and  conclusion  of  the  festival  above  men- 
tioned. The  entire  period  of  seven  weeks  between  Easter  and 
Whitsunday  was  one  continued  festival,  styled  the  Pentecost,  during 
which  time  it  was  not  allowed  either  to  kneel  in  prayer  or  to  fast. 
The  present  Whitsunday  is  probably  of  no  higher  antiquity  than  the 
Ascension  feast,  which  some  writers,  confounding  the  feast  with  the 
fact  which  it  commemorates,  assert  to  be  of  apostolic  origin.  It  was 
coeval  with  the  martyr  feasts,  in  honor  of  saints,  of  which  we  have 
no  knowledge  earlier  than  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  centuries. 

The  earliest  of  these  festivals  of  which  we  have  any  record  is  that 
in  memory  of  Polycarp,  as  related  by  Eusebius,  who  copies  the 
epistle,  sent  by  the  church  over  which  Polycarp  presided,  to  the  sis- 
ter churches.  In  this  epistle  it  is  said,  "  The  Lord  grant  that  we 
may,  with  joy  and  gladness,  celebrate  the  birth-day  of  his  martyrdom, 
both  in  memory  of  those  who  have  heretofore  undergone  and  been 
victorious  in  this  glorious  conflict,  and  also  for  the  instruction  and 
preparation  of  such  as  shall  hereafter  be  exercised  therein."  ^  The 
Greek  church,  as  early  as  the  fourth  century,  celebrated  the  feast  of 
All  Saints. 

The  institution  of  Christmas  as  a  festival  was  at  a  period  subse- 
quent to  that  above  mentioned,  and  dates  no  farther  back  than  the 


GENERAL  VIEW.  433 

fourth  century.  After  the  introduction  of  this  feast,  which  became 
the  occasion  of  many  others,  the  festivals  of  the  churcli  began  to  be 
reduced  to  system  and  method,  not  in  the  order  of  antiquity,  but  ac- 
cording to  their  desij^n  and  end  ;  so  that  towards  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century  tlic  sacred  seasons  were  arranged  in  three  great  cycles,  set- 
ting furth  in  chronological  order  the  leading  incidents  of  our  Saviour's 
life.  The  three  high  feasts  were  thus  intended  specifically  to  com- 
prehend and  to  honor  the  most  momentous  events  of  the  same. 

These  festivals  were  also  preceded  by  preparatory  fasts.  Before 
Christmas  and  Easier,  both  the  Latin  and  Greek  churches  agreed 
in  keeping  the  advent  and  quadragesimal  fasts,  though  they  differed 
in  regard  to  the  time  during  which  these  ought  to  continue.  The 
entire  period  between  Easter  and  Whitsunday  was  a  continued  festi- 
val, in  which  it  was  unlawful  to  fast,  but  even  this  did  not  prevent 
the  Greek  church  from  observing  a  short  fast  before  this  day.  The 
following  extract  from  Chrysostom  will  illustrate  the  views  of  the 
fathers  on  this  subject.  "  In  six  days  God  executed  all  his  work,  and 
rested  on  the  seventh.  So  in  these  last  days  the  divine  Logos  who, 
to  save  that  which  was  lost,  in  mercy  became  flesh,  appointed  festi- 
vals corresponding  to  the  days  of  the  creation.  The  first  is  the  na- 
tivity in  the  flesh  ;  the  second,  epiphany  ;  the  third,  the  day  of  his 
passion  ;  the  fourth,  the  day  of  his  glorious  resurrection  ;  the  fifth, 
his  reception  into  heaven  ;  the  sixth,  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost ; 
the  seventh,  the  great  day  of  general  resurrection,  which  has  no  suc- 
cession nor  end.  For  that  is  an  eternal  festival,  or  perpetual  sab- 
bath, and  rest  for  the  people  of  God,  to  be  celebrated  with  great  joy 
and  gladness,  by  those  that  shall  be  heirs  of  such  things  as  eye  hath 
not  seen  nor  ear  heard,  neither  have  entered  into  the  heart  of  man, — 
which  God  has  prepared  for  them  that  love  him."-  The  last  men- 
tioned is,  evidently,  not  a  feast  of  the  church,  but  the  same  as  the 
eternal  sabbath,  and  the  heavenly  hallelujah,  of  hich  the  writers  of 
that  day  so  frequently  speak. 

The  Greek  church,  according  to  the  annalist  Michael  Glycas,  ob- 
served six  principal  feasts  ;  first,  the  birth ;  second,  the  baptism  ; 
third,  the  death  ;  fourth,  the  resurrection  ;  fifth,  the  ascension  of 
Christ,  and  sixth,  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  These  had  a.  mys- 
tical relation  to  the  six  days  of  creation,  and  were  emblematical  of  the 
new  creation  by  Christ.  Two  of  these  were  uniformly  celebrated  in 
connection,  constituting  a  threefold  division. 
55 


434  OF  SACRED  SEASONS. 


§  4.  Of  Christmas,  the  Festival  of  Christ's  Nativity.^ 

This  festival  begins  with  the  advent  on  the  last  of  November,  and 
continues  until  epiphany,  January  6th.  But  both  the  Latin  and 
Greek  church,  since  the  latter  end  of  the  fourth  century  have  agreed 
in  observing  the  25ih  of  December  more  particularly.  The  advent 
is  preliminary  and  preparatory  to  this,  and  the  epiphany  closes  this 
sacred  festival  in  honor  of  the  incarnate  Saviour.  Many,  misled  by 
the  term  uqn^tg,  advent,  as  it  ocv-urs  in  the  earliest  of  the  fathers, 
have  supposed  that  the  advent,  as  a  festival,  was  of  apostolic  origin  ; 
whereas  the  first  authentic  mention  is  in  the  council  of  Mascon,  c.  3, 
A.  D.  582. 

In  regard  to  the  nativity,  it  appears  from  an  oration  of  Chrysostom 
on  this  occasion,  in  the  year  386,  that  this  festival  had  been  introdu- 
ced ten  years  before,  for  the  first  time,  into  Antioch  and  Syria,  and 
that  others  claimed  for  it  a  high  antiquity,  asserting  that  it  was 
known  from  Thrace  even  unto  Spain.^  Epiphany  was  observed  at 
an  earlier  period  ;  his  entrance  upon  his  public  ministry  being  an 
event  of  greater  interest  than  that  of  his  birth,  Clemens  Alexandrinus 
censures  those  who  seek  too  anxiously  the  Saviour's  birth.^ 

Epiphanius  affirms  that  the  birth  of  Christ  occurred  on  the  6th  of 
January ,4  which  again  Jerome  denies.-^ 

Augustine  recommends  a  suitable  remembrance  of  the  day,  but 
does  not  honor  it  as  a  solemn  festival.  He  expressly  asserts  that  the 
church,  by  common  consent,  held  it  on  the  25th  of  December.^  In- 
deed it  may  be  confidently  affirmed  that  in  the  third  century,  and 
the  first  half  of  ihe  fourth,  the  church  were  not  agreed,  either  in  re- 
gard to  the  time,  or  reasons  for  observing  this  festival ;  and  that  the 
Eastern  and  Western  churches  differed  totally  in  their  manner  of 
celebrating  it.  About  the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  it  was  finally 
agreed  that  Christmas  and  Epiphany  should  be  observed  as  two  dis- 
tinct festivals,  the  one,  on  the  25th  of  December ;  the  other,  on  the 
6th  of  January."  From  that  time,  this  arrangement  has  been  very 
generally  observed.* 

*  The  following-  passage  from  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  Stromat,  1.  i.  p.  340, 
ab.  249,  is  almost  the  only  genuine  passage  of  an  Anlc-Nicene  writer  which 
can  be  supposed  to  allude  to  any  festival  commemorative  of  the  advent  of 
our  Lord.     After  giving  a  list  of  the  Raman  emperors  till  the  death  of  Com- 


OF  CHRISTMAS.  435 

The  reason  for  celebrating  Christmas  eve  with  so  much  solemnity 
was,  that  though  neither  the  day  nor  the  year  of  our  Saviour's  birth 
was  known,  it  was  received  as  an  acknowledged  truth  that  he  was 
born  i?i.  the  nightfi  Accordingly  whilst  other  vigils  had  fallen  into 
disuse,  or  been  exchanged  for  evening  vespers,  this  was  extended  to 
continue  through  the  whole  night.  But  these  waichings  finally  were 
discontinued,  and  instead  of  them,  three  services  were  read  on  that 
day. 

When  the  representatives  of  Adam  and  Eve  on  Christmas  eve 
was  first  introduced  is  not  known.  It  had  a  mysterial  relation  to  the 
first  and  second  Adam,  and  was  a  device  of  the  fourth  or  fifth  cen- 
tury .^ 

modus,  A.  D.  192,  and  stating  what  years  of  certain  emperors  the  Saviour 
was  either  born,  or  baptized,  or  crucified,  he  sa)'s  :  "  There  are  some  who 
over  curiously  assign  not  only  the  year,  but  the  day  also  of  our  Saviour's  na- 
tivity, which  they  say  was  in  the  28th  year  of  Augustus,  on  the  25th  of  Fa- 
chon,  (20;/t  of  May).  And  the  followers  of  Basilides  observe  also  the  day  of 
his  hapfisvi  as  a  festival,  spending  the  whole  previous  night  in  readino-  ■  and 
they  say  it  was  on  the  15th  year  of  Tiberias  Caesar,  on  the  15th  of  Tybi 
(lOth  of  January),  but  some  say  it  was  on  the  11th,  (C't/i)  of  that  month. 
Among  those  who  nicely  calculate  the  time  of  his  passion,  some  say  it  was 
on  the  16th  year  of  Tiberias  Caesar,  the  25th  of  Phemenotii,  {22d  of  March)  ; 
others  say,  the  25th  of  Pharmulhi,  {2lst  of  Jlpril)  ;  and  others,  that  it  was 
on  the  19th  of  Pharmuthi,  {IWi  of  .ipril),  that  the  Saviour  suffered.  Nay, 
some  of  them  say  that  he  was  born  in  Pharmuthi,  the  24th  or  25th  day 
{Jlpril  2(itk  or  2l5«)." 

The  reasons  for  observing  the  25th  of  December  in  commemoration  of  our 
Lord's  advent,  may  have  been  various.  Some  may  have  honestly  believed 
this  to  be  the  true  day  of  his  nativity,  and  others  may  have  felt  it  desirable 
to  have  a  christian  festival  at  some  other  season  of  the  year  than  the  fifty 
or  sixty  days  immediately  succeeding  the  vernal  equinox,  into  which  all  the 
older  festivals  were  clustered.  The  designation  of  this  day  was  first  made 
about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century. 

From  the  first  institution  of  this  festival  many  of  the  western  nations  seem 
to  have  transferred  to  it  many  of  the  follies  which  prevailed  in  the  pao-an 
festivals  at  the  same  season,  such  as  adorning  fantastically  the  churches 
mingling  puppet-shows  and  dramas  with  worship,  universal  feastino-  and  mer- 
ry-making, Christmas  visits  and  salutations,  Christmas  presents  and  jocular- 
ity, and  Christmas  revelry  and  drunkenness.  Christmas  holidays  have  borne 
so  close  a  resemblance,  whenever  they  have  IJeen  observed,  to  the  Roman 
Saturnalia,  Sigillaria,  etc.,  and  to  the  Juel  feast  of  the  Goths,  as  to  afford 
strong  presumption  of  an  unhappy  alliance  between  them  from  the  first.  See 
Murdock's  Mosheim,  second  ed.  pp.  279,  280,  from  which  the  above  note  is 
taken.— Tr. 


436  OF  SACRED  SEASONS. 

The  death  of  the  martyr  Stephen  was  commemorated  December 
26th.  The  event  evidently  occurred  in  August,  A.  D.  36.  But 
after  the  pretended  discovery  of  his  relics,  il  was  commemorated  on 
the  6th  or  7th  of  January,  and  then  again,  was  changed  to  Decem- 
ber 26lh  as  above  mentioned. 

On  the  third  of  the  Christmas  festivals,  was  St.  John's  day  ; 
and  the  fourth  was  celebrated  in  memory  of  the  slaughter  of  the 
children  of  Bethlehem  by  Herod,  styled  Innoceni''s  day.  Authori- 
ties are  given  in  the  index  to  show  that  the  entire  interval  between 
Christmas  and  Epiphany  was  observed  as  a  continued  festival.'" 

To  show  in  what  consideration  this  festival,  commemorative  of 
our  Lord's  nativity  was  held  by  the  ancient  church,  a  brief  extract 
from  Chrysostom  is  here  inserted.  After  asserting  that  this  is  more 
venerable  than  any  other  relating  to  Christ,  inasmuch  as  all  others 
depended  upon  his  incarnation,  he  adds  :  "But  we  do  not  give  this 
festival  the  preference  merely  on  this  account ;  but  because  the 
transaction  on  this  day  was,  of  all  others,  the  most  stupendous.  For 
that  Christ  when  once  man  should  die,  was  a  thing  of  course.  But 
that  when  he  was  God  he  should  be  willing  to  become  a  man.,  is  be- 
yond roeasure  wonderful,  and  astonishing.  Transported  with  this 
thought  St.  Paul  in  rapture  exclaims,  '  Without  controversy  great  is 
the  mystery  of  godliness,  God  was  manifest  in  the  flesh.'  B^or  this 
reason  chiefly  I  love  and  venerate  this  day,  and  commend  it  to  your 
consideration  that  I  may  make  you  partakers  of  the  same  sentiments. 
I  therefore  pray  and  beseech  you,  Come  with  all  diligence  and  alac- 
rity, every  man  first  purifying  his  own  house,  to  see  our  Lord  wrap- 
ped in  swaddling  clothes  and  lying  in  a  manger  !  Tremendous 
thought!  Oh  sight  of  wonder!"''  "I  am  not  now  astonished," 
exclaims  another,  "  at  the  creation  of  the  world,  at  the  heavens,  at 
the  earth,  at  the  succession  of  days  and  seasons ;  but  I  wonder  to 
see  God  enclosed  in  the  womb  of  a  virgin,  the  Omnipotent  Iain  in  a 
manger,  the  eternal  Word  clothed  with  flesh  !"'- 

§  5.  Easter,  or  the  Festival  which  cobimemouates  the  Death 
AND  Resurrection  of  our  Lord. 

This  great  event  is  a  cardinal  point  in  the  christian  system  on 
which  depend  our  faith  and  hope.  So  important  was  the  doctrine 
of  Christ's  resurrection  in  the  view  of  the  primitive  church  that,  not 


EASTER.  437 

only  was  an  annual  festival  set  apart  to  commemorate  it  ;  but  the 
Lord's  day  was  made  a  weekly  memorial  of  the  same  event.  This 
festival  was  therefore  celebrated  with  great  solemnity.  It  was  sty- 
led by  Gregory  Nazianzen,  </ie  king  of  days,  the  festival  of  festivals  ; 
excelHng  all  others  as  far  as  the  sun  outshines  the  stars. 

Unlike  the  Christmas  festival,  this  was  a  moveal^e  feast.  However 
the  ancients  might  differ  respecting  the  time  for  celebrating  Christ- 
mas whether  in  December,  April,  May,  August,  or  September,  all 
agreed  that  it  should  be  held  uniformly  on  some  given  day.  But 
this  festival  was  restricted  to  no  prescribed  day  ;  a  circumstance 
which  gave  rise  to  great  contentions,  by  which  the  church  was  sore- 
ly agitated  and  divided  for  several  centuries. 

This  festival,  like  that  of  Christmas,  was  preceded  by  a  season  of 
fasting.  This  fast  at  first  continued  forty  hours,  corresponding  to 
Friday  and  Saturday  before  Easter,  and  comprising  the  period  du- 
ring which  our  Saviour  lay  in  the  grave.  It  was  moreover  in  the  be- 
ginning a  vohintarii  fast.  But  it  became  in  process  of  time  a  pre- 
scribed and  necessary  duty,  not  only  for  penitents  and  catechumens, 
but  for  all  believers  to  observe  this  fast  for  their  own  spiritual  im- 
provement. In  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  the  fast  was  extended  to 
thirty-six  days.  The  four  additional  days  which  complete  the  sea- 
son of  Lent  were  added  either  in  the  sixth  century  by  Gregory  the 
Great,  or  in  the  eighth  by  Gregory  II.  This  fast,  styled  the  carni- 
val, from  caro  vale}  began  with  Ash  Wednesday  and  ended  with  the 
Saturday  before  Easter.  That  day  was  observed  with  great  solem- 
nity, and  was  denominated  the  Great  Sabbath. 

The  entire  week  before  Easter,  beginning  with  Palm  Sunday,  was 
kept  as  holy  time  ;  but  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh,  were  regarded 
as  peculiarly  sacred  above  the  other  days  of  this  week.  The  week 
was  denominated  the  great  iveek  and  passion  iveek. 

The  fifth  day,  called  Maundy  Thursday,  dies  mandati,  was  a 
communion  day,  dies  mysteriorimi,  eucharistiae,  panis,  indulgentiae, 
etc.  And,  for  a  long  time  after  the  ancient  love-feasts  were  discon- 
tinued, this  day  was  observed  as  a  feast  of  love.  With  these  cere- 
monies was  also  joined  that  of  washing  the  feet  by  catechumens  and 
candidates  for  baptism.  The  creed  was  also  publicly  rehearsed  by 
them  on  this  day,  and  pardon  was  extended  to  the  penitent,  hence 
called  dies  indulgentiae. 
.    The  sixth  day  of  passion  week  is  Good  Friday,  from  the  good 


438  OF  SACRED  SEASONS. 

derived  from  the  death  of  Christ.  The  day  was  observed  as  a  strict 
fast.  The  customary  acclamations  and  doxologies  were  omitted, 
and  nothing  but  the  most  plaintive  strains  of  music,  such  as  :<vqis 
iliriaov,  etc.  was  allowed.  No  bell  was  rung  on  this  occasion.  None 
bowed  the  knee  in  prayer,  because  thus  the  Jews  reviled  Jesus,  Matt. 
27:  29.  Neither  (^d  any  present  the  kiss  of  charity,  for  Judas  be- 
trayed his  Lord  with  a  kiss.  The  sacramental  elements  were  not 
consecrated,  the  altars  were  divested  of  their  ornaments  and  the 
gospel  of  John  was  read,  because  he  was  a  faithful  and  true  witness 
of  our  Lord's  passion. 

The  seventh  day  of  this  week,  the  Great  Sabbath,  as  it  was  called, 
was  observed  with  rigorous  precision  as  a  day  of  fasting.  Eeligious 
worship  was  celebrated  by  night,  and  the  vigils  of  the  night  were 
continued  until  cock-crowing,  the  hour  when  the  Lord  was  supposed 
to  have  arisen.  At  this  instant  the  stillness  of  these  midnight  vigils 
was  suddenly  interrupted  by  the  joyful  acclamation,  The  Lord  is 
risen,  the  Lord  is  risen  !  the  Lord  is  risen  indeed  ! 

This  day  was  particularly  set  apart  for  administering  the  ordi- 
nance of  baptism,  wiili  a  reference  to  the  baptism  wherewith  Christ 
was  at  this  time  baptized,  and  for  the  consecration  of  the  holy  water. 
The  Scripture  lessons  for  this  day  were  various  selections  from  the 
prophets. 

The  day  of  Easter  was  celebrated  with  every  demonstration  of 
joy  as  a  second  jubilee.  In  connection  with  appropriate  devotional 
exercises,  it  was  customary  to  celebrate  the  day  by  deeds  of  charity 
and  mercy — by  granting  liberty  to  the  captive,  freedom  to  the  slave, 
and  pardon  to  the  criminals.  Charities  were  dispensed  to  the  needy. 
Courts  of  justice  were  suspended.  Each  participated  in  the  general 
joy  and  felt  his  bosom  swell  with  the  "  wide  wish  of  benevolence." 

The  week  following  Easter  was  observed  as  a  continuation  of  the 
festival.  The  time  was  spent  in  reading  the  Scriptures,  celebrating 
the  mysteries  and  other  appropriate  exercises.  During  this  time 
they  who  had  been  baptized  at  Easter  appeared  arrayed  in  ivhite, 
in  token  of  that  purity  of  life  to  which  they  were  bound  by  their  bap- 
tismal vows.  On  the  sabbath  following,  they  laid  aside  their  gar- 
ments of  white,  and  after  this  became  integral  members  of  the 
church.  The  day  was  called  While  Sunday  from  their  appearing 
in  white  for  the  last  time.  It  was  also  denominated  the  Octave  of 
Easter,  New  Lord's  day,  etc. 


whitsunday.  439 

§  6.  Pkntecost  or  Whitsunday. 

Tliis  season  has  reference  to  the  ascension  of  our  Lord  and  the 
connmencement  of  the  christian  church  by  the  descent  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  The  foregoing  high  feasts  comprise  the  great  events  of  his 
earthly  existence.  This  sets  forth  his  exaltation  at  the  right  hand  of 
God,  where  he  fulfilled  his  promise  of  sending  the  Holy  Spirit,  the 
Comforter;  and,  as  the  invisible  head  of  the  church  on  earth,  he 
continued  still  to  govern  it  by  his  miraculous  agency.  Herein  was 
manifested  the  first  display  of  his  heavenly  grace  ;  so  that  though  he 
dwelt  no  more  with  us,  he  was  still,  as  during  his  abode  on  earth, 
full  of  grace  and  truth. 

The  feast  in  question  is  based  on  historical  and  doctrinal  truth, 
which,  like  those  facts  on  which  the  other  great  feasts  rely,  is  sub- 
stantiated by  historical  evidence.  The  ascension  of  our  Lord  is  an 
historical  fact ;  and  this  festival  is  based  on  the  most  important  cir- 
cumstance connected  wiih  that  fact — the  effusion  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
on  the  day  of  Pentecost. 

Both  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches  agree  in  beginning  this  sacred 
festival  with  the  Ascension  Feast,  and  end  it  with  Pentecost.  The 
Greek  church  admit  of  no  Trinity  Feast  within  this  sacred  season, 
but  in  the  place  of  it  celebrate  the  feast  of  All  Saints  and  Martyrs. 
The  former  can  claim  no  higher  antiquity  than  the  ninth  century, 
and  probably  was  not  fully  established  until  the  fourteenth.  But 
there  was  very  early  a  feast  day  of  the  Apostles,  in  the  Western 
church,  which  afterwards  became  the  feast  day  of  Philip  and  James. 
This  was  in  all  probability  the  origin  of  the  modern  Whitsunday,  be- 
ing much  earlier  than  that  of  All  Saints,  instituted  A.  D.  834,  or, 
according  to  others,  751,  or  610. 

The  Ascension  feast  was  established  in  the  fourth  century  as  one 
of  the  great  festivals ;  but  it  may  have  been  celebrated,  notw^ith- 
standing,  at  a  period  still  earlier.  Nor  need  it  appear  surprising  that 
two  events  were  commemorated  by  one  festive  season.  For  the 
same  is  true  of  the  Jewish  festival,  which  included  the  feast  of  first- 
fruits  and  of  the  promulgation  of  the  law,  Ex.  23: 16.  Lev.  23: 14 — 21. 
Num.  28:  26.  Indeed  this  festival,  in  many  respects,  bears  a  very 
close  analogy  to  that  of  the  Jews  ;  and  evidently  is  little  else  than  a 
modification  of  it.  The  converts  of  that  day,  when  the  Holy  Ghost 
descended,  were  ihejirsl-fruits  of  the  Spirit.     Jerome  elegantly  con- 


440  OF  SACRED  SEASONS. 

trasts  this  with  the  giving  of  the  law  on  Sinai :  "  Utraque  facta  est 
quinquagessimo  die,  a  Paschate  ;  illo,  in  Sina  ;  haec,  in  Sion.  Ibi 
terrae  inotu  contremuit  mens  ;  hie,  domus  apostolorum.  Ibi,  inter 
flammas  ignium  et  micantia  fulgura,  turbo  ventorum,  et  fragor  loni- 
truorum  personuit ;  hie,  cum  ignearum  visione  Hnguarum,  sonitus 
pariter  de  coelo,  tanquam  spiritus  vehementis  advenit.  Ibi,  clangor 
buccinae,  legis  verba  perstrepuit ;  hie,  tuba  evangelica  Apostolorum 
ore  intonuit."  ^ 

The  feast  has  been  celebrated  at  different  times  for  one  day,  for 
seven  days,  and  again  for  three.^  The  religious  solemnities  of  this 
occasion  were  very  much  the  same  as  on  the  other  great  festivals. 
It  was  one  of  the  three  baptismal  seasons,^  and  derives  the  name  of 
Whitsunday  or  white-Sunday  from  the  circumstance  that  so  many 
were  clad  in  white  on  this  day  at  their  baptism.  Homilies  were  de- 
livered as  on  the  other  festivals,  and  the  sacrament  administered.'* 

As  an  instance  of  the  extravagant  folly  of  popish  superstition,  it 
may  not  be  impertinent  to  add  that  the  Catholics  were  accustomed 
to  throw  down  fire  from  the  arches  above,  to  denote  the  cloven 
tongues.  Flowers  of  various  hues  were  scattered,  in  token  of  the 
various  tongues  and  gifts  of  the  Spirit.  And  doves  were  let  loose  to 
flutter  about  the  church  as  an  emblem  of  the  Spirit's  presence.^ 

§  7.  Festivals  in  Honor  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 

No  instance  of  divine  honor  paid  to  Mary  is  recorded  of  an  earlier 
date  than  the  fifth  century.  Cyril  of  Alexandria  and  Proklus  of  Con- 
stantinople were  the  first  to  pay  these  honors  to  her.  Festivals  to 
her  memory  began  to  be  held  about  the  year  431,^  but  were  not  gen- 
erally observed  until  the  sixth  century.  From  this  time  until  the 
sixteenth  century  they  were  general  in  all  the  Western  churches, 
though  differing  in  number  and  in  rank,  in  the  several  countries  of 
Europe.-'  The  Greek  church  observe  only  three  great  festivals  of 
this  description. 

The  following  is  a  brief  enumeration  of  the  principal  festivals  in 
question. 

1.  The  festival  of  the  Purification.  Candlemas,  Feb.  2,  instituted 
in  the  sixth  century.^ 

2.  Of  the  Annunciation,  popularly  styled  Lady  Day,  March  25, 
an  early  festival,  styled  by  St.  Bernhard,  radix  omnium  fesloruvi.^ 


FESTIVALS  IN  HONOR  01"  TIIK  MARTYRS.  4H 

3.  Of  the  Visitation  of  Mary  to  Elizabeth,  instituted  by  Urban 
VI,  1389.6 

4.  Of  tbe  Assumption  of  Mary  into  heaven,  Aug.  15,  early  insti- 
tuted." Mary  was  the  tutelary  divinity  of  France  ;  and  for  this  rea- 
son this  day  was  observed  with  peculiar  care.  It  was  also  the  birth 
day  of  Napoleon,  and  accordingly  was  observed  under  his  dynasty 
as  the  great  festival  of  the  nation. 

5.  Of  the  Nativity  of  Mary,  Sept.  8,  instituted  in  the  Eastern  church 
in  the  seventh  century;  in  the  Western,  in  the  eleventh  or  twelfth.*^ 

6.  Of  the  naming  of  Mary.    A.  D.  1513. 

7.  Of  Conception.  This  feast,  according  to  Bellarmin,  was  not 
necessarily  dependent  upon  the  question  so  fiercely  discussed  in  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  respecting  the  immaculate  concep- 
tion.'-^ 

'^  8.  Festivals  in  Memory  of  the  Martyrs. 

These  festive  occasions  are  often  styled  the  hirih  dcn/s  of  the  mar- 
tyrs, fiHQTiiQav  Yivi&Xm,  nalililia.  They  never  relate,  however,  to 
their  natural  bbih,  but  to  their  death,  at  which  they  were  born  to  a 
new  and  nobler  life  above.  Nemo,  ante  ohitum,  beatiis,  was  an 
established  ma.xim  of  the  church.  "  When  you  hear  of  the  birth  day 
of  a  saint,"  says  Peter  Chrysologus,  think  not  that  it  relates  to  his 
carnal  birth  on  earth,  but  to  the  day  when  he  was  born  from  earth 
to  heaven,  from  toil  to  rest,  from  labor  to  repose,  from  trials  to  joys 
unfading  and  eternal ;  from  earthly  vanities  to  a  crown  of  glory.- 

The  earliest  festival  of  this  kind  was  that  of  Polycarp.  x\nother 
which  was  observed  with  great  solemnity,  was  the  feast  of  the  Mac- 
cabees, founded  on  the  heroic  death  of  the  mother  and  her  seven  sons.^ 
These  festivals  were  preceded  by  vigils,  and  celebrated  around  the 
graves  of  the  martyrs,  where  their  lives  were  read,  and  eulogies 
pronounced,  the  sacrament  administered,  and  public  entertainments 
given  gratuitously  by  the  rich.  But  these  entertainments  became, 
in  time,  the  occasion  of  shameful  excesses,  and  were  suppressed. 
It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  fathers  indignantly  repel  the  charge  of 
paying  religious  honors  to  the  martyrs,  and  assert  that  they  only  cel- 
ebrate these  festivals  to  provoke  the  living  to  emulate  the  deeds  of 
the  sainted  dead,  and  to  follow  after  those  who,  through  faiih  and 
patience,  inherited  the  promises.'* 

56 


442  of  sacred  seasons. 

§  9.  Of  St.  John's  Day. 

This  commemorates  the  Mrth  of  the  Baptist,  as  Christmas  does 
that  of  Christ.  Both  are  veiled  in  equal  uncertainly,  hut  the  former 
is  known  to  have  preceded  the  latter  by  six  months,  and  is  accord- 
ingly held  June  24.  Thus  the  sun  of  the  Old  Testament  is  made  to 
set  at  the  summer  solstice,  and  that  of  the  Nevv  Testament  to  rise  in 
the  winter  solstice.'  In  the  year  506,  it  was  received  among  the 
great  feasts,  like  Easter,  Christmas,  and  other  festivals  ;  and  was 
celebrated  with  equal  solemnity,  and  in  much  the  same  manner.^ 

§  10.  Of  the  Apostles'  Days. 

The  reasons  for  observing  these  were  the  same  as  for  observing 
the  martyr  feasts;  nor  is  there  any  instance  of  the  appointment  of 
such  a  day  for  any  apostle  or  evangelist  who  was  known  not  to  have 
suffered  martyrdom.  The  Apostolical  Constitutions,  Vlll.  c.  33, 
make  mention  of  the  apostles'  feast,  and  direct  that  slaves  shall  be 
exempt  from  labor  on  that  day,  which  intimates  that  it  was  regarded 
as  one  of  the  great  feasts.  But  none  of  the  apostles  is  specified, 
neither  is  the  lime  of  observing  it  mentioned.  The  idea  of  a  gene- 
ral feast  of  this  character  was  often  entertained,  though  the  festival 
was  but  inconstantly  observed.  The  Oriental  church  celebrated  it 
immediately  after  Whitsunday,  and  in  connection  with  it ;  but  the 
churches  generally  were  not  agreed  either  in  regard  to  the  day,  or  the 
persons  who  should  be  honored  by  it.  At  one  time  Peter's  and  Paul's 
day  is  mentioned  ;2  at  another,  that  of  Philip  and  James  ;'^  then  the 
twelve  collectively.'*  But  separate  festivals  were,  in  time,  pre- 
scribed for  all  together  with  the  evangelists  Mark  and  Luke. 

Festivals  were,  in  process  of  time,  established  also  in  great  num- 
bers for  the  sam/s  of  distinction,  though  they  died  not  as  martyrs. 
The  Eastern  church  was  the  first  to  appoint  such  festivals.  In  the 
Western  church  they  were  regarded  most  from  the  time  of  Charle- 
magne to  Gregory  Vlll.^ 

The  right  of  canonizing  saints  originally  belonged  to  the  bishops, 
but  the  privilege  was  restricted  by  councils.^  The  first  instance  of 
canonization  by  the  pope  occurred  A.  D.  995.  The  privilege  con- 
tinued to  be  exercised  occasionally  until  the  twelfth  century,  when  it 
began  to  be  boldly  asserted  and  defended. 


OF  FASTS.  443 

The  feasts  of  All  Saints,  Nov.  1,  and  of  All  Souls,  Nov.  2,  were 
instituted,  the  former  in  the  seventh  and  the  latter  in  the  tenth  cen- 
tury. 

A  farther  sketch  of  the  endless  festivals  of  the  Catholics  would  be 
inconsistent  with  the  design  of  this  work.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  they 
fill  up  the  entire  year  in  the  Roman  Calendar,  so  that  there  is  not  a 
day  which  is  not  dedicated  to  the  memory  of  one  or  more  of  their 
saints.  For  a  further  account  of  the  festivals  of  the  church,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  3d  vol.  of  Augusti's  original  Work. 

It  appears  that  the  earliest  professors  of  the  christian  faith  were 
disposed  conscientiously  to  abstain  from  public  religious  ceremonies, 
and  were  more  than  content  to  be  even  destitute  of  temples,  altars, 
priests,  and  sacred  pomp  or  show.  They  received  in  its  literal  and 
broadest  meaning  the  precept  of  our  Saviour,  that  his  disciples 
should  worship  God  in  spirit  and  in  truth  ;  and  they  thought  that 
they  had  discovered,  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Jewish  polity  and  the 
destruction  of  the  temple,  an  intimation  of  the  Divine  will  that  reli- 
gious worship  should  be  no  longer  limited  by  time  and  place.  The 
Jewish  Christians,  indeed,  continued  to  evince  an  attachment  to  places, 
times,  and  seasons  ;  but  the  early  Gentile  converts  regarded  temples 
and  altars  as  remnants  or  indications  of  heathen  superstition, — an 
opinion  which  is  strongly  developed,  for  example,  in  the  Apologies 
of  Justin  Martyr,  Athenagoras,  and  TertuUian,  and  even  in  the 
writings  of  Origen  {contra  Celsum,  lib.  viii.) 

In  course  of  time,  however,  when  Christianity  was  protected,  and 
even  adopted,  by  the  state,  and  opportunity  was  thus  given  of  estab- 
lishing public  forms  and  ceremonies  of  worship  without  fear  of  dan- 
ger, and  when  it  seemed  expedient  to  recommend  it  to  the  favor  of 
half-converted  pagans  by  outward  pomp  and  circumstance,  it  was 
thought  to  be  at  once  safe  and  seasonable  to  increase  the  number  of 
sacred  solemnities,  both  ordinary  and  extraordinary,  to  restore  many 
parts  of  the  Jewish  ritual,  and  even  to  incorporate  into  the  system  of 
christian  worship  various  rites  and  ceremonies  from  the  customs  of 
the  declining  pagan  superstition.  And  it  is  to  this  period  of  church 
history,  and  to  these  mistaken  principles  of  polity,  that  we  may 
chiefly  refer  the  origin  of  stations,  processions,  and  pilgrimages- 
But  to  speak  of  these  in  detail  would  carry  us  too  far  out  of  the  de- 
partment of  Christian  Antiquities  into  the  region  of  ecclesiastical  su- 
perstition and  folly. 


444  OF  SACRED  SEASONS. 


§  11.  Of  Fasts. 

a)  Fractice  of  the  Early  Christians.  The  doctrine  and  practice 
of  our  Lord  and  his  apostles  respecting  fasting  may  be  thus  descri- 
bed. Our  Saviour  neglected  the  observance  of  those  stated  Jewish 
fasts  which  had  been  superadded  to  the  Mosaic  law,  and  introduced 
especially  after  the  captivity,  to  which  the  Pharisees  paid  scrupulous 
attention.  Matt.  11:  18,  19  ;  and  he  represented  such  observances  as 
inconsistent  with  the  genius  of  his  religion.  Matt.  9:  14 — 18 ;  and 
parallel  passages,  Mark  2:  15—22.  Luke  5:  33—39.  The  practice 
of  voluntary  and  occasional  fasting  he  neither  prohibited  nor  en- 
joined ;  he  spoke  of  it,  however,  as  being  not  unsuitable  on  certain 
occasions,  nor  without  its  use  in  certain  cases.  Matt.  9:  15.  17:  21 ; 
he  fasted  himself  on  a  great  and  solemn  occasion.  Matt.  4:  2  ;  and 
he  warned  his  disciples  against  all  ostentatious  and  hypocritical  ob- 
servances of  this  kind,  Matt.  6:  16 — 18.  The  doctrine  of  the  apos- 
tles on  this  subject  was  to  the  same  purport,  neither  commanding 
the  practice  of  fasting,  nor  denouncing  it  as  unlawful,  unless  either 
the  observance  or  omission  should  involve  a  breach  of  some  moral 
and  christian  duty,  Rom.  14:  14-22.  Col.  2:  16—23.  1  Tim.  4: 
3 — 5.  In  practice,  the  apostles  joined  fasting  with  prayer,  on  solemn 
occasions,  Acts  13:  2,  3.  14:  23. 

It  does  not  appear  that  much  value  was  attached  to  the  practice  of 
fasting,  in  the  age  immediately  succeeding  that  of  the  apostles.  In 
the  Shepherd  of  Hermas  it  is  spoken  of  in  disparaging  terms. 
"Nothing  is  done,  nothing  is  gained,  for  virtue  by  bodily  abstinence  ; 
rather  so  fast,  that  you  do  no  wrong,  and  harbor  no  evil  passion  in 
your  heart."  It  appears  rather  singular  that  we  find  so  little  notice 
taken  of  fasting  by  the  writers  of  the  first  centuries,  if  we  take  into 
account  the  spirit  of  the  times,  and  especially  the  doctrines  of  Mon- 
tanus,  the  tenets  of  the  new  Platonic  school,  and  the  progress  of 
Gnosticism,  which  taught  that  matter  was  essentially  evil.  But  it 
seems  that  the  observance  of  fasts  was  introduced  into  the  church 
slowly  and  by  degrees.  We  learn  from  Justin  Martyr  that  fasting 
was  joined  with  prayer,  at  Ephesus,  in  the  administration  of  baptism  ; 
which  is  worthy  of  being  remarked  as  an  early  addition  to  the  origi- 
nal institution.  In  the  second  century,  in  the  time  of  Victor  and 
Irenaeus,  it  had  become  usual  to  fast  before  Easter  ;  and  Clement  of 


OF  FASTS.  445 

Alexandria  speaks  of  weekly  fiisls.  Tertullian,  a  Montanist,  in  liis 
treatise  De  Jcjunio^  complains  heavily  of  the  little  attention  paid  by 
the  Catholic  church  to  tlie  practice  of  fasting  ;  and  hereby  gives  us 
to  understand  that,  in  his  days,  a  large  portion  of  orthodox  Christians 
exercised  that  liberty  of  judgment  which  had  been  sanctioned  by  the 
apostles.  Origen,  in  his  voluminous  writings,  adverts  to  the  subject 
only  once  ;  namely,  in  his  tenth  homily  on  Leviticus.  And  here  he 
speaks  in  accordance  with  the  apostolical  doctrine.  It  appears, 
however,  from  his  observations,  that  at  Alexandria  Wednesdays  and 
Fridays  were  then  observed  as  fast  days ;  on  the  ground  that  our 
Lord  was  betrayed  on  a  Wednesday,  and  crucified  on  a  Friday. 
The  custom  of  the  church  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  may  be 
collected  from  the  following  passage  of  Epiphanius :  "  In  the  whole 
christian  church  the  following  fast  days,  throughout  the  year,  are 
regularly  observed.  On  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  we  fast  until  the 
ninth  hour  (i.  e.  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon)  ;  except  during  the 
interval  of  fifty  days  between  Easter  and  Whitsuntide,  in  which  it  is 
usual  neither  to  kneel  nor  fast  at  all.  Besides  this,  there  is  no  fast- 
ing on  the  Epiphany  or  Nativity,  if  those  days  should  fall  on  a 
Wednesday  or  Friday.  But  those  persons  who  especially  devote 
themselves  to  religious  exercises  (the  monks)  fast  also  at  other  times 
when  they  please,  except  on  Sundays  and  during  the  fifty  days  be- 
tween Easter  and  Whitsuntide.  It  is  also  the  practice  of  the  church 
to  observe  the  forty  days'  fast  before  the  sacred  week.  But  on  Sun- 
days there  is  no  fasting,  even  during  the  last  mentioned 'period. 
(Comp.  Doclr.  de  fide.y  But  even  at  this  late  date  there  was  no 
universal  agreement  in  the  practice  of  the  church  in  this  matter, 
neither  had  fasts  been  established  by  law.  The  custom,  so  far  as  it 
existed,  had  been  silently  introduced  into  the  church,  and  its  observ- 
ance was  altogether  voluntary.  This  fasting  consisted,  at  first,  in 
abstinence  from  food  until  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  A  cus- 
tom was  afterwards  introduced,  probably  by  the  Montanists,  affecting 
the  kind  of  food  to  be  taken,  which  was  limited  to  bread,  salt,  and 
water. 

b)  Practice  of  Later  Times.  But  fasting,  after  a  time,  ceased  to 
be  a  voluntary  exercise.  By  the  second  canon  of  the  council  of  Or- 
leans, A.  D.  541,  it  was  decreed  that  any  one  who  should  neglect  to 
observe  the  stated  times  of  abstinence  should  be  treated  as  an  offen- 
der against  the  laws  of  the  church.     The  eighth  council  of  Toledo, 


446  SACRED  SEASONS  OF  THE  FURITANS. 

in  the  seventh  century,  (can.  9,)  condemns  any  who  should  eat  flesh 
during  the  fast  before  Easter,  and  says  that  sucii  offenders  deserve 
to  be  forbidden  the  use  of  it  throughout  the  year.  In  the  eighth 
century,  fasting  began  to  be  regarded  as  a  meritorious  work ;  and 
the  breach  of  the  observance,  at  the  slated  seasons,  subjected  the 
offender  to  excommunication.  In  later  times,  some  persons  who 
ate  flesh  during  the  appointed  seasons  of  abstinence  were  punished 
with  the  loss  of  their  teeth  (Baronius,  Annal.  ad.  an.  1018.) 

Afterwards,  however,  these  severities  were,  to  a  certain  extent, 
relaxed.  Instead  of  the  former  limitation  of  diet  on  fast  days  to 
bread,  salt,  and  water,  permission  was  given  for  the  use  of  all  kinds 
of  food,  except  flesh,  eggs,  cheese,  and  wine.  Then  eggs,  cheese, 
and  wine  were  allowed,  flesh  only  being  prohibited  ;  an  indulgence 
which  was  censured  by  the  Greek  church,  and  led  to  a  quarrel  be- 
tween it  and  the  western.  In  the  thirteenth  century,  a  cold  colla- 
tion in  the  evening  of  fast  days  was  permitted. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 


SACRED  SEASONS  OF  THE  PURITANS. 

The  subject  of  the  Fasts  and  Thanksgivings  of  New  England  is 
an  interesting  and  neglected  portion  of  the  history  of  our  puritan 
forefathers,  which  the  author  has  great  pleasure  in  presenting  to  the 
reader,  from  the  hand  of  a  distinguished  antiquary  and  historian, 
the  Rev.  Joseph  B.  Felt  of  Boston  ;  who,  with  his  accustomed  dili- 
gence and  patient  research  has  investigated  this  portion  of  our  eccle- 
siastical history,  and  has  very  kindly  embodied  the  result  of  his  in- 
quiries in  the  following  treatise  for  this  work. 

Fasts  and   Thanksgivings  of  New  England.,  loilh  additional  Re- 
marks on  such  days  in  other  parts  of  the  United  States. 

1.  Preliminary  Remarks.  Natural  religion,  as  enlightened  by 
original  revelation  however  deteriorated,  has  long  instructed  man. 


FASTS  AND  THANKSGIVINGS.  447 

that  he  has  sins  enough  for  humility  and  mercies  enough  for  grati- 
tude.    Hence  it  is,  that  ancient  as  well  as  modern  nations,  the  his- 
tory of  whose  worship  has  come  down  to  our  day,  have  had  their 
seasons  for  giving  expression  to  such  affections  of  the  soul.     Hence, 
also,  the  wisdom  of  God   in  requiring  this  service  from  his  once  fa- 
vored   people.     In   accordance   with   such   example,  the  primitive 
Christians  adopted  days,  commemorative  of  events,  as  full  of  inter- 
est to  them,  as  others  had   been  to  the  Jews.     These  days  were  so 
far  increased   by  the  Catholic  church  and  so  far  observed   by  the 
Episcopal  church  of  England,  as  to  meet,  for  the  most  part,  with 
the  disapprobation  of  Dissenters.     Among  the  last  denomination, 
who  sought  for  greater  simplicity  in  the  forms  of  worship,  was  the 
celebrated  John  Robinson.     His  church   in   Leyden  believed   with 
him,  that   no  other   holy  days  should  be  observed,  except  sabbaths 
and  occasional  fasts  and  thanksgivings.     The  portion  of  his  flock, 
who  resolved  to  forsake  Europe  and  make  their  home   in  America, 
for  the  sake  of  purer  society  and  the  spread  of  the  gospel,*  had  sev- 
eral seasons  of  fasting  and  prayer,  as  preparatory  to  so  important  an 
enterprise,  within  a  (ew  months,  before  they  sailed  for  South  Hamp- 
ton.    So  disposed,  they  would   sooner  have  thought  of  parting  with 
all  their  worldly  substance,  than  of  omitting  duties  of  public  thanks 
and  humiliation  before  their  Maker.     The  same  times,  which  they 
hallowed   in   their  European  pilgrimage,  were  engraved  too  deeply 
on  the  calendar  of  their  sacred  occasions,  to  be  thus  forgotten   in 
their  more  perilous,  needy  and  changeful   pilgrimage  in  this  coun- 
try.    Hence,  with  their  hopes  and   fears,  their  purposes  and  piety, 
they  brought  hither  the  observance  of  fasts  and  thanksgivings. 

2.  Reasons  for  such  days.  As  well  known  to  those  who  have 
investigated  the  history  of  the  planters  at  Plymouth,  they  had 
reasons  for  preferring  these  days  to  similar  ones  of  the  Episco- 
pal order.  They  discountenanced  the  rubric,  clerical  robes  and 
bands,  marriage  with  a  ring,  baptism  by  the  sign  of  a  cross,  and 
such  particulars— enjoined  by  canonical  rules  of  England— because 
adopted  from  the  Papal  forms,  and  fitted  to  turn  back  the  liberty  of 
Protestantism  to  the  bondage  of  Romish  hierarchy.  So,  for  a  like 
cause,  they  cast  off  the  confinement  of  holy  seasons  except  sabbath, 
to  particular  days  and  months  of  each  successive  year.  Their  ar- 
guments for  such  an  alteration  had  much  force  to  their  perception, 
*  Prince's  New  England  Chronology,  pp.  6G,  G!',  70, 


448  SACKED  SEASONS  OF  THE  PURITANS. 

when  they  saw  how  much  the  high  church  party,  in  their  native  land, 
leaned  towards  Papacy,  and  how  bitter  were  their  prejudices  against 
those  who  were  non-conformists,  but  who  earnestly  sought  for  great- 
er purity  in  doctrine  and  more  simplicity  in  ceremonies.  As  an  ad- 
ditional weight  in  the  scale  of  their  judgment,  they  had  not  forgot- 
ten, that  adherence  to  Romish  rules  was  one  of  the  chief  means, 
under  tlie  reign  of  JVIary,  which  contributed  to  the  relapse  of  Protes- 
tantism to  Papacy.  They  were  not  so  far  unacquainted  with  human 
nature,  as  to  be  ignorant,  that  it  possessed  a  principle  which  is 
wrought  on  by  the  association  of  appearances,  and  which,  when  hav- 
ing repudiated  error,  and  still  retaining  its  forms,  is  far  more  likely 
to  fall  back  upon  it,  than  if  having  altogether  renounced  both  one  and 
the  other.  Their  reason  for  deviation  from  established  custom,  as 
now  in  view,  was  much  stronger  in  their  time  than  it  was  subsequent- 
ly, when  Congregationalism  had  risen  from  its  infancy  and  numer- 
ous depressions  to  the  stature  and  energy  of  manhood,  so  as  to  have 
little  fear  of  an  inroad  upon  its  privileges.  They  well  knew,  that 
the  fasts  and  thanksgivings  of  the  conformists  were  designed,  like 
their  own,  to  improve  the  moral  affections  and  keep  man  within  the 
salutary  restraints  of  duty  ;  and  that  the  effects  of  these  seasons, 
when  properly  observed  by  any  sect,  were  of  so  desirable  a  kind. — 
Hence  it  was  that  serious  Episcopalians  considered  the  distinction 
which  the  Puritans  made,  relative  to  this  subject,  as  more  the  result 
of  needless  fear  than  of  real  cause. 

Thomas  Lechford,  a  respectable  lawyer,  who  resided  several 
years  in  Massachusetts  and  returned  to  England  in  1641, — made 
the  subsequent  remark  on  our  ecclesiastical  usages.*  "  There  are 
dayes  of  fasting,  thanksgiving  and  prayers  upon  occasions,  but  no 
holy  dayes,t  except  Sunday.  And  why  not  set  fasting  dayes  and 
times,  and  set  feasts, — as  well  as  set  Synods  in  the  Reformed 
Churches  ?  And  why  not  holy  dayes  as  well  as  the  fifth  of  Novem- 
ber, and  dayes  of  Purim  among  the  Jews  .^"  This  author  hereby 
seems  to  imply,  that  there  could  be  no  more  harm  in  complying 
with  the  prescribed  religious  seasons  of  Episcopacy,— than  there  was 

*  News  from  New  England  in  3d  Ser.  Vol.  111.  p.  79  of  Mass.  Hist.  Coll. 

t  Lechford  here  appears  to  mean  those  holy  days,  that  were  kept  in  the 
established  church.  The  Puritans  so  far  held  their  fasts  and  thanksgivings 
holy,  as  to  require,  hy  .penal  enactments,  l!iat  they  should  be  spent  with  the 
sacredness  of  tlie  sabballi. 


FASTS  AND  THANKSGIVliNCIS.  449 

in  keeping  similar  days,  appointed  by  Presbyterian  synods,  as  those 
of  Geneva, — or  in  the  Jewisli  observance  of  the  stated  Feast  of  Lots, 
or  in  obedience  to  the  law  of  king  James,  which  required  every  fifth 
of  November  to  be  spent,  as  a  national  thanksgiving  for  the  discov- 
ery of  the  gunpowder  plot.*  Iku  had  the  primitive  settlers  of  (jur  soil 
met  this  argument,  they  would  probably  l)ave  replied  in  the  follow- 
ing train  of  thought:  We  have  no  serious  objections  to  these  occa- 
sions. The  synods  of  Reformers  were  calculated  to  keep  them 
from  papal  hierarchy.  The  commemoration  of  deliverance  from 
the  powder  plot  was  fitted  for  a  like  effect.  The  celebration  of  the 
Jews'  being  preserved  from  the  machinations  of  Haman,  guarded 
them  against  idolatry.  The  fixedness  of  these  seasons  was  suited 
to  produce  opposite  results  from  the  fixedness  which  belongs  to  most 
of  the  holy  days  kept  by  the  established  church  ; — and,  therefore, 
we  do  not  reject  the  former  as  exerting  a  bad  influence, — while  we 
do  the  latter  for  such  a  tendency. 

3.  Continuance.  With  views  of  this  sort  in  relation  to  fasts  and 
thanksgivings,  the  colonists  of  Plymouth  felt  obligated  to  continue 
them  in  their  newly  adopted  residence, — as  suited  to  benefit  them  and 
their  posterity.  In  a  purpose  so  consistent  with  their  profession,  and 
expectations  of  help  mainly  from  the  handof  Omnipotence,  they  were 
not  altogether  without  fear  of  having  their  liberty  in  this,  as  well  as 
other  respects,  interrupted.  The  powerful  exertions  of  bishop  Laud 
and  his  friends  to  crush  all  innovations  on  the  ritual  of  Episcopacy,  in 
British  America,  reached  them  in  various  ways.  The  settlement  at 
Weymouth,  in  1622,  was  intended  as  one  check  to  their  religious  free- . 
dom.  The  party  formed  at  Plymouth,  in  1624, — under  the  Rev. 
John  Lyford,  and  sustained  by  the  leading  members  of  the  company 
for  this  colony  in  London,  had  a  like  object.  Still  the  Puritans, 
amid  their  perplexities,  held  fast  to  their  creed  with  its  practice. 
They  excluded  Mr.  Lyford  and  his  followers,  who  resorted  to  Glou- 
cester the  same  year.  At  this  location,  there  appear  to  have  been 
persons  of  various  persuasions,  who  probably  observed  fasts  and 
feasts  either  at  set  dates,  or  as  occasion  suggested.  The  first  occu- 
pants of  Naumkeag,  afterwards  Salem,  in  1626,  with  Roger  Conant 
at  their  head,  were  the  adherents  of  Mr.  Lyford.  They,  of  course, 
did  not  fully  come  into  the  ways  of  Plymouth.  When  Governor 
Endicott  reached  Salem,   in  1628,  though  he  may  not  have  en- 

•  In  1605. 
n7 


450  SACRED  SEASONS  OF  THE  PURITANS. 

tirely  separated  from  the  conformists,  yet  he  believed  in  the  eccle- 
siastical order,  taught  by  John  Robinson.  In  a  letter  of  his  to  Gov- 
ernor Bradford,  dated  May  11,  1629,  he  remarked  on  a  conversa- 
tion, which  he  jiad  recently  held  with  Dr.  Samuel  Fuller.  His 
words  were,  "  I  rejoice  much,  that  I  am  by  him  satisfied  touching 
your  judgment  of  the  outward  form  of  God's  worship.  It  is,  as  far 
as  I  can  yet  gather,  no  other  than  is  warranted  by  the  evidence  of 
truth,  and  the  same,  which  I  have  professed  and  maintained  ever 
since  the  Lord,  in  mercy,  revealed  himself  unto  me,  being  far  from 
the  common  report,  that  hath  been  spread  of  you,  touching  that  par- 
ticular." Of  course,  the  author  of  this  passage  was  ready  to  har- 
monize with  the  inhabitants  of  Plymouth,  as  to  the  observance  of 
fasts  and  thanksgivings.  Succeeding  emigrants  to  Salem,  in  1629, 
were  the  Rev.  Messrs.  Higginson,  Skelton,  and  others,  who  were  of 
the  class,  called  in  England  church  puritans,  and  who  still  cleaved 
to  the  Episcofial  denomination  when  embarking  from  their  native 
shores.  In  their  farewell  address  on  so  trying  an  exigency,  they 
said,  "  We  do  not  go  to  New  England  as  Separatists  from  the  church 
of  England,  though  we  cannot  but  separate  from  the  corruptions  of 
it  ; — but  we  go  to  practise  the  positive  part  of  church  reformation 
and  propagate  the  gospel  in  America."  Here  is  an  intimation,  that 
they  intended  to  cast  off  such  forms, — as  to  holy  days, — which, 
they  thought,  did  not  accord  with  the  simplicity  of  the  gospel.  So 
inclined,  they  kept  several  fasts  on  their  passage,*  and,  when 
reaching  Salem,  they  were  prepared  to  fall  in  with  the  views  of  Gov- 
ernor Endicott.  As  evidence  of  such  a  disposition,  they,  as  mem- 
bers of  his  council  decided,  that  it  was  best  for  John  and  Samuel 
Brown  to  leave  the  settlement,  because  they  set  up  Episcopal  wor- 
ship. These  two  gentlemen  charged  such  authorities  with  being 
separatists,  and  asserted,  that  as  for  themselves,  ihey  would  "  hold 
fast  the  forms  of  the  church  established  by  law."  Subsequent  emi- 
grants to  Massachusetts,  for  the  most  part,  seconded  the  practice  of 
the  Salem  colonists. 

The  planters  of  Connecticut  carried  thither,  in  1635,  similar  con- 
formity.    So  it  was  with  those  of  Saybrook  in  the  same  year. 

The  first  settlers  of  Providence,  under  Roger  Williams,  in  1636, 
and  of  Rhode  Island,  under  John  Clark,  in  1638,  differed  as  is  well 

"  Hutchinson's  Collentions  of  paper.').     Journal  of  Rev.  Francis  Higgin- 
son, pp.  37,:3!),  4I,4G. 


FASTS  AND  THANKSGIVINGS.  451 

known,  from  the  rest  of  New  England  so  far,  as  to  withhold  from 
civil  rulers  the  power  of  law  to  enforce  any  occasional  religious  sea- 
sons.* Still  such  rulers  were  at  liberty  to  recommend  fasts  and 
thanksgivings. 

New  Haven,  while  a  separate  colony-from  Connecticut,  followed 
the  course  of  Massachusetts,  as  to  these  days.  "  Soon  after  they 
arrived  (in  1638)  at  Quinnipiack,  in  the  close  of  a  day  of  fasting 
and  prayer,  they  entered  into  what  they  termed  a  plantation  cove- 
nant, "f  The  first  records  of  their  government,  for  about  sixteen 
years,  however,  make  no  mention  of  fasts  and  thanksgivings.  J  But 
their  laws  prove  beyond  a  doubt,  that  these  days  were  kept  from 
their  first  organization,  as  a  distinct  colony.^ 

We  now  look  at  Maine.  Various,  unsuccessful  attempts  were  made 
to  settle  this  part  of  our  country,  then  extending  only  to  the  Kenne- 
beck  river,  at  an  early  period.  Its  chief  proprietor.  Sir  Ferdinando 
Gorges,  being  an  Episcopalian,  naturally  selected  rulers  for  it  of 
his  own  persuasion,  who  promoted  the  cause  of  the  national  church. 
Hence  it  was,  that  this  colony,  for  the  most  part,  did  not  adopt  the 
Congregational  forms.  Thomas  Jenner,  a  dissenting  minister,  in  a 
letter  of  1641,  addressed  to  Governor  VVinthrop,  observed,  that  while 
preaching  at  Saco,  he  had  "  not  troubled  the  people  with  church 
discipline."  He  also  stated,  that  he  had  advanced  his  opinion 
against  "  papal  practices."  These,  as  he  subjoined,  "1  saw  the  peo- 
ple here  were  sufierslitiously  addicted  to."  For  such  a  step,  he  was 
charged  by  Mr.  Vines,  an  inhabitant  of  that  town,  with  striking  "  at 
the  church  of  England. "||  This  shows  how  very  little  Congrega- 
tional customs  were  then  tolerated  in  one  of  the  few  settlements  of 
Maine.  So  it  was  at  Falmouth,  occupied  in  1628,  where  a  church 
of  conformists  was  soon  establislied  ;  and  at  York,  colonized  in 
1630,  where  its  proprietor  apparently  purposed  to  have  a  bishop's 
diocese.  From  the  wane  of  the  royal  cause  in  England,  and  the 
death  of  Charles  I,  in  1648,  the  sway  of  the  national  church  dimin- 
ished in  this  section  of  British  America.  At  length,  proposals  be- 
gan to  .be  made  by  the  people  of  Maine,  in  1651,  to  come  under  the 

*  Letter  from  Hon.  William  Staples. 

t  Trumbull's  History  of  Connecticut,  Vol.  I.  p.  97. 

*  Letter  from  Prof.  James  L.  Kingsley. 
§  New  Haven  Colony  Laws,  p.  3->. 

II  Hutchinson's  Collection  of  papers,  pp.  Ill,  JIS 


452  SACRED  SEASONS  OF  THE  PURITANS. 

jurisdiction  of  Massachusetts,  as  a  means  of  preserving  social  order 
among  them,  and  even  their  very  existence.  The  next  year,  a 
majority  of  the  inhabitants  tliere  assumed  a  like  relation  ;  and  thence, 
religious  observances  of  dissenters  prevailed  among  them. 

From  Maine  we  turn  to  New  Hampshire.  This  colony  was,  at 
first,  under  Episcopal  control.  Dover  and  Portsmouth,  both  settled 
in  1623,  appear  to  have  been  so  influenced.  The  latter  place  soon 
had  a  church  of  conformists.  But  the  occupation  of  Exeter  by  John 
Wheelwright  and  company,  and  of  Hampton  by  Stephen  Batchelor 
and  associates,  in  1638,  introduced  the  Puritan  forms  there,  as  they 
had  been  at  Dover  in  1633,  and  were  subsequently  at  Portsmouth 
about  1641.  So  that  New  Hampshire,  as  to  the  part  claimed  by 
Massachusetts,  and  also,  to  the  other  part  not  so  claimed,  had 
thrown  off,  by  the  last  date,  Episcopal  conformity  and  adopted  the 
Congregational  order.  Such  a  change  was  accelerated  by  the  dis- 
tractions of  England,  and  the  consequent  temporary  invalidation  of 
Mason's  claims.  When  New  Hampshire  resumed  the  powers  of  a 
colony,  in  1679,*  they  retained  their  prevailing  attachment  to  the 
fasts  and  thanksgivings  of  the  non-conformists.  When  their  Assem- 
bly were  about  to  meet  in  1680,  a  public  fast  was  observed  to  ask 
for  a  blessing  on  their  proceedings.  At  the  same  time,  however, 
while  their  charter  allowed  freedom  of  conscience  to  all  Protestant 
denominations,  it  particularly  required,  that  encouragement  should 
be  given  to  Episcopalians.! 

The  stamp,  thus  put  on  the  public  sentiment  of  the  preceding  por- 
tions of  New  England,  has  never  been  effaced.  Though  the  most 
of  them  have  been  changed  from  colonies  to  independent  states, 
they  still  preserve  the  religious  customs  of  their  fathers. 

No  relinquishment  of  fasts  and  thanksgivings  was  made  in  Ver- 
mont or  in  Maine,  when  they  assumed  State  privileges.  With  re- 
gard to  the  former  of  these  two  Slates,J  they  began  to  observe  such 
days  in  1778,  and  have  not  since  faltered  in  so  doing. 

4.  Mode  of  their  appoinlment.  In  Plymouth  colony  this  was  done 
by  the  civil  authority .§     The  practice  there  was  embodied  in  a  law 


*  Belknap's  New  Hampshire,  Vol.  1.  p.  177. 

t  Farmer's  Belknap,  p.  88. 

I  Letter  from  Hon.  Charles  K.  Williams. 

§  Winslow's  Relation  in  Mass.  Hist.  Collections,  IstSer.  Vol.  VH J.  p. 275. 


FASTS  AND  THANKSGIVINGS.  453 

of  1637 — "  that  it  be  in  the  power  of  the  governor  and  assistants  to 
command  solemn  daies  of  humiliation  by  fasting,' and  also  for  thanks- 
giving as  occasion  shall  be  offered."*  When  depnties  became  a 
part  of  the  General  Court,  they  sometimes  acted  with  the  other 
branch  of  government  in  the  designation  of  these  seasons.  Such 
times  were  also  proposed  and  observed  by  the  churches,  either  sin- 
gly or  collectively,  as  circumstances  seemed  to  indicate.  They 
were  so  continued  by  church  and  slate  in  Plymouth  colony  till  the 
arrival  of  the  second  charter  of  Massachusetts  in  1692,  when  the 
former  was  incorporated  with  the  latter  colony. 

The  mode  of  Plymouth,  as  just  described,  did  not  materially  dif- 
fer from  that  of  Massachusetts.  Here,  with  respect  to  a  fast  at  the 
choice  of  ministers  for  the  Salem  church  in  1629,  Mr.  Gott  informs 
us,  that  it  was  ordered  by  governor  Endicott.^f  While  the  General 
Court  was  solely  composed  of  magistrates  till  1634,  the  governor,  as 
their  head  and  through  their  advice,  did  exercise  like  power.  Sub- 
sequent to  this,  until  the  arrival  of  the  second  charter  in  1692,  he  did 
not  entirely  lay  aside  such  a  practice.  Besides,  the  council  in  their 
own  name,  even  while  there  were  chief  magistrates,  issued  procla- 
mations. The  first  printed  document  of  this  class,  in  the  Massachu- 
setts archives,  is  of  the  following  tenor. I  "  At  a  Council  held  at 
Boston  September  8lh,  1670.  The  council  taking  into  their  serious 
consideration  the  low  estate  of  the  churches  of  God  throughout  the 
world,  and  the  increase  of  sin  and  evil  amongst  ourselves,  God's  hand 
following  us  for  the  same.  Do,  therefore,  appoint  the  two  and  twen- 
tieth of  this  instant  September,  to  be  a  day  of  public  humiliation 
throughout  this  jurisdiction,  and  do  commend  the  same  to  the  sever- 
al churches,  elders,  ministers  and  people,  solemnly  to  keep  it  ac- 
cordingly ;  hereby  prohibiting  all  servile  work  on  that  day. 
By  the  Council, 

Edward  Rawson,  Secret.'''' 

The  term  Council,  as  used  here  and  elsewhere,  included  the  name 
of  the  governor.  In  the  same  collection  is  a  manuscript  proclama- 
tion for  thanksgiving  in  1671,  and  similar  papers  for  two  fasts  of 
1675  and  1677,  issued  by  such  a  body.  The  first  printed  proclama- 
tion for  a  thanksgiving  to  be  found  in  the  like  depository,  is  of  April 


*  MS.  Plymouth  Colony  Records. 

t  Letter  from  Mr.  Charles  Gott  to  governor  Bradford. 

t  Massachusetts  Archives.  Ecclesieistical,  Vol.  I.  p.  17. 


454  SACRED  SEASONS  OF  THE  PORITaNS. 

23,  1691,  and  is  headed,  "  By  the  Governor  and  Council."*  But, 
however,  fasts  and  thanl<sgivings  were  appointed  in  Massachusetts 
singly  by  the  council,  and  also,  by  the  governor  through  their  ad- 
vice, down  to  the  year  last  nanned  ;  still  days  of  this  description 
were  more  frequently  ordered  in  the  name  of  the  General  Court. 
As  well  known  there  was  a  suspension  of  this  custom  on  the  part  of 
our  colonial  authorities  in  New  England,  under  the  presidency  of 
Sir  Edmund  Andres,  from  1686  to  1689.  He,  being  zealous  to  pro- 
mote the  observances  of  the  national  church,  had  no  disposition  to 
order  those  of  the  Puritans.  While  the  rulers,  chosen  by  the  peo- 
ple of  Massachusetts  were  in  power,  they  allowed  the  church  to 
keep  as  many  fasts  and  thanksgivings  as  they  chose.  Accordingly 
we  find  among  their  laws  one  of  the  succeeding  tenor,  passed  in 
1641.  "  Every  church  of  Christ  hath  freedom  to  celebrate  dayes 
of  fasting  and  prayer  and  of  thanksgiving,  according  to  the  word  of 
God."t  This  was  a  confirmation  of  previous  custom  which,  as  be- 
fore, has  ever  since  remained  in  New  England. 

With  res[)ect  to  this  subject,  as  in  the  hands  of  the  legislature, 
they  continued  some  variation  in  the  proclamations  under  the  second 
charter.  These  documents  were  issued  in  the  name  of  governor, 
council  and  representatives,  as  in  1693;  of  his  Excellency  and 
council,  as  in  1700;  and  of  governor  by  advice  of  council,  as  in 
1733.  The  last  mode  of  phraseology  was  that,  which  was  general- 
ly adopted  after  1700,  and  so  continued  till  the  adoption  of  the  con- 
stitution in  1780.  But  whatever  variation  of  this  kind  existed,  the 
representatives  always  claimed  the  right  of  having  a  concern  in  the 
appointment  of  fasts  and  thanksgivings.  So  inclined,  they  did  not 
find  their  whole  course  smooth  in  relation  to  these  seasons. 

In  1696  they  were  severely  reproved  by  the  council  for  interfe- 
rence with  them  about  the  particular  date,  when  such  an  occasion 
should  be  kept.  This  difference  did  not  call  in  question  the  propri- 
ety of  the  house  to  request  the  governor  that  he  would  designate 
seasons  of  this  sort  by  consent  of  the  council.  In  1721,  the  repre- 
sentatives moved  for  a  joint  committee  of  this  body  and  of  them- 
selves, to  prepare  a  proclamation  for  a  fast.  The  council  declined 
such  a  proposition,  because  they  deemed   it  an  anticipation  of  the 

*  Mass.  Archives.  Ecclesiastical,  Vol.  II.  p.  57. 

i  Massachusetts  laws  revised  in  1649,andprinted  at  Cambridge,  16G0,  |).2.'» 


FASTS  AND  THANKSGIVINGS.  455 

governor's  right.*  But  "  he  wiUing  to  conform  to  the  house  so  far 
as  would  consist  with  maintaining  his  right  of  issuing  proclamations, 
mentioned  in  the  proclamation  which  he  soon  after  published,  that 
the  appointment  was  by  advice  of  council  and  upon  motion  from  the 
house  of  Representatives.  But  the  house  refused  to  meet  him,  and 
declared  they  had  never  made  any  such  motion,  and  ordered  that  no 
members  of  the  house  should  carry  any  proclamations  to  their  towns 
for  the  present.  The  day  was,  however,  observed  as  usual,  except 
that  one  of  the  representatives  (William  Clark)  of  Boston  would  not 
attend  public  worship,  but  opened  his  warehouse  as  upon  other 
days."  The  difficulty  here  described,  arose  from  the  purpose  of 
the  house  to  unite  with  the  council  to  prepare  such  a  document  in- 
dependently of  the  governor,  though  to  be  published  in  his  name. 

The  author,  whose  language  on  this  topic  has  been  just  quoted,  re- 
lates that,  as  stated  by  the  board,  the  attempt  of  the  representatives 
to  participate  in  the  composition  of  the  order  in  question,  was  unpre- 
cedented. But  there  is  a  mistake  on  this  point.  For,  it  had  been 
no  uncommon  thing  for  the  house  to  draw  up  proclamations  for  fasts 
and  thanksgivings  and  forward  ihem  to  the  council  and  governor  for 
their  approbation.  Nor  were  these  papers  rejected  as  being  improp- 
er. The  chief  magistrate,  Samuel  Shute,  with  whom  the  preceding 
difficulty  took  place,  in  his  protest  against  Massachusetts  before  par- 
liament in  1723,  which  well  nigh  caused  the  nullification  of  our  char- 
ter, charged  the  house  with  undue  interference  in  the  appointments 
of  fasts  and  thanksgivings.  On  this  subject,  Doctor  Douglass  stated 
in  1749,  that  such  days  "  ever  since  governor  Shute's  complaints, 
have  been  appointed  by  the  governor  and  council,  at  the  desire  of  the 
house  of  represenlatives."t  The  practice,  here  mentioned,  lasted 
till  1779.  The  ne.xt  year  it  was  discontinued.  From  this  time, 
when  the  senate  was  formed,  and,  in  most  respects,  assumed  the  pre- 
vious duties  of  the  council,  fasts  and  thanksgivings  have  been  recom- 
mended by  the  chief  magistrate  with  advice  of  council. 

As  the  genius  of  ecclesiastical  and  political  usages  of  Massachu- 
setts pervaded  those  of  New  Haven  and  Connecticut,  the  mode  of 
designating  fasts  and  thanksgivings  in  the  two  latter  colonies,  was  es- 
sentially the  same  as  that  in  the  former.     Relative  to  more  modern 


*  Hutchinson's  Hist.  Mass.  3d  ed.  Vol.  11.  p.  223. 
t  Douglass'  History  of  America,  Vol.  I.  p.  495. 


456  SACRED  SEASONS  OF  THE  PURITANS. 

practice  of  Connecticut,  we  have  the  ensuing  account.  "  The  pres- 
ent nnode  is  by  the  jrovernor  alone.  This  has  been  the  practice  since 
May,  1833.  Before  tliat  time,  the  governor  designated  the  day;  but 
previous  to  the  adoption  of  the  constitution  in  1818,  which  abolished 
the  October  session  of  the  general  assembly,  the  governor  submitted 
his  proclamation  to  the  two  houses  of  that  body,  and  had  their  ap- 
probation. Between  1818  and  1833,  the  practice  was  the  same,  as 
it  is  now  from  the  necessity  of  the  case,  because  the  general  assem- 
bly was  not  in  session  at  or  near  the  time  of  issuing  the  proclama- 
tion."* 

Concerning  the  appointment  of  fasts  and  thanksgivings  in  Rhode 
Island,  we  have  the  subsequent  passage.  These  days  "  were,  in  the 
earlier  times  of  the  state,  occasionally  recommended  by  the  legisla- 
ture. In  1789  commenced  the  annual  thanksgiving  in  this  slate. 
The  subject  was  introduced  into  the  General  Assembly  by  the  late 
Judge  Bicknell,  then  a  representative  from  the  town  of  Barrington, 
in  pursuance  of  instructions  from  his  constituents.  Since  then,  a  day 
has  been  set  apart  every  year  for  that  purpose,  except  only  in  1801. 
Resolutions  are  generally  introduced  into  the  legislature  at  their  ses- 
sion in  October,  recommending  '  to  the  good  people'  of  the  state,  to 
observe  a  certain  day,  as  a  day  of  public  thanksgiving  and  praise, 
and  requesting  the  governor  to  issue  his  proclamation  of  the  resolu- 
tions so  passed.  Public  fasts  have  never  been  recommended  by  our 
legislature  at  any  stated  seasons.  I  believe  fasts  and  thanksgivings 
are  and  have  been  long  held  by  advice  of  clerical  bodies  and  individ- 
ual churches."! 

In  relation  to  New  Hampshire,  we  present  the  following  :  "  Our 
records  as  far  back  as  1698,  show  the  appointment  of  fasts  and 
thanksgivings  by  the  governor  with  advice  of  his  council."  No 
doubt  the  representatives  claimed  and  exercised  the  privilege  of  pro- 
posing such  seasons  to  the  chief  magistrate.  "  I  find  from  1776,  that 
a  committee  of  the  assembly  was  generally  appointed  to  prepare  a 
form  for  a  proclamation,  which  would  be  adopted  by  the  assembly 
and  concurred  in  by  the  council,  and  receive  the  signature  of  the 
governor,  then  called  president."!     Since  New  Hampshire  adopted 


*  Letter  from  Hon.  Thomas  Day. 

t  Lettor  from  Hon.  William  Staples. 

1^  Letter  from  Josiah  Stevens,  Jr.  Esq.  Secretary  of  State. 


FASTS  AND  THANKSGIVINGS.  457 

their  constitution   in  1792,  ihuir  fasts  and  thanksgivings  have  been 
appointed  as  in  Massachusetts. 

Concerning  the  mode  under  consideration,  as  practised  in  Ver- 
mont, we  have  tlie  subsequent  information.  "  Previous  to  tlie  adop- 
tion of  any  constitution,  and  while  the  powers  of  government  were 
exercised  by  a  council  of  safety,  they  a|)poinled  a  day  of  thanksgiv- 
ing by  resolution.  After  the  first  consihution,  the  general  assembly 
in  March  1778,  appointed  a  day  of  fasting  and  adopted  a  form  of 
proclamation,  and  in  October  of  the  same  year,  they  appointed  a  day 
of  thanksgiving,  and  requested  the  governor  to  issue  his  proclama- 
tion therefor.  There  have  been  no  resolutions  of  the  general  as- 
sembly in  relation  to  fasts  since  1778,  but  they  have  been  appointed 
by  the  executive  ;  the  proclamation  has  been  issued  by  the  governor, 
by  and  with  the  advice  of  the  council.  Resolutions  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  days  of  thanksgiving,  are  annually  passed  by  the  legislature, 
and,  for  nearly  fifty  years,  the  form  has  been  to  request  the  gover- 
nor to  appoint  a  day  of  thanksgiving,  fixing  the  day."* 

5.  Penalties,  Another  topic,  connected  with  the  fasts  and  thanks- 
givings of  New  England,  are  the  penalties  for  not  duly  observing 
them. 

As  the  magistrates  of  Plymouth  colony  ordered  such  days  in  1623, 
and  were  empowered  by  law  so  to  do,  in  1637,  it  is  implied  that  a 
penally  was  affixed  there  to  the  violation  of  them,  at  a  very  early 
period.  In  1650,t  every  person  neglecting  public  worship,  is  re- 
quired to  pay  10s.  or  be  publicly  whipped.  As  this  worship  appears 
to  have  included  that  of  fasts,  thanksgivings  and  lectures,  a  corre- 
sponding inference  may  be  drawn  as  to  the  fine  of  not  keeping  them. 
In  1682,  "  it  is  enacted  that  none  shall  presume  to  attend  servile 
worke,  or  labour,  or  attend  any  such  sports  on  such  dayes,  as  are  or 
shalbe  appointed  by  the  Court  for  humiliation  by  fasting  and  prayer, 

or  for  publicke  Thanksgiving,  on  penalty  of  shillings.'"     The 

sum  here  omitted  was  probably  10s.     The  law,  just  described,  con- 
tinued in  force  till  the  annexation  of  Plymouth  with  Massachusetts. 

As  the  rulers  of  Massachuseits  colony  had  authority  to  command 
the  observance  of  fiists  and  thanksgivings,  they  had  like  power  to 
enforce  the  keeping  of  them. 

*  Letter  from  Hon.  Charles  K.  Williams, 
t   Plymouth  Colony  Laws. 

58 


458  SACRED  SEASONS  OF  THE  PURITANS. 

In  1646,*  the  ensuing  law  was  passed.  "  Whereas  the  nninistry  of 
the  word  isestablislied  according  to  the  order  of  the  gospel  throughout 
this  jurisdiction,  every  person  shall  duely  resort  and  attend  thereunto, 
respectively  on  the  Lord's  dayes  and  upon  such  public  fast  dayes 
and  dayes  of  thanksgiving,  as  are  to  be  generally  observed  by  ap- 
pointment of  authority."  This  law  required,  that  each  individual, 
unnecessarily  absent  from  such  public  meetings,  should  be  fined  bs. 
It  will  be  perceived  here,  that  the  penalty  for  neglecting  public  wor- 
ship on  fasts  and  thanksgivings,  was  equal  to  that  of  neglecting  like 
service  on  the  sabbath.  With  such  a  regulation  Edward  Randolph 
found  fault,  in  his  statement  to  the  royal  council,  in  1676. t  His 
words  were,  "  Whoever  shall  observe  Christmasse  day|  or  the  like 
festivity,  by  forbearing  to  labour,  feasting  or  other  way,  shall  pay 
5s.  ;  and  whosoever  shall  not  resort  to  their  meetings  upon  the 
Lord's  day  and  such  days  of  fasting  and  thanksgiving  as  shall  be 
appointed  by  authority,  shall  pay  5s.  No  days,  commanded  by  the 
lavves  of  England,  to  be  observed  or  regarded."  How  long  such  a 
fine  was  strictly  imposed,  cannot  be  particularly  told  at  this  late  day. 
It  was  evidently  in  force,  however,  till  1680,  because  the  proclama- 
tions, for  fasts  and  thanksgivings  to  this  year,  commanded  them  not 
to  be  desecrated  with  "  servile  labour."  Since  the  adoption  of  the 
Constitution  in  Massachusetts,  all  fines,  as  well  as  legislation,  about 
these  religious  occasions,  have  therein  ceased. 

During  the  separate  jurisdiction  of  New  Haven,  they  laid  a  fiine 
of  5s.  for  each  omission  to  attend  worship  on  fast  and  thanksgiving 
days,  as  well  as  on  the  sabbath.^ 

With  regard  to  fines,  now  in  view,  Connecticut  pursued  the  course 
of  the  Bay  colony.  In  1650,  they  adopted  the  law  on  this  subject 
previously  enacted  by  Massachusetts.     A  penalty,  for  the  violation 

*   Laws  of  Massachusetts,  edition  of  1C60. 

t  Hutcliinson's  Collections  of  papers,  p.  482. 

t  The  act  against  the  keeping  of  Christmas  in  Massachusetts,  was  passed 
in  1659,  when  there  was  some  prospect,  that  Charles  II.  would  be  brought 
to  his  father's  throne.  This  act  was  repealed  in  1682.  It  is  probable,  that, 
from  the  last  date,  the  annual  celebration  of  November  5th,  so  far  as  it  had 
declined  in  New  England,  was  revived  and  continued  to  be  observed  by 
processions  of  boys  and  young  men,  and  bonfires,  before  the  revolution  of 
1775.  Since  then,  till  fort}'  years  past,  this  was  kept  up  by  bonfires,  and  is 
now,  to  a  very  limited  extent,  in  Rhode  Island. 

§  New  Haven  Laws,  p.  38. 


FASTS  AND  THANKSGIVINGS.  459 

of  fasts  and  thanksgivings,  was  continued  longer  there,  than  in  any 
other  part  of  New  England.  In  1791*  it  was  enacted,  that  there 
should  be  an  abstinence  from  servile  labour  and  recreation,  on  these 
occasions,  works  of  necessity  and  mercy  excepted,  on  penalty  of  not 
above  two  dollars  nor  less  than  one.  This  rule,  as  is  readily  per- 
ceived, did  not  tally  with  that  of  1650,  so  as  to  demand  attendance 
on  worship.  It  also  made  an  exception  as  to  public  posts'and  stages, 
anciently  unknown  in  our  country.  Prohibilionst  of  the  kind  under 
consideration,  were  repealed  in  1833.  From  this  year,  fasts  and 
thanksgivings  have  been  recommended  by  the  executive,  and  not  or- 
dered as  formerly. 

Relative  to  New  Hampshire,^  their  proclamations  for  such  sea- 
sons, before  the  adoption  of  their  present  constitution,  contained 
clauses  like  the  following  :  "  All  servile  work  and  recreation  are  for- 
bidden ;"  but  subsequently,  instead  of  commanding,  they  advised  to 
the  observance  of  these  days.  Flence,  there  is  implicit  evidence, 
that  fines  were  required  there  by  law  for  an  infringement  on  fasts 
and  thanksgivings  prior  to  1792,  but  not  afterwards. 

Respecting  Rhode  Island,  they  appear  to  have  had  no  fines  for  the 
non-observance  of  these  religious  occasions,  nor  have  Vermorrt  and 
Maine  since  they  became  states. 

6.  Periodical  Observance.  A  question,  not  unfrequenlly  asked, 
is,  When  did  fasts  and  thanksgivings,  in  New  England,  become  pe- 
riodical }     By  the  term  periodical,  as  here  applied,  we  understand 


*  Laws  of  Connecticut,  edition  of  1796,  p.  83. 

t  In  reference  to  such  prohibitions,  there  was  a  singular  occurrence, 
which  may  have  prod\iced  a  legal  question  of  no  small  interest  and  concern. 
It  was  in  the  town  of  Colchester,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Connecticut.  It 
is  thus  described  by  the  original  record.  "  Att  a  legal  Town  meeting,  held 
in  Colchester  October  29,  1705,  it  was  voted,  that  whereas  there  was  a 
Thanksgiving  appointed  to  be  held  on  the  first  Thursday  of  JVovember,  and 
our  present  circumstances  being  such,  it  cannot  with  conveniency  be  at- 
tended on  that  day,  it  is  therefore  voted  and  agreed  by  the  inhabitants  afore- 
said, concluding  the  thing  will  not  be  otiierways  than  well  resented  (or 
favorably  received),  that  the  second  Thursday  of  November  aforesaid  shall 
be  set  apart  for  that  service."  Long  and  accredited  tradition  has  uniformly 
related,  that  this  suspension  of  a  week  was  to  afford  the  Trader  of  the  place 
an  opportunity  to  replenish  his  exhausted  articles  of  sweetening,  and  par- 
ticularly that  of  molasses, — so  that  his  customers  might  not  forego  the 
indulgence  of  their  taste  for  pumpkin  pies  and  other  similar  dainties. 

t  Letter  from  Josiah  Stevens  Jr.  secretary  of  the  state  of  New  Hampshire, 


i60  SACRED  SEASONS  OF  THE  PURITANS. 

the  following  :  Wlien  did  fasts  begin  to  be  appointed  or  kept  in  the 
spring  of  every  successive  year,  by  order  of  the  legislature  ;  and 
thanksgiving,  in  like  manner,  in  the  fall  ?  For  an  answer  to  these 
inquiries  we  must  not  rely  altogether,  as  some  have,  on  what  are 
called  the  General  Court  Records,  now  extant.  There  is  but  a  soli- 
tary minute,  and  this  relative  to  land,  on  such  records  of  Plymouth 
colony,  for  the  first  three  years.  After  this,  till  near  the  close  of 
their  separate  jurisdiction,  the  designation  of  their  fasts  and  thanks- 
givings was  seldom  placed  with  their  legislative  transactions.  It  is 
matter  of  fact,  that  such  days  were  appointed  by  their  public  authori- 
ties, as  have  no  mention  made  of  them  among  the  proceedings  of 
these  rulers.  No  legislative  records  of  Massachusetts,  before  the 
arrival  of  governor  Winthrop  in  1630,  are  known  to  have  been 
preserved.  Those  of  them  which  succeed,  fail  to  notice  a 
number  of  fasts  and  thanksgivings,  the  observance  of  which  was 
enjoined  by  the  civil  government.  Similar  facts  apply  to  Connecti- 
cut and  New  Haven.  Only  three  of  each  sort  of  these  days  are 
found  on  the  books  of  the  Connecticut  general  assembly  before  1650. 
The  Journals  of  New  Haven  make  not  even  a  reference  to  such  re- 
ligious occasions,  as  before  stated,  for  about  sixteen  of  their  first 
years.  But  other  sources  of  information  prove,  that  there  was  no 
real  deficiency  of  this  kind.  The  printed  Laws  of  New  Haven  show 
that  fasts  and  thanksgivings  were  common  with  them,  from  their 
very  commencement  as  a  colony,  and  had  all  the  conservative  re- 
striction of  the  sabbath.  Who  could  reasonably  suppose,  that  for 
such  periods,  so  deficient  in  being  recorded  as  to  fasts  and  thanks- 
givings. New  England  would  consent  to  deprive  themselves  of  these 
interesting  seasons?  No  person,  correctly  acquainted  with  their 
views,  desires,  habits,  and  condition.  And  yet,  were  we  reduced  to 
the  necessity  of  relying  altogether  for  testimony,  in  the  present  case, 
on  their  general  court  Journals,  we  should  conclude,  that  they  did 
thus  forget  their  obligations  to  God  and  to  some  of  their  best  influ- 
ences and  interests. 

But  here  the  inquiry  may  be  made.  Why  were  the  registers  of 
their  legislative  doings  so  at  fault  ?  Several  causes  for  this  may  be 
assigned.  The  appointment  of  these  days  was  so  in  accordance 
with  the  opinions,  wishes,  and  practice  of  the  whole  country,  there 
was  no  call  for  a  special  record  to  be  made  of  them  among  the 
transactions  of  the  legislature.     If  a  parallel  case  of  this  kind  be 


FASTS  AND  THANKSGIVINGS.  461 

asked  for,  it  may  be  found  in  the  total  omission  of  noticing  such  an 
appointment,  on  the  records  of  Massachusetts  General  Court,  since 
the  adoption  of  their  Constitution  in  1780.  Another  cause  was,  that 
after  deputies  or  representatives  in  Plymouth  and  Massachusetts 
made  a  part  of  their  legislatures,  they  were,  oftentimes,  not  in  ses- 
sion so  as  to  unite  with  the  assistants  or  council  in  ordering  fasts  and 
thanksgivings;  and,  therefore,  a  record  failed  to  be  made  of  such  an 
act  more  frequently  than  would  otherwise  have  been.  Besides, 
when  the  representatives  were  in  session  seasonably  enough  to  par- 
ticipate in  this  act,  they  sometimes  left  it  to  the  direction  of  the  as- 
sistants. In  omissions  of  this  sort,  we  should  naturally  think,  that 
the  periodical  fasts  and  thanksgivings  would  be  more  frequently  un- 
noticed on  the  records,  because  generally  known  and  expected,  than 
those  of  more  special  occasions  at  other  parts  of  the  year.  If  the 
query  is  put,  whether  these  omissions  were  all,  which  are  either 
suspected  or  known,  we  reply  in  the  negative.  There  must  have 
been,  for  instance,  particular  orders  for  the  emission  of  one-penny 
pieces  of  the  Pine-Tree  money  and  of  the  Good-Samaritan  shillings, 
at  an  early  period,  from  the  Massachusetts  mint.  But  no  orders  of 
this  class  are  visible  on  the  Journals  of  General  Court.  In  view  of 
the  preceding  considerations,  we  are  justified  in  not  restricting  the 
number  of  fasts  and  thanksgivings,  publicly  ordered  by  our  ancient 
authorities,  to  the  numerical  notices  of  them  on  the  pages  of  their 
legislative  proceedings.  Indeed,  the  great  probability  is,  that  many 
more  of  such  seasons  were  so  appointed  in  the  first  periods  of  New 
England,  than  at  present,  though  this  position  is  not  confirmed  by 
the  records  of  their  legislatures.  An  opinion  of  this  kind  is  favored 
by  the  fact,  that,  in  some  years,  wherein  these  days  are  mentioned 
by  such  records,  two  or  three  of  each  kind  were  kept  in  the  course 
of  one  year.  As  instances  on  this  point,  Massachusetts  Journals 
give  two  fasts  in  1639,  and  three  in  1664  ;  two  thanksgivings  in  1633, 
and  two  in  1637.  These  were  distinct  from  those  often  observed  by 
the  churches  either  individually  or  collectively.  A  disposition,  so 
manifested,  must  have  been  cherished  and  indulged  from  the  re- 
markable trials  and  deliverances,  experienced  by  our  fathers  in  their 
early  history,  as  well  as  from  their  deep  feeling  of  dependance  on 
God  and  of  their  obligations  to  him.  It  would  be  absurd  to  conjec- 
ture, that  the  pilgrims  would  keep  so  many  of  these  seasons  in  one 
year,  and  then  neglect  them  altogether  for  several  successive  years, 
in  which  they  are  not  once  alluded  to  by  their  legislative  Journals, 


462  SACRED  SEASONS  OF  THE  PURITANS. 

when  there  were  similar  calls  for  a  like  observance  every  year 
They  were  a  people  chargeable  with  no  such  inconsistency  as  here 
implied ;  not  eaten  up  of  zeal  for  a  dutiful  and  salutary  custom  al 
one  period,  and  then  entirely  neglectful  of  it  at  another.  Hence,  we 
have  a  confirmation  of  the  statement,  that  we  should  not  make  up 
our  minds  solely  on  the  existing  legislative  records  of  New  England, 
as  to  the  number  and  dates  of  their  fasts  and  thanksgivings. 

Even  from  the  foregoing  considerations,  it  would  not  be  paradoxi- 
cal to  venture  ihe  opinion,  that  such  religious  seasons  have  been  pe- 
riodical from  the  founding  of  New  England.  Here  the  question 
occurs,  to  what  extent  do  legislative  Journals  and  other  coincident 
proof  confirm  such  a  position  ?  By  the  Connecticut  records  of  Gene- 
ral Court,*  it  appears  that  periodical  thanksgivings,  as  well  as  fasts, 
began  to  be  designated  in  1650.  In  all  reasonable  probability,  Mas- 
sachusetts would  not  come  short  in  this  respect ;  for  the}'^  were 
looked  to  rather  as  an  example,  than  otherwise.  The  records  of  the 
latter  colony,  so  far  as  preserved,  show,  that  thanksgivings  were  ap- 
pointed in  the  Ml  of  1633,  1637,  1638,  1639,  1654,  1656,  1659, 
1662, 1665, 1666, 1667,  1669,  1670,  1672,  1673, 1676, 1677, 1680, 
1681,  1682,  1684,  etc.  Besides  these  festival  days,  the  representa- 
tives left  the  matter  of  ordering  one  in  1648  to  the  council  ;  and  a 
paper  shows,  that  the  latter  body  did  designate  another  in  1671,  of 
which  no  mention  is  known  to  have  been  made  elsewhere.  It  may 
be  proper  to  state,  that  there  were  other  thanksgivings,  during  the 
same  period,  ordered  at  dales  different  from  those  of  such  days,  as 
just  now  enumerated. 

With  regard  to  fasts,  designated  by  the  Massachusetts  authorities 
in  this  lime,  though  they  were  more  in  number,  as  contained  on  legis- 
lative records,  than  thanksgivings,  yet  there  were  less  of  them,  as 
periodical,  than  of  these  festivals.  But  the  nature  of  the  case,  the 
propriety  of  confessing  human  unworthiness  and  interceding  for  di- 
vine blessing  on  the  labors  of  the  field,  the  pursuits  of  the  sea,  and 
other  avocations  of  community  in  the  vernal  season,  and  the  deep  re- 
ligious impression  of  our  fathers,  that  they  ought  not  to  omit  such  an 
obligation,  force  upon  our  minds  the  inference,  that  fasts  would  be 
even  more  likely  to  be  appointed  for  the  spring,  than  thanksgivings 
in  the  fall.  It  is  very  probable,  that,  if  the  regular  journal  of  the 
assistants  or  council  had  been  preserved,  it  would  have  supplied  a 

*  Extracts  from  Connecticut  Records  by  Hon.  Thomas  Day. 


FASTS  AND  THANKSGIVINGS.  463 

large  part  of  the  vacancies,  as  to  such  holy  days,  which  appear  in 
the  foregoing  statements  and  remaiks.  For  this  assertion,  we  have 
the  subsequent  fact.  From  the  fire  of  1747,  when  all  the  minutes 
of  the  council  for  many  previous  years,  except  a  few  of  general  im- 
port, were  destroyed,  to  1765,  there  are  notices  of  seventeen  peri- 
odical appointments  of  thanksgivings,  as  well  as  the  same  number  of 
periodical  fasts,  on  the  journals  of  this  branch  of  the  legislature, 
while  the  records  of  the  general  court  contain  only  about  five  of  such 
appointments  of  each  kind.  The  reasons,  so  advanced  to  account 
for  deficiencies  of  this  sort  in  Massachusetts,  would  apply  to  similar 
deficiencies  in  the  rest  of  New  England  jurisdictions.  At  this  point, 
we  may  ask  what  should  be  our  decision  on  the  question  before  us  ? 
We  perceive,  that  we  ought  not  to  depend  altogether,  for  a  reply,  on 
the  General  Court  records  of  New  England  now  extant.  We  per- 
ceive from  the  journals  of  Connecticut,  that  fasts  and  thanksgivings 
were  periodical  there,  and  from  the  same  authority  and  concurrent 
reasons,  were  very  probably  so  in  other  of  its  adjacent  colonies,  by 
1650.  And  even  if  Connecticut  journals  did  not  alford  such  testimo- 
ny, there  are  other  considerations,  which  forbid  the  surrender  of  this 
inference.  As  to  the  periodical  order  in  view,  before  the  year  just 
named,  we  are  left  to  judge  from  the  character  and  condition  of  our 
ancestors  as  well  as  from  their  recorded  practice.  This  practice,  so 
far  as  notice  of  it  has  come  down  to  our  knowledge,  implies  nothing 
contrary  to  such  order,  but  from  the  manner  in  which  it  is  mention- 
ed, and  the  fact,  that,  in  several  instances,  no  notice  was  taken  of 
it,  when  actually  existing,  on  the  registers  of  legislation,  strongly  in- 
timates, that  this  order  commenced  at  the  beginning  of  New  Eng- 
land. 

A  single  glance  at  the  character  and  condition  of  the  primitive 
colonists,  instantly  suggests,  that  the  Puritans  would  almost  as  soon 
think  of  neglecting  to  cultivate  the  ground  and  still  look  for  a  har- 
vest, as  to  omit  a  public  fast  in  the  spring,  and  to  gather  in  the  abun- 
dance of  their  fields  and  still  expect  to  be  fed,  as  to  omit  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  thanksgiving  in  the  autumn.  This  appears  to  be  a 
legitimate  conclusion  under  all  the  circumstances  of  the  case. 
Hence,  may  we  not  reasonably  make  up  our  minds,  that  fasts  and 
thanksgivings  have  been  periodical  from  the  first  colonization  of 
New  England  ? 

Nor  is  this  inference  invalidated  by  the  objection,  that  it  in- 
volves an  implication  contrary  to  the  cause,  for  which  our  fathers 


464  SACRED  SEASONS  OF  THE  PURITANS. 

declined  conformity  with  the  established  holy  days  of  the  Episcopal 
church.  The  truth  is,  had  they  kept  their  fasts  and  thanksgivings  a 
single  day  before  or  after  Passion  week  and  Christmas,  it  would 
have  broken  up  the  associations  of  mind,  which  was  the  object  of 
their  alteration.  But  in  allowing  them  the  sweep  of  several  weeks 
for  such  days,  they  had  ample  scope  to  rid  themselves  of  the  charge 
of  making  a  distinction  without  any  difference. 

7.  Observance  by  other  stales.  We  have  now  reached  the  point, 
where  notice  should  be  taken  of  fasts  and  thanksgivings  in  other 
parts  of  the  United  States.  It  is  well  known,  that,  in  such  portions, 
as  were  under  Episcopal  discipline,  these  days  were  kept  there,  for 
a  long  period,  according  to  the  prescribed  form  of  the  English  es- 
tablished church.  The  Lent  and  Christmas  of  those  pans  of  our 
country  were  to  them,  as  the  periodical  fasts  and  thanksgivings  of 
the  Puritans.  Their  other  similar  seasons  were  to  them,  in  some 
respects,  like  the  additional  ones  of  Congregationalists.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  general  concernment  to  all  the  British  American  colonies, 
they  were,  as  previously  expressed,  required  by  the  law  of  England, 
passed  1606,  to  keep  an  annual  thanksgiving  on  the  fifth  of  Novem- 
ber to  commemorate  the  discovery  of  the  gunpowder  plot.  It  was 
subsequently  enacted  by  the  parliament,  that  there  should  be  a  fast 
for  the  death  of  Charles  I,  and,  also,  a  thanksgiving  for  the  birth  and 
accession  of  Charles  II  to  the  throne,  every  successive  year.  While 
these  laws  were  complied  with  in  our  Episcopal  colonics,  they  seem 
to  have  been  neglected,  as  to  their  religious  observance,  by  the  non- 
conformists of  New  England.  In  the  year  1661,  the  legislature  of 
Virginia  incorporated  the  two  last  enactments  with  their  laws.*  Be- 
sides, when  any  great  victory  was  obtained  by  England,  or  any  joy- 
ful event  transpired  in  her  favor,  orders  were  received  thence  by  the 
colonists  of  our  country,  till  the  revolution  of  our  independence,  to 
keep  thanksgivings,  which  was  accordingly  and  punctually  done. 

In  addition,  fasts  and  thanksgivings,  ordered  by  provincial  and 
national  Congresses,  have  been  observed  throughout  the  Union. 

Having  thus  cleared  our  way  of  these  more  general  particulars, 
we  will  now  look  at  individual  sections  of  our  republic.  In  none  of 
these  have  the  periodical  fasts  of  New  England  ever  been  appointed 
by  public  authorities. t     Such  occasions  have  been  observed  by  vari- 

*  Laws  of  Virginia,  p.  4. 

t  Since  the  above  was  written,  the  Executive  of  New  York  State  has  de- 
signated a  general  Fast  for  the  present  month  of  April,  1841. 


FASTS  AND  THANKSGIVINGS.  465 

ous  denominations  of  dissenters  therein,  whenever  the  exigencies  of 
the  temporal  and  spiritual  condition  of  themselves,  or  neighhorhood, 
or  country  seemed  to  require.  Other  denominations,  who  conform 
with  the  rituals  of  their  respective  churches,  have  had  their  holy 
days  in  the  sprinfj  and  winter  and  other  established  seasons. 

As  to  annual  thanksgivings,  like  those  of  Ncnv  England,  the  only 
States,  which  are  known  by  the  writer  to  have  had  them  appointed 
by  their  chief  magistrates,  arc  New  Jersey,  New  York,  Michigan, 
Ohio  and  Indiana.  They  have  been  observed  in  New  Jersey  for  not 
less  than  a  half  century.*  They  began  to  be  appointed  by  De  Witt 
Clinton  of  New  York  in  1819,  and  have  been  so  continued  till  the 
present  year.t  For  ten  years  they  have  been  kept  in  Michigan  -,1  for 
six  years  in  Ohio,  and  for  three  or  four  in  Indiana. §  In  these  States, 
we  are  credibly  informed,  that  thanksgiving  is  less  and  Christmas 
more  observed,  in  proportion  to  the  population,  than  in  New  Eng- 
land. As  a  substitute  for  thanksgiving  in  the  States,  which  do  not 
keep  it,  are  Christmas  and  other  similar  seasons.  The  manner  of 
observing  these,  as  described  by  Lucian  Minor,  Esq.  relative  to  Vir- 
ginia, has  a  particular  application  to  nearly  all  such  States.  His 
language  is:  "  Christmas,  a  four  days'  holiday,  maintains  here  its 
old  English  character  of  festivity,  being  the  nearest  resemblance  to 
your  November  thanksgiving.  Those  four  days  and  one  day  each 
at  Easter  and  Whitsuntide,  are  the  only  stated  holidays  amongst  us, 
and  these  are  enjoyed  by  all  colors  and  conditions,  who  choose,  but 
mostly  by  all  of  the  slaves." 

Having  thus  travelled  over  the  diversified  course  of  our  inquiry, 
we  are  reminded  of  the  long  continued  customs,  which  originated  in 
religious  opinions  of  various  shades  and  tendencies.  Whatever  be 
the  forms  or  times  of  worship  associated  with  these  customs,  so  sa- 
cred a  service — if  dutifully  performed — is  alike  beneficial  in  promo- 
ting humility  for  our  sinful  deficiencies,  and  gratitude  for  our  nume- 
rous mercies  ;  in  exalting  the  mind  to  God  while  an  inhabitant  of 
earth,  and  the  soul  to  heaven,  when  disenthralled  from  its  clayey 
tenement.  Blessed  indeed  are  they,  who  so  commune  with  Him  in 
public,  as  to  be  partakers  of  his  sanctifying  presence  in  private,  and, 
hereafter,  to  be  filled  with  His  fullness  forever. 

*  Letter  from  Rev.  Dr.  Hillyer.  t  Letter  from  J.  C.  Spencer,  Esq.  Sec- 
retary of  the  State  of  .N.  Y.  t  Letter  from  Rev.  L  M.  VVead.  §  Letter 
from  Rev.  J.  H.  Perkins.  —  These  four  letters  were  written  in  1S40. 

59 


466  OF  THE  ARMENIAN  CHUKCH- 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

OF  THE  ARINIEMAN  CHURCH. 

The  history  of  the  ancient  religious  sects  of  the  East,  opens  an 
interesting  and  important  field  of  inquiry,  in  investigating  the  rites 
and  customs  and  discipline  of  the  primitive  church.  These  religious 
sects,  severally,  separated  themselves  at  a  very  early  period  from 
the  established  church ;  and,  in  the  deep  seclusion  and  sleepless 
jealousy  of  Eastern  bigotry,  they  have  preserved  their  ancient  reli- 
gious rites  unchanged  through  the  lapse  of  ages.  These  their  reli- 
gious rites,  therefore,  carry  us  back  to  a  high  antiquity,  and,  with 
some  circumstantial  variations,  disclose  to  us  the  usages  and  customs 
of  the  ancient  church. 

It  would  be  interesting  and  instructive,  for  this  reason,  to  com- 
pare the  antiquities  of  some  of  the  most  ancient  of  these  religious 
seels,  such  as  the  Armenians,  the  Nestorians,  the  Jacobites,  the 
Copts,  etc.  The  author  has  taken  measures  to  obtain  from  our  mis- 
sionaries a  brief  statement  of  the  religious  rites  of  several  of  these 
sects,  and  has  the  pleasure  of  laying  before  the  reader  one  such  ab- 
stract respecting  the  Armenian  church,  from  the  Rev.  H.  G.  O. 
Dwight,  missionary  at  Constantinople.  This  communication  from 
him  cannot  fait  to  be  alike  interesting  both  to  the  antiquarian  and  the 
Christian. 

Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Armenian  Church. 

Among  the  sovereigns  of  the  East,  at  the  time  of  Christ,  was  one 
by  the  name  of  Abgar,  or  Abgarus,  the  seat  of  whose  government 
was  at  Edessa  in  Mesopotamiah.  He  is  called  by  Tacitus  (An,  L.  12. 
c.  12)  king  of  the  Arabs,  though  in  the  Armenian  Chronicles  he  is 
placed  among  the  Armenian  kings,  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Arsacidae. 
It  is  said  that  this  king  was  converted  to  Christianity  merely  by  hear- 
ing of  the  wonderful  works  of  Christ,  and  that  he  sent  a  special  mes- 
senger with  a  letter  to  invite  Christ  to  come  to  his  court,  where  he 
promised  him  rest  and  protection  from  his  enemies.  To  this  request 
Christ  replied  that  it  was  impossible  for  him  to  come  in  person,  but 
that  after  his  ascension,  he  would  send  one  of  his  disciples,  in  his 
place.     Eusebius  and  others  relate  that  our  Saviour  took  a  handker- 


OF  THE  ARMENIAN  CHURCH.  467 

chief  and  pressing  it  upon  his  face,  an  exact  likeness  of  himself  was 
miraculously  impressed  upon  it,  which  he  sent  to  Abgar  as  a  mark 

of  favor. 

Moses  Chorenensis,  the  Armenian  historian,  states  that  our  ba- 
viour  sent  to  king  Abgar  his  own  likeness,  but  makes  no  allusion  to 
the  manner  in  which  it  was  procured. 

This  last  writer  also  declares,  that  after  the  death  of  Christ  the 
aposlle  Thomas,  in  obedience  to  the  command  of  the  Saviour,  and 
agreeably  to  his  promise,  sent  Thaddeus,  one  of  the  seventy,  to 
Edessa,  who  healed  the  king  of  an  incurable  disease  under  which 
he  had  been  suffering  for  seven  years,  and  afterwards,  baptized  him 
in  the  name  of  Christ.  Many  other  miracles  are  said  to  have  been 
performed  by  Thaddeus,  and  "  the  whole  city,"  says  Moses,  "  was 

baptized." 

This  is  the  Armenian  account  of  the  beginning  of  their  church, 
and  Eusebius  bears  his  testimony  to  the  same  facts  in  every  im- 
porlant  particular. 

The  immediate  successors  of  Abgar,  however,  apostatized  from 
the  christian  faith,  and  by  their  persecutions  Christianity  was  almost 
exterminated  from  the  country.  It  would  appear,  however,  that 
individual  Christians  and  perhaps  small  bodies  of  them,  were  found 
in  the  Armenian  territories  up  to  the  time  of  Dertad  (Diridates)  2d, 
A.  D.  259,  during  whose  reign  Christianity  was  revived,  through 
the  instrumentality  of  Gregory,  and  it  has  ever  since  been  the  reli- 
gion of  the  Armenian  people. 

Gregory,  called  also  Loosavorich,  the  Enlighiener.^^nsan  Arme- 
nian of  royal  descent,  who  having  been  brought  up  in  Cesarea,  was 
there  educated  in  the  christian  religion. 

Havins:  become  connected  with  the  king^s  suite,  and  refusing  to 
unite  in  his  idolatrous  worship,  he  was  grievously  tortured,  and  kept 
in  close  confinement  in  a  cave  for  many  years.  Being  at  length  de- 
livered, he  was  instrumental  in  the  conversion  of  the  king,  and  many 
of  the  nobles.  He  afterwards  repaired  to  Cesarea,  where  he  was 
ordained  bishop,  by  Leonties,  bishop  of  Cesarea,  and  returning  to  Ar- 
menia  Proper,  he  baptised  the  king  and  multitudes  of  the  people. 
In  short,  the  nation  now  became  Christian,  though  some  of  its  chiefs 
soon  afterwards  apostatized,  and  through  their  means  the  king  of 
Persia  was  enabled,  for  a  while,  to  carry  on  a  persecution  agamst 
the  religion  of  the  cross.     At  subsequent  periods  in  the  Armenian  as- 


4(»8  _  OF  TH£  ARMENIAN  CHURCH. 

nals  we  read  of  the  most  violent  and  deadful  persecutions  of  the  Ar- 
menian Christians,  by  the  pagan  and  Mohammedan  kings  of  Persia, 
as  political  changes  placed  the  former  under  the  power  of  the  latter. 

In  the  year  406,  the  Armenian  alphabet  was  invented,  and  in  411, 
the  Bible  was  translated  into  the  Armenian  language  from  the  Sep- 
tuagint. 

In  the  year  491,  a  synod  of  Armenian  bishops  rejected  the  deci- 
sions of  the  council  of  Chalcedon,  by  which  act  they  cut  themselves 
off  from  the  charity  and  communion  of  the  other  branches  of  the 
christian  church,  and  they  are  to  this  day  denominated  schismatics 
and  heretics  by  both  the  Greeks  and  the  Papists. 

As  to  the  progress  of  the  Armenian  church  in  after  ages,  little 
indeed  can  be  said,  unless  we  follow  the  examples  of  their  own  his- 
torians, and  quote  as  evidences  of  her  prosperity,  the  number  of 
churches  and  convents  erected,  the  great  increase  of  religious  feast 
and  fast  days,  and  of  ceremonies  in  general,  and  the  astonishing 
miracles  performed  by  worldly  and  graceless  monks.  The  people 
were  left  in  almost  total  ignorance,  while  the  ecclesiastics  were  con- 
tinually embroiled  in  disputes  with  the  Greeks  on  points  of  little  im- 
portance, or  waging  intestine  wars  of  ambition  with  each  other,  each 
striving  for  the  highest  place.  As  might  be  expected,  every  species 
of  irreligion  was  rife  under  such  influences. 

The  only  redeeming  trait  was  the  unflinching  resoluteness  with 
which  property,  liberty,  and  life  were  frequently  sacrificed  to  the 
Magian  and  Mohammedan  persecutors  of  the  Armenian  church. 

2.  Church  officers  and  government.  The  Armenians  are  at  present 
scattered  among  different  nations,  and  subject  to  different  political 
governments,  by  which  their  ecclesiastical  polity  is  somewhat  modi- 
fied. Originally  the  church  was  placed  under  one  head,  styled  ca- 
iholicos,  who  usually  held  his  seat  at  the  imperial  residence.  Sub- 
sequently several  different  catholicoses  were  created  by  parties  ris- 
ing up  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  and  taking  advantage  of  the 
disturbed  state  of  public  affairs.  At  present  there  are  three  catholi- 
coses, one  at  Echmiadzin  (which  is  the  greatest),  one  at  Aghtamar, 
in  the  Lake  Van,  and  one  at  Sis,  in  the  ancient  province  of  Cilicia. 

The  calholicos  is  the  spiritual  head  of  the  church,  or  of  that  par- 
ticular portion  of  it  over  which  his  jurisdiction  extends.  He  only 
can  ordain  bishops,  and  consecrate  the  sacred  oil  which  is  used  in 
various  ceremonies  of  the  church. 


OF  THE  ARMENIAN  CHURCH.  469 

The  Armenians  at  Constantinople,  with  all  tliose  in  Turkey  in  Eu- 
rope, and  in  Asia  Minor,  and  Armenia  Proper,  were  formerly  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  catholicos  of  Echmiadzin  ;  but  since  that  see 
has  fallen  within  the  possessions  of  Russia,  the  Armenians  in  those 
parts  of  Turkey  mentioned,  have  been  osiensibly  without  any  spir- 
itual head  ;  although  there  is  still  a  secret  connection  between  them 
and  Echmiadzin  and  several  vartabeds  have  lately  gone  to  the  lat- 
ter place  to  be  ordained  bishops. 

There  are  two  patriarchs,  it  is  true,  one  at  Constantinople  and  the 
other  at  Jerusalem  ;  but  both  these  offices  were  established  by  Mo- 
hammedan authorities  for  their  own  convenience,  and  as  neither  of 
thern  has  the  power  of  ordaining  bishops,  they  may  be  considered  as 
only  themselves  holding  the  rank  of  bisho[)s,  ecclesiastically,  though 
clothed  with  high  political  authority  by  the  Turks. 

The  Armenian  patriarch  at  Constantinople  has  the  power  of  im- 
prisoning atid  scourging  at  pleasure,  members  of  his  own  flock,  and 
until  recently  he  could  easily  procure  their  banishment,  from  the 
Turkish  authorities,  whenever  he  pleased.  The  late  charter  given 
by  the  Sultan  to  his  subjects  will,  however,  if  carried  into  effect,  pre- 
vent him  from  doing  this  except  on  a  regular  trial  before  the  Turk- 
ish courts. 

It  will  be  understood  from  what  has  been  said  that  the  form  of  gov- 
ernment of  the  Armenian  church  is  Episcopal.  There  are  ?ii/je  dif- 
ferent grades  of  the  Armenian  clergy,  all  of  which  are  set  apart  to 
their  respective  offices  by  the  laying  on  of  hands.  Four  of  these  are 
below  the  order  of  deacon,  and  are  called  porters,  readers,  exorcists, 
and  candle-lighters.  After  these  come  the  suhdcacons,the  deacons, 
then  the  priests,  then  the  bishops,  and  last  of  all  the  catholicos.  All 
below  the  bishop  are  ordained  by  the  bishop,  and  he  by  the  ca- 
tholicos only.     The  catholicos  is  ordained  by  a  council  of  bishops. 

There  is  a  class  of  ecclesiastics,  called  vartabeds,  which  may  be 
considered  as  collateral  with  the  order  of  priests.  The  difference 
between  them  is  simply  this:  The  priests  are  married,  and  in  fact 
no  man  can  be  ordained  priest,  unless,  at  the  time  of  his  ordination, 
he  has  a  wife.  The  vartabeds  never  marry,  and  have  taken  upon 
them  the  vow  of  perpetual  celibacy.  The  priests  always  remain 
priests,  and  can  never  rise  to  the  rank  of  bishop.  Tiie  vartabeds 
may  become  bishops,  and  in  fact,  all  the  bishops  are  taken  from  that 
order,  and  are  bound  to  celibacy.     The  vartabeds  are  the  preachers, 


470  OF  THE  ARMENIAN  CHURCH. 

(strictly  speaking)  but  the  priests  never  preach.  The  vartabeds  live 
not  among  the  people,  but  in  convents  where  there  are  convents, 
or  if  not,  they  live  by  themselves  within  the  church  enclosures. 
The  priests  Hve  in  the  midst  of  their  flocks,  and  go  in  and  out  among 
them  freely.  In  case  the  wife  of  a  priest  dies,  he  is  not  permitted  to 
marry  again,  and  he  may  then  if  he  chooses  become  a  vartabed. 

There  are  also  several  subdivisions  of  grade  among  the  vartabeds, 
each  of  which  has  its  particular  ordination  service.  One  of  these, 
called  by  way  of  distinction,  Tlie  supreme  order  of  Vartabed, 
is  now  practically  unknown  ;  though  according  to  the  rules  of  the 
church  it  should  exist.  The  individual  who  fills  this  office,  may  be 
either  a  vartabed  or  a  bishop.  If  the  former,  he  may  be  ordained 
to  it  by  a  bishop ;  but  if  the  latter,  he  must  be  set  apart  to  this  high 
dignity  by  the  catholicos  himself.  He  is  considered  byway  of  em- 
inence as  an  apostolical  preacher  ;  and  his  labors  are  to  be  among 
the  heathen  alone.  The  spirit  of  missions  is  dead  in  the  Armenian 
church  ;  and  therefore,  they  have  no  further  employment  for  such 
a  class  of  men. 

3.  Doctrines.  The  chief  point  of  separation  between  the  Armeni- 
ans on  the  one  side,  and  the  Greeks  and  the  papists  on  the  other,  is, 
that  while  the  latter  believe  in  two  natures  and  one  person  of  Christ, 
the  former  believe  that  the  humanity  and  divinity  of  Christ  were  so 
united  as  to  form  but  one  nature  ;  and  hence,  they  are  called 
Monophi/ sites. 

Another  point  on  which  they  are  charged  with  heresy  by  the  pa- 
pists, is,  that  they  adhere  to  the  notion  that  the  Spirit  proceeds  from 
the  Father  only  ;  and  in  this  the  Greeks  join  them,  though  the  pa- 
pists say,  that  He  proceeds  from  the  Father  and  the  Son.  In  other 
respects,  the  Greeks  and  Armenians  have  very  nearly  the  same  re- 
ligious opinions  ;  though  they  differ  somewhat  in  their  forms  and 
modes  of  worship.  For  instance,  the  Greeks  make  the  sign  of  the 
cross  with  three  fingers,  in  token  of  their  belief  in  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity — while  the  Armenians  use  two  fingers,  and  the  Ja- 
cobites one. 

The  Armenians  hold  to  seven  sacraments  like  the  Latins,  although 
baptism,  confirmation,  and  extreme  unction,  are  all  performed  at 
the  same  time — and  the  forms  of  prayer  for  confirmation  and  ex- 
trenie  unction  are  perfectly  intermingled,  which  leads  one  to  sup- 


OF  THE  ARMENIAN  CHURCH.  471 

pose,  that  in  fact,  the  latter  sacrament  does  not  exist  among  them, 
except  in  name ;  and  that  this  they  have  borrowed  from  the  papists. 

Infants  are  baptized  both  by  triple  immersion,  and  pouring  water 
three  times  upon  the  head, — the  former  being  done  as  their  books 
assert, — in  reference  to  Christ's  having  been  three  days  in  the  grave, 
— and  probably  suggested  by  the  phrase, —  hurled  with  him  in 
baptism. 

The  latter  ceremony  they  derive  from  the  tradition  that  when 
Christ  was  baptized,  he  stood  in  the  midst  of  Jordan,  and  John 
poured  water  from  his  hand  three  times,  upon  his  head.  In  all  their 
pictures  of  this  scene,  such  is  the  representation  of  the  mode  of  our 
Saviour's  baptism.  Converted  Jews,  or  Mohammedans,  though 
adults  are  baptized  in  the  same  manner. 

The  Armenians  acknowledge  sprinkling  as  a  lawful  mode  of  bap- 
tism,— for  they  receive  from  other  churches,  those  tliat  have  merely 
been  sprinkled,  without  re-baptizing  them. 

They  believe  firmly  in  transubstanlialion, — and  worship  the  con- 
secrated elements  as  God. 

Unleavened  bread  is  used  in  the  Sacrament,  and  the  broken 
pieces  of  bread  are  dipped  in  undiluted  wine,  and  thus  given  to  the 
people. 

The  latter  however  do  not  handle  it,  but  receive  it  into  their 
mouths  from  the  hands  of  the  priest.  They  suppose  it  has  in  itself  a 
sanctifying  and  saving  power.  The  Greeks  in  this  sacrament  use 
leavened  bread,  and  wine  mixed  with  water. 

The  Armenians  discard  the  popish  doctrine  of  purgatory,  but  yet 
most  inconsistently  they  pray  for  the  dead. 

They  hold  to  confession  of  sins  to  the  priests,  who  impose  pen- 
ances and  grant  absolution,  though  without  money,  and  they  give 
no  indulgences. 

They  pray  through  the  mediation  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  other 
saints.  The  belief  that  Mary  was  always  a  virgin,  is  a  point  of  very 
high  importance  with  them  ;  and  lliey  consider  the  thought  of  her 
having  given  birth  to  children  after  the  birth  of  Christ,  as  in  the  high- 
est  degree  derogatory  to  her  character,  and  impious. 

They  regard  baptism  and  regeneration  as  the  same  thing,  and 
have  no  conception  of  any  spiritual  change  ;  and  they  know  little  of 
any  other  terms  of  salvation  than  penance,  the  Lord's  supper,  fast- 
ing, and  good  works  in  general. 


472  OF  THE  ARMENIAN  CHURCH. 

The  Armenians  are  strictly  Trinitarians  in  their  views,  holding 
firmly  to  the  supreme  divinity  of  Christ,  and  the  doctrine  of  atone- 
ment for  sin  ;  though  their  views  on  the  latter  subject,  as  well  as  in 
regard  to  faith  and  repentance,  are  somewhat  obscure.  They  say 
that  Christ  died  to  atone  for  original  sin,  and  that  actual  sin  is  to  be 
washed  away  by  penances, — which  in  their  view  is  repentance. 
Penances  are  prescribed  by  the  priests,  and  sometimes  consist  in  an 
offering  of  money  to  the  church,  a  pilgrimage,  or  more  commonly 
in  repeating  certain  prayers,  or  reading  the  whole  hook  of  Psalms, 
a  specified  number  of  times.  Faith  in  Christ  seems  to  mean  but  lit- 
tle more  than  believing  in  the  mystery  of  transubstantiation. 

.4.  Forms  of  ivorsliip,feslinals,  etc.  The  Armenian  churches  are 
opened  regularly  twice  every  day  morning  and  evening  for  prayers, 
and  mass  is  performed  every  day  in  all  the  city  churches,  though  in 
the  country  less  frequently,  according  to  the  size  of  the  church  and 
the  number  of  priests.  It  occupies  soinctimes  six  hours  and  more, 
for  its  completion.  It  consists  in  chanting,  and  reading  prayers  and 
portions  of  the  Scriptures  and  responses  by  the  people.  The  offi- 
ciating priest  or  bishop  is  richly  dressed,  as  are  the  deacons  and 
singers.  Small  bells  are  rung  and  incense  is  burned,  and  various 
other  ceremonies  are  performed  which  contribute  to  please  and  awe 
the  people.  At  the  ordinary  morning  and  evening  prayers  the  peo- 
ple kneel  and  cross  themselves  in  rapid  succession  a  number  of 
times  while  the  priests  are  chanting  the  prayers.  These  prostrations 
are  made  frequently  before  a  pict-ure  of  the  Virgin  or  other  saint. 
In  the  more  recently  constructed  Armenian  churches,  however,  pic- 
tures are  almost  wholly  excluded.  In  some  parts  of  the  country 
also,  instead  of  repeating  the  ceremony  of  prostrating  themselves  as 
above  described,  they  simply  kneel  and  thus  remain  quietly  until  the 
prayer  is  finished.  This  seems  to  have  been  the  ancient  custom  of 
the  Armenian  church,  and  a  change  has  taken  place  in  the  churches 
around  the  Levant,  probably  through  the  influence  of  the  Greeks. 

The  scriptures  and  prayers  are  read  in  the  ancient  Armenian 
tongue,  which  is  understood  but  by  very  few  among  the  people — 
and  if  understood,  would  hardly  be  intelligible,  the  tones  of  voice  are 
so  drawling  and  unnatural.  Preaching  is  rare  among  the  Armeni- 
ans, and  is  only  performed  by  the  bishops  and  vartabeds,  and  gene- 
rally only  on  particular  feast  days.  The  priests  are  never  expected 
to   preach,   their   business   being  to  read   prayers  and   say   mass. 


OF  THE  ARMINIAN  CHURCH.  473 

Though  the  apocryphal  books  are  bound  up  with  ihe  others  in  the 
Armenian  Bible,  yet  they  are  considered  as  uncanonical,  and  are 
never  read  in  the  churches. 

There  are  at  least  fourteen  great  feast  days  in  the  course  of  the 
year  on  which  all  ordinary  labor  is  suspended,  and  the  day  is  ob- 
served more  strictly  than  the  sabbath.  Besides  these  there  are  nu- 
merous other  feasts  and  fasts,  more  numerous  even  than  the  days 
of  the  year  ;  so  that,  in  some  instances,  several  are  appointed  to  the 
same  day.  Besides  the  occasional  fasts,  such  as  a  fast  of  forty  days 
before  Easter,  and  another  of  six  days  before  Christmas,  etc.,  they 
have  two  weekly  fasts,  the  one  on  Wednesday  and  the  other  on  Fri- 
day. The  Armenians  have  165  days  in  the  year  appointed  for  fast- 
ing. They  do  not  properly  fast,  however,  since  they  are  permitted 
to  eat  plentifully  of  all  kinds  of  vegetable  food  except  the  vegetable 
oils— and  a  fast  with  them  is  merely  abstaining  from  animal  food. 

Among  the  Armenians,  girls  are  often  married  at  the  age  of 
twelve  or  thirteen,  the  other  sex  rarely  until  they  are  from  twenty- 
five  to  thirty.  The  marriage  contract  is  made  by  the  parents  or 
guardians,  and  the  parties  are  not  expected  to  see  one  another  until 
after  they  are  husband  and  wife.  The  ceremonies  of  marriage  oc- 
cupy three  days — daring  which  lime  there  are  constant  festivities 
either  at  the  house  of  the  bridegroom  or  bride,  or  both.  The  bride 
is  last  carried  to  the  house  of  the  bridegroom  in  procession  of  car- 
riages or  carts  drawn  by  o.xen,  the  ceremony  of  marriage  being  per- 
formed sometimes  at  the  house  and  sometimes  at  church.  The  ex- 
penses of  the  dowry  and  the  marriage  festiviti-s  come  upon  the 
bridegroom,  and  they  are  usually  quite  large.  Marriage  is  consid- 
ered as  one  of  the  sacraments,  and  there  is  properly  no  divorce  af- 
ter the  tie  is  once  made.  The  laws  of  the  Armenians  are  more 
strict  than  those  of  Moses  in  regard  to  the  degrees  of  consanguinity 
within  which  persons  may  marry. 

When  a  person  dies,  several  of  the  female  friends  of  the  family 
are  usually  present,  who  make  a  loud  outcry,  so  as  to  be  heard  at 
some  distance  from  the  house.  The  funeral  takes  place  on  the 
same  day.  The  body  is  dressed  as  when  alive,  and  placed  in  an 
open  bier  which  is  ornamented  with  flowers,  natural  or  artificial,  and 
thus  carried  to  the  grave-yard.  An  irregular  procession  of  the 
friends  is  formed,  headed  by  priests  and  singers,  with  lighted  can- 
dles if  the  wind  will  permit,  and  a  plaintive  funeral  dirge  is  chanted 

60 


474  OF  THE  ARMENIAN  CHURCH. 

as  they  pass  along  the  streets.  Candles  are  always  carried,  even 
although  the  funeral  should  be  at  mid-day,  though  sometimes  they 
cannot  be  lighted.  Female  friends  never  accompany  the  procession 
to  the  grave.  At  the  grave  prayers  are  read,  and  the  body,  without 
coffin,  is  committed  to  the  earth.  The  ordinary  garments  are  first 
removed,  and  the  body  closely  wound  up  by  a  long  piece  of  cloth, 
andthus  placed  in  the  grave  and  covered  with  earth.  U  he  be  an  ec- 
clesiastic, a  stone  is  placed  on  each  side  of  the  head,  and  another 
over  the  top  to  prevent  the  earth  from  coming  in  immediate  contact 
with  the  head,  which  has  been  anointed  with  holy  oil.  After  the 
grave  of  an  ecclesiastic  has  been  filled  up  another  hillock  of  the  same 
dimensions  and  appearance  is  raised  by  its  side  in  order  to  prevent 
the  body  from  being  stolen.  The  temptation  to  this  crime  in  the 
case  of  an  ecclesiastic  is,  that  as  it  is  a  sacred  body,  having  been 
anointed,  it  may  be  in  demand  for  relics.  Mourning  garments  are 
never  worn  by  the  males  among  the  Armenians;  but  the  females 
at  Constantinople  dress  in  black.  In  the  case  of  an  ecclesiastic, 
prayers  are  read  at  the  house  every  evening  after  the  burial  until 
Saturday.  If  the  death  takes  place  on  Saturday  they  are  read  only 
on  that  evening.  If  it  be  a  layman,  they  are  read  only  once  on  the 
evening  of  the  burial,  and  once  on  the  following  Saturday  evening. 
The  friends  also  occasionally  call  for  the  priest  to  say  prayers  over 
the  grave  ;  but  this  in  Constantinople  is  without  rule,  and  they  do  it 
whenever  they  please.  In  some  parts  of  Armenia  proper  they  have 
the  following  customs  on  the  subject :  After  the  burial  the  officiating 
priest  reads  prayers  over  the  grave  once  a  day  for  eight  days  if  the 
deceased  is  an  ecclesiastic,  and  for  three  days  if  a  layman,  and  also 
on  the  8th,  15th,  and  40ih  days  after  the  decease,  and  at  the  end  of 
one  year. 

The  present  state  of  the  Armenian  church  is  one  of  deep  interest. 
Enlightened  views  in  regard  to  the  truths  of  the  Scriptures  are  ex- 
tensively spread  among  them,  particularly  in  Constantinople  and  in 
some  of  the  adjacent  cities,  and  it  is  evident  that  at  least  a  portion  of 
the  church  is  on  the  eve  of  a  reform.  They  are  an  enterprising  and 
talented  people,  and  evidently  possess  the  elements  of  a  solid  and  no- 
ble character.  With  a  truly  regenerated  nature,  they  promise  to  be 
most  important  instruments  in  the  hands  of  God,  in  spreading  the 
light  of  true  Christianity  over  the  East. 


INDEX    OF    AUTHORITIES 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL    VIEW   OF   THE   ORGANIZATION   AND     WORSHIP    OK     THE    PRIMI- 
TIVE CHURCH. 

§  1.  Accounts  of  Jewish  and  profane  Authors,  p.  25. 

1.  Suetonius,  Vit.  Nei-.  c.  16  ;  Vit.  Claud,  c.  25. 

2.  Annal.  15.  44. 

3.  Tzschirner,  Graeci  et  Romani  Scriptores  cur  rerum  cliristianarum 

nieminerint.  Lips.  1824.  4 ;  G.  A.  Osiander,  Ueber  die  Aus- 
lireitunj?  des  Chiis:tentluiins. 

4.  J.  H.  Boehmer,  Disseitat.  xii.  juris  eccles.  antiqui  ad  Pliniuni  Se- 

cundiiiTi  et  TertuHianum.  Hal.  1729.  8. 

5.  De  Morte  Perigrini,  op[),  edit.  Bi[)ont.  vol.  viii.  p.  272  seq. ;     Phi- 

lopseudes,  vol.  vii.  p.  266  ;  Pseudomantis,  vol.  v.  p.  63  seq.; 
Cli.  G.  Fr.  VValcli,  Explicatio  rerum  chrislianarum  apud  Lucia- 
num  ;  Eichstadt,  Lueiatuis  niim  scriptis  suis  adjuvai'e  reljgio- 
nem  clir.  voluerit.  Jeiiae,  1820.  4. 

§  2.    Origin  of  the  Christian  Church,  p.  32. 

1.  Franc.  Croii,  Heidnisches  Papstlium.  Basel,  1607.  1613.  8;  Dav. 
Meir  de  Papatu  Romnno  per  Elhnicismurn  iuii)raegiiato  et  re- 
ferrnentato.  1634.4;  Jo.  Vaikenier,  Roiria  pagauizans.  1656.  4; 
Nir.  Hunnii,  De  Apostasia  Romanae  ecclesiae,  c.  4 ;  Mussardi, 
Vorstelluiig  der  vor  Zeiten  aus  ilem  Heideniliutne  in  die  Kirche 
eingefiihrten  Gehrauclie  und  Ceremonien.  Aus  dem  Franzbs. 
mit  Aiimerk.  von  Sigisrn.  Hosrnaun.  Leipz.  1695;  Conyers 
Middleton,  A  Letter  from  Rome,  shewing  an  exact  conformity 
between  Popery  and  Paganism,  edit.  5.  1741.8.  edit.  6.  1825.  8  ; 
J.  J.  Blunt,  Ursprung  relig.  Ceremonien  und  Gebriiuclie  der 
rou).  katliol.  Kirche,  bes.  iu  Italien  und  Sicilien.  Aus  dem 
Engl.   Darmst.  1826.  8. 

§  3.   Peculiarities  of  the  Christian  System,  p.  34. 

1.  Bellermann's  Versiich   iiber  die   Gemmen   der   Alten    mit  dem 

Abraxas-Bilde.I— IIL  Berlin,  1817—19.8.  S.  St.  I.  S.  40— 63. 
St.  III.  S.  43,  44.  Fr.  Miinter's  Sinnbilder  und  Kunstvor- 
stellungen  der  alten  Christen.  1.  u.  II.  Heft.    Altona,  1825.  4 

2.  Kestner's  Agape.    Jena,  1819.  8.  u.  Zugabe.  s.  556  seq. 


476 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES. 


§  4.  Disciplina  Arcani,  Apostolical  Constiiulions,  and  Canons,  p.  35. 

1.  Die  beyden  vorziiijliclisten   Antngonisten   siiirl:  Einan.   a   S<-liel- 

strate  de  disciplina  arcani.  Roiiiae,  1685.4.  Eil.  Patav.  1743.  4. 
Guil.  Ern.  Tenzel,  Dissertat.  select.  P.  II.  Vergl.  Bingham,  Orig. 
toni.  iv.  p.  l]9seq.  Neuere  Schriftsteller  liber  diesen  Gegen- 
stand  sind:  Herm.  Scliolliner,  Disciplina  arcani  snae  anticpiitali 
reslitnta.  J756.  4.  Ueber  religiose  Mysterien  u.  s.  w.  Miinchen, 
1818.  8  ;  Th.  Lienhart,  De  antiq.  Liiiirg.  et  de  disci|)lina  arcani. 
Argentor.  1829.  8;  Tb.  Criiger,  De  disc.  arc.  vet.  Cbristiano- 
nini  ;  Jac.  Ziintnermaiui,  De  disciplina  arcani  vet.  eccl.  nostra 
aetate  non  usurpanda.  Tigiir.  1751  ;  J.  L.  Schedius,  De  sacris 
opertis  vet.  Chr.  s.  de  disciplina,  quam  vocant,  arcani.  Goett. 
1790.  4.  Eine  vorziiglicbe  Monograjibie  ist ;  G.  C.  L.  Tb. 
Fronimann,  De  disci|)lina  arcani,  quae  in  vetere  eccl.  cbr.  ob- 
tinuisse  fertur.  Jen.  1833.  8.  Man  vgl.  auch  :  Die  Religions- 
Wanderungen  des  H.  Tb.  Moore  belenchtet  von  eiiiigen  seiner 
Landsleute.  Aus  dem  Engl.  Coin,  1835.  S.  .359— 78.  Das  Ur- 
tbeil  Neander's  iiber  die  Arcan-Disciplin  (Allg.  Gescb.  der  chr. 
Rel.  M.  Kircbe.    T.  I.  S.  357)  ist  iingerecht. 

2.  Riddle's   Christ.    Antiq.   p.  IQO — 23.     Conip.   also   Otto   Krabbe 

liber  den  Urspriing  iind  Inbatt  der  apostoliscben  Constitutionen 
des  Clemens  Romaniis.  Hamburg,  1829.  8  ;  Dessibben,  De  co- 
dice  canonum  qui  Apostolorum  nomine  circumferuntur.  Goet- 
ting.  1829.  4  ;  Ed.  Regenbrnht,  De  Canonibus  Apostolorum. 
Vratisli,  1828.  8  ;  J.  S.  v.  Dreg,  Nene  Unters.  liber  die  Constitu- 
tionen und  Canones  der  Apostel  ;  ein  hist.  krit.  Beytrag  zur 
Literat.  der  Kircbengesch.  und  des  Kircbenrechts.  Tubingen, 
1832.  8. 

CHAPTER  II. 

NAMES  AND   CLASSES   OF   CHRISTIANS. 

§  1.  Scriptural  Appellations  and  JVames  assumed  by  Christians,    p.  39. 

1.  Phil.  Rovenii,  Reipublicae  christianae  libri  duo,  tractantes  de  va- 
riis  bominum  statibus,  gradibus,  officiis  et  functionibus  in  ec- 
clesia  Christi.  Antverp.  lG(i8.  4  ;  J.  H.  Boebmer's  Entwurf  des 
Kircbenstaats  der  ersten  drey  Jabrbunderte.  Hal.  1733.  8  ;  Dis- 
sertationes  xii  juris  ecclesiastici  antiqui.  Lips.  1711.8;  Ziegler's 
Versuch  einer  pragmat.  Gcscbiclite  der  kircblicben  Verfas- 
sungs-Formen  in  den  ersten  vi  Jabrb.  d.  Kirctie.  Leipz.  1798.  8 ; 
Planck's  Gescbichte  der  Entstebung  u.  Ausbildung  der  cbr, 
kircblicben  Gesellschafts-Verfassung.  Th.  1 — 5.  Hannov.  1803 
— 1805.  8  ;  K.  F,  Eichhorn's  Grundsatze  des  Kircbenrechst. 
Tb.  1.  Goett.  1831.  8  ;  Herm.  Scholliner,  De  niagistratuum  eccl, 
origine  etcreatione.  17.57.  4  ;  Jo.  Fr.  Buddei,  Exercit.  de  origine, 
dignitate  et  usu  nominis  christian!.  Jen.  1711.  4.  S.  Ejusd. 
Synt.  Dissert.  Theolog.   p.  385  seq. ;  Jo.  Fr.  Hebenstreit,  De 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES.  477 

variis  Christiaiionim  iiotninilnis.  Jen.  1713.  4;  Clir.  Aug. 
llerrnanii,  De  ortu  iioiniiiis  Cliristianoniin.  Goetting.  173G.  4. 
S.  Ejiiscl.  Priiiiir.  Gnotliiig.  p.  130  seq.  ;  Clir.  Korlliolt,  Pa- 
gamis  obtiectator,  s.  do  caliirniiiis  Gi'iiiilium  in  vet.  clirist.  liltr. 
iii,  Lubec.  1703.  4;  G.  Fr.  Giidii,  Pagamis  Cliristiaiiomtn 
laudator  et  fautor.    Lips.  1741.  4. 

2.  Tacitus,  Anual.  iii».  xv.  c.  44. 

3.  Suetonius,  Vita  Clau(]ii,  c.  25. 

4.  Euseb,  Hist.  Eccles.  lib.  v.  c.  1. 

5.  Cliiysostom.  Horn.  46.  torn.  i.  p.  532.  ed.  Franc. 
G.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Orat,  31.   p.  506. 

7.  Epipbanius,  Haeres.  42.  p.  366.  ed.  Pet. 

8.  Clemens  Alex.  Strom.  7.  p.  748.    Compare  Pearsonii  Vindic.  Ig- 

nat.  P.  II.  c.  12. 

§  2.  JVames  of  Reproach  and  Derision  conferred  on  them  hj  their  enemies, 

p.  43. 

1.  Suetonius,  Vita  Nero.  c.l6. 

2.  Epiplian.  Haeres.  29.  n.  1.  9  ;  Hieron.  Comment,  in  Is.  xlix  ;  Pru- 

dent, Peristepb.  Carm.  5.  V.  25 — 26.  Hymn.  10  de  Rom.  Mart. 
5.  41. 

3.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Orat.  3.  p.  81.    Socrat.  Ii.  e.  3.  c.  12. 

4.  Tbeodoret.  h.  e.  3.  c.  12. 

5.  Hieron.  ep.  10.  ad  Fur. 

6.  Orig.  c.   Cel.   lib.  i.  p.  30.    Arnob.  Disputat.  1.  2.  53.   Kortholl's 

Abliandlung.  p.  474  et  seq. 

7.  Orig.  contra  Celsum,  lib.  v.  p.  272  seq.  ;  Tertull.  ad  nation,  lib.  ii. 

c.  12. 

8.  Tertull.  Apologet.  c.  50. 

9.  Lactantius,  Instit.  Div.  v.  9. 

10.  Euseb.  ii.  e.  lib.  iv.  c.  15.    Justin  Mart.  Apol.  I.  p.  47. 

11.  Arnob.  Disp.   adv.  Gent.  1.  71.    Prudent  Hymn,  10.  14.  404  seq. 

Tertull.  ad  Nat.  1.  8. 

12.  Tertull.  Apol.  c.  16.    Ad  Nat.  1.  7.  12.    August.  Ep.  44. 

13.  Minuc.  Feb.  Octav.  c.  14. 

14.  Plutarcli,  Sympos.  lib.  iv.  quaest.  5.    Joseph,  c.  Apion,  2.  10. 

§  3.  Division  and  Classifcatio7i  of  Christians,  p.  45. 

1.  Tertullian,  De  Baptism,  c.  17. 

2.  Cyprian,  Ep.  1.  2.  4.    Hieron.  contr.  Jovin.  lib.  ii. 

3.  Morini,  Exercit.  lib.  ii. 

4.  Demoiistrat.  Evangel,  lib.  vii.  c.  2. 

5.  Comment.  Isa.  c.  19. 

§  4.   Of  the  Christian  Church,  p.  47. 
1.  Tertullian,  De  Prescrip.  c.  41  ;   Bingham,  bk.  i.  c.5;    Tertull.  Ex- 
hortat.  ad  Cast.  c.  7  ;  Clemens  Rom.  Ep.  ad  Corinlh.  c.  40. 


478  INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES. 

§  5.   Of  Catechumens,  p.  49. 

1.  Tertullian,  De  Bap.  c.  18  ;    Aiigustin.  Confess.  lib.  i.  c.  11.   lib.  vi 

c.  1. 

2.  Au;,ni.stin.  Confess,  lib.  ix.  c.  6.  Ep.  147.  c.  52  ;    Posidii,  Vit.  Au- 

giis.  c.  1.  J).  165. 

3.  Constitiit.  Apostoi.  lib.  viii.  c.  32. 

4.  II liber,  c.  49.  A.  D.  673. 

5.  Agath.  c.  34.  A.  D.  50G. 

6.  Cyril  of  Jenisaletii,  Cateches.  1.  n.  5;  Jerome,  Ep.  61.  ad  Pam- 

niaeh.  3.  4. 

7.  Socrates,  li.  e.  lib.  vii.  c.  30  ;  Basil  M.  Ep.  186 ;  Epiphan.  haeres.  28. 

n.  6. 

8.  Balsainon.  not.  in  Concil.  Niocaesan,  c.  5  ;  Cave,  Primitive  Chris- 

tianity, i.  c.  8. 

9.  Suicer,  Thesaurus. 

10.  Maldoiiatus,  De  Ba))tism.  c.  i.  p.  78etseq. 

11.  Bingham,  Christ.  Antiq.  vol.  iv.  p.  17. 

12.  Constitiit.  Aposi.  1.  8.  (-.6 — 8;  Concil.  .Arelat.i.  c. 6;  Illiber.  c.39; 

Ensei).  Vit.  Const.  M.  IV.  61  ;  Sulpic.  Sever.  Vit.  Martin.  Turon. 
Dial.  C.5. 

13.  Marci,  Vita  Porphyrii.  in  Baronii.  Annal.  ad  a.  400. 

14.  Edni.  Martene,  De  antiq.  eccl.  vit.  tom.  i.  26  et  seq.  ;   J.  Al.  Asse- 

mani,  Cod.  litiirg.  tom.  i.  c.  1. 

15.  Cyprian,  ep.  73.  57.    Euseb.  h.  e.  vi.  4  ;  August.  De  Baptism,  iv.  2; 

Gregory  Naz.  Orat.  39.    Origen  Tract.  12.  in  Math.  p.  85;    Cy- 
ril. Hierosol.  Catech.  iii.  n.  10. 

16.  August.  De  peccator.  merit,  lib.  ii.  c.  26  ;  lib.  i.  c.  11. 

17.  Bingham,  bk.  X.  Sec.lG  ;  Bona,  Rer.  Litnrg.  lib.  i.  c.  16,  n.  3;   Bas- 

nage,  Exercit.  Critic,  in  Baron,  p.  487. 

§  6.    Of  Believers,  or  the  Faithful,  p.  57. 

1.  Cyril,  Hierosol.  Procatecli.  et  Catech.  mystagog.  5  et  seq. 

2.  S.  Concil.  Ancyr.  c.  4,  5  ;  Dionys.  Areoj).  de  bier.  eccl.  c.  3. 

3.  Boehmer,  jus.  eccl.  Protest,  tom.  i.  p.  269  et  seq. 

§  8.    Of  Energumens,  or  Dtmoniacs,  p.  61. 

1.  Concil.  Illiberit.  c,  37.    Arausic.  i.  c.  14. 

2.  Pellicia,  De  ch.  eccl.  polit.  tom.  i.  ed.  Ritter.  p.  504  et  seq. 

§  9.  Ascetics,  Coenobites,  Monks,  and  Frafernilies,  p.  62. 

1.  Jerome,  Vit.  S.  Pauli,  Ep.  ad  Paul,  de  instit.  Monach.  comp.  also 

Barcepha,  De  Syris  Monophys.  in  Assemani,  Bibl.  Or.  tom.  iii. 
P.  2.  p.  861. 

2.  Assemani,  Bibl.  Or.  tom.  i.  p.  31,  35,  54. 

3.  Assemani,  Bibl.  Or.  tom.  iii.  P.  2.  p.  857.  tom.  i.  p.  28,  138. 

4.  Cod.  Theodos.  lib.  xi.  tit.  30.  1.  57. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHOrUTIES.  479 

5.  Socrat.  h.  e.  lil).  iv.  c.  23. 

6.  Assemani,  Bibl.  Or.  toin.  iii.  P.  2.  p.  857. 

7.  Regul.  S.  Bened.  c.  i.  8.  Bingliam's  Ant.  lik.  vili.  sec.  5. 
J).  Eiiseh,  h.  e.  vi.  c.  IJ. 

10.  Clemens  Alex.  tr.  quis  div.  salv.  n.  3fi. 

11.  Niceph.  Hist,  lib,  xv.  c.  28.  12.  Sozomen,  b.  e.  vi.  c.  33. 

13.  Ju.stin,  Novel,  v.  c.  3  ;    Siiicer,  Thesaurus. 

14.  Palla<l.  bist.  Laiis.  c.  15. 

15.  Biiigliaiii,  bk.  8.  set*.  13  ;  Mosheirn,  vol.  iv  ;  Atlianns,  ep.  ad  Dra 

cant;  Aiigiistiii,  De  liaoies.   c.  40  ;    Hieroii.  Vita  Hilar,  c.  !S)  ; 
Dti  Cange,  Glosaar.  art.  Fraternitas. 


CHAPTER  III. 

OF   MINISTERS   OF   THE   CHCRCH. 

§  1.    Of  the  Clergy  and  the  Laity,  p.  66. 

1.  Hieron.  ep.  2.  ad  Nepot;  Augiistin,  in  Ps, Ixvii ;  Cave,  Prini.  Cbrist. 

P.  1.  c.  8  ;  Dodwell,  Dissert.  Cyprian,  i.  c.  15  ;  Codex  Theodos. 
de  Episc.  1.  2. 

2.  Tertiill.  exhort,  ad  cast.  c.  7 ;  Iren.  adv.  Iiaeres.  lib.  iv.  c.  20. 

3.  Clemens   Rom.   ep.  ad   Cor.  c,  40,  41,  42,  44 ;  Comp.  Boehmer, 

Dissertat.  7.  p.  354. 

4.  Rheinwald,  Arch.  ]).  20;  Neander,  Kirchengescbichte,  bd.  i.  301. 

5.  Baumgarten,  S.  51  ;  Cyprian,  ep.  33.  22  ;    Ambrose,  De  dignit. 

sacerdot.  c.  3;  Epiplianius,  haeres,  67. 

6.  Concil.  Antinch.  c.  1.  2;  Nicen.  c.  16,  17.  19;  Agath.  c.  2;  Can. 

Apost.  c.  14.  c.  50;  Basil  M.  ep.  can.  c.  6;  Angnstin,  Serm.  50. 
De  Divers,  tom.x.  p.  525. 

7.  Boehmer,  Dissertat.  jiir.  eccl.  antiq.  7.  ]).  341  ;    Tertull.  in  casiit. 

c.  7  ;  De  idol.  c.  12.  7;    Bingham,  bk.  ii.  c.  1.  sec.  1  ;   Basil  M. 
ep.  canon,  c.  51. 

8.  Euseb.   hist.  eccl.   lib.  vi.   c.  43;  Tertullian,   Cyi)rian,   Constitiit. 

Apost.  jiassim. 

9.  De  offic.  eccl.  lib.  ii.  c.  6. 

10.  Pellicia,  chr.  eccl..polit.  tom.  i.  p.  27. 

11.  Primitive  Christianity,  P.  1.  c.  8. 

§  2.    Of  the  different  Orders  of  the  Clergy,  p.  69. 

1.  Vitring.  De  Synagog.  vit.  lib.  ii.  c.  11;  Adv.  Reland  Antiq.  Ebr. 

lib.  i.  c.  10. 

2.  Jerom.  Ep.  85.  ad  Evagr. ;   Baumgarlcn,  Erb.  S.  58. 

3.  Exhortat.  ad  Castit.  c.  7. 

4.  In  Es.  c.  3  ;  Epist.  ad  Rustic.  P.  1.  dist.  93.  c.  24  ;  Duret.  P.  2. 

cans.  16.    quaesi.  i.  c.  7. 

5.  Cyprian,  Epist.  9  et  20. 


480  INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES. 

6.  Euseb.  eccl.  hist.  lib.  vi.  c.  43. 

7.  Chrysostom,  Horn.  67.  in  MatI).  ;    Cotnp.  Julian,  epist.  ad  Arsac. 

8.  Procopiws,  De  aerlificiis  Justinian.  lib.  i.  c.  2,  3;  Novell,  iii.  c.  1. 

9.  _Mioh.  IJeineccii,   Description   of  the    ancient  and  modern   Greek 

Churcii,  3d  vol.  48  ;  H.  I.  Schmitt,  MnrgenI,  Griecti.  riiss.  ; 
Kirciie  Mainz.  1826.  8.  p.  282  et  seq.  ;  King's  Gebr.  und  Cere- 
mon.  in  der  griecb.  Kircbe  in  Russliind.  p.  258  et  se(|.;  Staiid- 
lins,  Kircbliclie  Geographie  und  Statistik.  i.  S.  268—89.  ii. 
S.  592 — 610  ;  Codini,  De  offic.  c.  i.  n.  41  ;  Morini,  Exercit.  lib.  i. 
c.  15. 

10.  Dionys.  Areopagit.  de  Hierrarcbia  ecclesiastica.   Opp.  i.   ed.   Cor- 

der.  p.  355 — 63  ;  Assenian.  Bibl.  Orient,  iii.  P.  2.  p.  758  et  seq.  ; 
P.  1.  p.  355;   P.  2.  p.  791  ;   Margarita,  P.  3.  c.  8. 

11.  Fabii,  Incarnati,  Scrntin.  sacerdot.  P.  1.  tract.  2, 

12.  Concil  Trident.    Sess.  23.  c.  2  et  seq. 

§  3.   Of  the  Episcopal  Form  of  Religion,  p.  74. 

Wallonis  Messalini  (Claudii  Saluinsii)  Dissert,  de  Episcopis  et  Pres- 
byt.  1641.8;  .loach.  Hildebraiid,  Exercit.  de  Episcopis.  Heltnst. 
1662.  4.  ed.  2.  1700.  4  ;  Casp.  Ziogler,  De  Episcopis.  Jen.  1686.  4; 
Jo.  Fr.  Biiddeus,  Exercit.  de  origirie  et  ()otestale  E|)iscoi).  Jen. 
1705.  4.  Vgl.  Dissertat.  tlieol.  Syntagni.  i.  p.  179  s(H|.  ;  J.  Fr.  Grn- 
ner,  De  origiue  Episcopornn)  eorntiique  in  ecclesia  priiiiitiva  jure. 
Hal.  1764.4;  E.  J.  Danovii,  Dissert,  de  Eplsc.  aetate  apnstol.  Jen. 
1774.  4;  J.  Ph.  Gabler,  De  Episc.  priniae  ecclesiae  eornniqiie  orig- 
ine.  Jen.  1805.  4. 

1.  De  civitat.  Dei,  Iii).  xix.  c.  19.    lib.  i.  c.  9. 

2.  Epist.  8.  ad  Evagr. 

3.  Dongtaei,  Ainial.  Sacr.  P.  2.  exc,  93.  p.  139. 

4.  Arch.  p.  28  ;    Gieseler,  Kirchengesch.  i.  p.  112;    Siegel,  ii.  p.  228. 

5.  Giiil.  Berevegius,  Synod,  torn.  i.  ;    Observat.  ad  Can.  Apost.  c.  1  ; 

Comp.  Casp.  Ziegler,  De  Episcopis.  Jen.  1686.  4.  c.  1  ;  Jo.  T. 
Bnddaeus,  Exercit.  de  origine  et  potestate  EpisfO[)orMni. 

6.  Justin  Mart.  Apolog.  ii. ;   Euseb.  b.  e.  vi.  c.  3,  8.  vii.  c.  13  ;   Basil  M. 

Horn,  in  Ps.  xxviii  ;    Cyprian,  ep.  3.  9. 

7.  Euseb.   Vit.  Const,  lib.  ii.  c.2;    Hist.  eccl.  lib.  viii.  c.2;    Tertull. 

Apol.  c.  39 ;  de  cor.  mil.  c.  3  ;  Cyprian,  ep.  72. 

8.  Comment,  in  Phil.  1:  1.    ITim.  3:  1. 

9.  Cyprian,  ep.  5.5,  69,  42;  Augustin.  in  Ps.  45:  16. 

JO.  Tobit  6:  14;  Lib.  Enoch,  in  Grabe,  Spicil.  i.  p.  347;  Testament, 
xii.  Patr.  bei  Graiie,  i.  p.  150  ;  Jos^eph.  Anli(|.  liii.  i.  c.  4  ;  Philo 
de  Gigant.  p.  284  ;  Justin  M.  Apol.  inin.  p.  44 ;  Iren.  adv.  haer. 
iv.  16,  36  ;  Cletn.  Al.  Paedag.  iii.  2. 

11.  Schriickl.'sK.Gesch.Th.  viii.  S.  124;  Th.  xvii.  p.  23,24  ;  Siricius, 

Epist.  ad  On  hod.  prov. 

12.  Cyprian,  ep.  63,  55,  59  ;  Basil  M.  Constit.  Men.  c.  22. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES.  481 

§  4.   Official  duties  of  the  Bishop,  p.  77. 

1.  Apolog.  II,  p.  97. 

9.  Constitiit.  A|)ost.  lib.  viii.  c.  12,  13  seq. 

3.  Ambrose.  De  Offie.  Sacr.  lib.  i.  c  1. 

4.  Concil.  Triillan  c.  19  ;  Concil  MogQnt  I.  c.  2  ;    Ludovici.  Pii  Capi- 

tiil.  I.  a.81().c.  28  seq. 

5.  Concil.  Trident.  Sess.  5.  c.  2.  Sess.  24.  c.  4. 

6.  Concil.  Laodic.  c.  57. 

7.  Kanoniscii-liistorische   Dar.stelliin^  einer  Geschiclite   dcr    heuti- 

gen  sogenaniiten  Dornherrn.  1797.  8  ;  J.  A.  do  Ickstad  de  Capi- 
tulornin  origine.  S.  Ejusd.  Opusc.  torn.  ii.  p.  386  seq. 

§  5.  Insignia  of  the  Bishop,  p.  81. 

1.  Diar.  Ttal.  p.  4G. 

2.  Goari.  Encholog.  p  98. 

3.  Biiiteiiin's  Denkwiirdigk.  der  Kathol.  Kirche.  I.  b.  2.  Tb.  S.  349 

seq  ;   Peliicia.  toni.  i.  j).  74,  75. 

4.  Honor.  Augnstodon.  lib.  i.  c.  215  ;  Durandi    ration,  div.  oftic.  lib. 

iii.  c.  12. 

5.  Binterim.  I.  1.  S.  359—61. 

6.  Isidor.  Hispal.  de  offic.  eccl.  lib.  i.  c.  4. 

7.  Orat.  47 ;  Tbeodoret.  hist.  eccl.  lib.  2.  c.  27. 

8.  Joan.  Diacon.  Vit.  Gregor.  M.  lib.  iv.  c.  8. 

9.  Dnrandus  ration,  lib.  3.  c.  17. 

10.  Anastasiiis.  Biltlioth.  not.  ad.  Synod.  Constantin.  IV.  Sess.  6. 

11.  I.  B.I.  Th.  S.  361— 63. 

§  6.    Of  the  several  Orders  of  Bishops,  p.  84. 
1.  Superior  order  of  Bishops. 

1.  Rabuatis  Maur.  de  instit.  cler.  lib.  i.  c.  5. 

2.  Athanas.    AjjoI.   II.  c.   Ar,   p.  791  ;  Concil   Epes.  a.  431  ;  Concil 

Chalcedon.  c.  3.  Act.  Concil.  Chalced.  Act.  4.  p.  471.  Act.  16. 
p.  818  ;  Leonis  Allatii  consens.  lib.  i.  c.  18;  Jo.  Morini  Exercit. 
lib.  i.  c.  10  seq. 

3.  Rabanus  Mauraniis.  de  instit.  cler,  lib.  i.  c.  5. 

4.  Concil.  Nic.  c.  4.  Vgl.  Can.  7  ;  Concil.  Antiocli.  a.  341.  c.  9  ;  ibid. 

Can.  13  ;  Concil  Carihag.  III.  c.  26.    IV.  c.  1. 

5.  Exercit.  lib.  i.  c.  15. 

6.  Hist.  eccl.  lib.  iii.  c.  6.  7.  Book  II.  c.  18. 

8.  Hieron.  Rnl)ei.  Hist.  Ravennat.  lib.  4.  p.  209. 

9.  Bingham's  Ant.   B.    II.  c.  17.  Comp.    also    Salmasius,  Petavins, 

Schelstrale,  Richerins,  etc. 

10.  Concil.  Chalced.  Act.  II.  p.  388.  III.  395. 

11.  Hieron.  ep.  54.  ad  Marcell.  adv.  INlont. 

12.  Concil  Nicen.  c.  6,  7 ;  Constant.  1.  c.  2,  5  ;  Epesen.  Act.  7. 

13.  Bingham's  Antiq.  B.  II.  c.  17. 

61 


482  INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES. 

14.  Hieron.   Plati   de  Caidinalis  dignitate   et   officio.   Rom.  1602.  4. 

ed.  IV.  1746.  4;  Jo.  Fr.  Biiddei  de  origine  Card'malitiae  digni- 
tatis. 1693.  4  ;  Liid.  Ant.  Miiratoiii  Dissert,  de  Cardinalium  in- 
stitiitione.  Ejusd.  Antiquit.  Ital.  T.  V.  p.  152  seq. 

15.  Hardini    Collect.  Concil.   torn.  vi.   P.  I.  p.   1064 — 7;    Miiratori 

Scriptor.  rer.  Ital.  torn.  ii.  P.  I.  p.  645. 

16.  Voigi's  Hildelirand.    Weimar.  1815.  8.  S.  54. 

II.  Inferior  order  of  Bishops,  p.  90. 

1.  Concil.  Chalcedon.  c.  6.  2.  Bingham's  Antiq.  B.  II.  c.  14. 

3.  Ant.  Durr.  Dissert,  de  Suffraganeis  sen  Vicariis   in   Pontificalibus 

E^piscoporum  Germanic.  Biiiterim.  S.  384  seq. 

4.  Honoiius  Agnstodon.  iil).  i.  c.  182  ;  Concil  German,  torn.  iii.  p.  592. 

5.  Valesiiis.  not.  in  Tlieodoret.  I.  c.  26. 

6.  Paiilus'    Memorabilien.  I.   St.  in   Gaabs.   Abhandlnng ;    Castell. 

Lex.  Snriac. 

7.  Ep.  I.  ad  Corinth,  c.  42.  p.  98.  ed.  Colomes.  von  den  Aposteln. 

8.  Eccles.  Hist.  lib.  7.  c.  30. 

9.  Lnd.  Tiiomassin.   de   discipl.    eccl.    P.   I.    lib.  ii.   c.l.§8;  J.  H. 

Boehmer.  Dissertat.  Juris,  eccl.  ant.  p.  310. 
10.  Concil.  Ancyr.  Can.  13.  11.  Concil.  Neocaesar.  c.  13. 

12.   Concil.  Antioch.  c.  8.  13.  Concil.  Chalcedon. 

14.  Athanas.    Apolog.  II.   0pp.  torn.  i.  p.  802.   vgl.   Concil.  Nic.  also 

Binterim.  S.  404. 

15.  Capit  Caroli.  M.  lib.  7.  c.  187. 

16.  Concil.  Germ.  tom.  ii.  p.  692. 

17.  Annal.  Bened.  lib.  xxxviii.  n.  24,  25. 

18.  Gregor.   M.   Epist.  lib.  iii.  ep.  2  ;  Johann.  II.    ad  Episc.  Galliae. 

ep.  3.  G.  G.  Zeltner  de  Theologico  circuitore  sen  TisQiodsvTalg. 

§  7.   Of  Presbyters  ; — their  identity  and  equality  with  Bishops,  p.  94. 

Matth.  Zimmermann.  de  Presbyteris  et  Presbyterissis.  Annaberg 
1681.4;  Claudii  Fonteji.  (Jac.  Boileanjde  antiqno  Presbyterorum 
jure  in  regimine  ecclesiae.  Tanrin.  16G8.  ed.  2.  1678.  8  ;  Henr. 
Dodvvell.  de  ordine  et  potestate  Episc.  et  Presbyterorum.  D.  Dis- 
sertat.  Cyprian.  Dissert.  X  :  Mar.Lupi.de  Parochiis  ante  annum 
Christi  millesimum.  Bergam.  1788.  4. 

1.  Homil.  I.  in  Phil.  i.  p.  8  ;  Homil.  II.  in  1  Tim.  iii. 

2.  Comment,  in  Pliil.  i ;  Comment,  in   Phil.  2:  25.  Cotnp.  in  1  Tim. 

3:  1. 

3.  Euseb.  eccl.  Hist.  lib.  v.  c.  24. 

4.  Ep.  ad    Evarg.   0pp.  tom.  ii.   p.  220:  Riddle's    Christ.    Antiq.  p. 

186  :  Euseb.  h.  e.  lib.  x.  c.  5.  p.  757.  Com[).  Greg.  Naz.  Vit. 
Sua.  |).  6.  Augustin.  Ep.  48. 

5.  Boehmer  jur.  eccl.   ant.  p.   389  seq :  Observ.   ad  Petri  de  Marca. 

Concord,  sacerd.  et  imp.  ed.  Bambcrd.  p.  128  seq.:  Michaelis 
Anmak  iiber  die  Paulin.  Br.  an  Timoth. :  Planck  Gesch.  derch, 
Kerchl.  Gesellschaftsverfassung  Th.  I.  S.  26. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES.  483 

G.  Examin.  Forbigeri.  Sent.  Sect.  II.  Jen.  1812.  4.  S.  12. 

7.  Epist.  ad  Trail.  §  9:  §  4.  Vgl.  Ep.  ad  Magnes. 

8.  Lib.  ii.  c.  28.  9.  Ep.  5.').  (al  59.) 

10.  De  Sacerdot.  lib.  iii.  c.  15  :  Synes.  ep.  67.  p.  209. 

11.  Cotnniem.  in  Jes.  c.  iii. 

12.  Hilat.  Coinineiit.  in  Eph.  iv.  et  1  Titn.  iii. 

13.  Optacus  Milevitanus.   lib.!:  de  Sebim.   Don.  c.  17:  Augustinus. 

ep.  137. 

§  8.   Official  duties  of  Presbyters,  p.  103. 

1.  Ep.  II.  ad  Nep.  Vgl.  Dial.  c.  Lncif. 

2.  Lib.  V.  c.  22.  3.   Lib.  vii.  c.  17  4.  De  Sacr.  lib.  iii.c.  1. 

5.  Concil.  Cartliag.  4.  c.  3,  4  :  Constit.  eccl.  Alex.  c.  8.  Decret.  Gra- 

tiani  dist.  23.  c.  8. 

6.  Cbrysost.  de  sacerd.  lib.  iii.  c.  1—6.  c.  4  :  Homil.  4.  in  Jes.  Horn. 

15.  in  2  Cor. 

7.  Constitnt.   A|>.  8.  c.  9,  10,  11:    Cbrysost.  torn.  ii.  p.  57:  Concil. 

Miievit.  c.  32. 

8.  Cyprian  Ep.  33,  (al  ,38.)  G,  (al.  14.)  4G,  (al  49.)  24,  (al  29.)  55,  (al 

59.) :  Basil.  M.  ep.3l9:   Epiplian.  baer.  57.  §  1.  G9.  §  3  :  Cbrys- 
ost. (ie  sacerd.  lib.  iii.  c.  15. 

9.  Enseb.  e.  b.   lib.  vi.  c.  43—7.  c.  28,  30:    Concil.   Illiber.  c.  36: 

Concil.  Arlet.  I :    Concil.   Tolet.  I  :  Concil.  Bracar  II :  Concil. 
Nic.  c.  II. 

§  9.  Different  orders  of  Preshylers,  p.  106. 

1.  Concil.  Neocaesar.  c.  13:  2.  Antiocben.  c.  8. 

3.  Socrat.  bist.  eccl.  lib,  vi.  c.  9 : 

4.  Sozomen.  b.  e.  lib.  viii.  c.  12.  5.  Ep.  4.  ad  Rustic. 

6.  Orat.  20:  Concil.  Cbalcedon.  c.  14:  Leon.  M.  ep.  ad  Don.  etc. 

7.  Codin.  de  Offiic.  M.  Eccl. 

§  10.   Of  the  Deacons,  p.  107. 

1.  Casp.  Ziegler  de  Diaconis  et  Diaconissis  veteris  ecclesiae.  Viteb 

1678.  4  :  Jo.  Pbil.  Odeleini  Dissert,  do  Diaconissis  primitivae 
ecclesiae.  Lips.  1700.  4  :  Delia  origine  della  dignita  Arcidia- 
'  conale.  S.  Sarnelli  Lettere  Eccles.  1716.  Lett,  xxv:  J.  P.  Kress 
Erlauternng  des  Arcbidiaconal-Wessens  nnd  der  geistl.  Send- 
Gericbte.  Helinst.  1725.4:  J.  G.  Pertscben's  :  Vom  Ursprung 
der  Arcbidiaconen,  Arcbidiaconal-Gerichte,  biscbofl  OfRcialen 
und  Vicarien.  Hiidesh.  1743.  8. 

2.  De  Rebus  Cbristianis  ante  Const.  M.  p.  118.  coll.  p.  139. 

3.  Comment,  in  b.  e, 

4.  Vgl.  Hienrick's  Ep.  ad  Tirnotb.  p.  15.  p.  55 — 57. 

5.  Ignatius  Ep.  ad  Trail.  §  2.  ad  Smyrn.  §  8.  Magnes.  §  9, 

6.  Polycarp  ad   Phil.  §  5- 


484  INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES. 

7.  Ziegler.  de  Diaconis,  Tliotnassin,  Binterin,  etc. 

8.  Uh.  ii.  c.  44.  c.  30  :  9.  Concil  Nic.  c.  18. 

10.  Concil.  Canliag.  IV.  c.  37. 

11.  Conip.  Euseb.  Ii.  e.  lib.  vi.  c.  43 :  Sozomen.  Eccl.  hist.  lib.  vii.  19: 

Justin  Novell.  III.  c.  1.  123.  c.  13:  Concil  Neocaesar.  c.  15. 

12.  Concil.  Tuion.I.  c.  12:  Agatli.  c.  IG,  17  :  Tolet.  IV.  c.  89:  Arelat. 

III.  c.  1  :  Bracar.  III.  c.  5:  Isidore.  Hisp.  lib.  ii.  c.  12. 

13.  Constitiit.  Apost.  viii.  c.  28:  Concil.  Nic.  c.  18:  Arelat.  I.  c.  15: 

Ancyra.  c.  2  :  Hieron.  Ep.  85.  ad  Evagr. 

14.  Constitut.  Apost.  viii.  c.  28. 

15.  Apol.  I.  (al  II.)  §  6.5.  p.  220.  ed.  Oberth. 

16.  Constitut.  Apost.  viii.  c.  18. 

17.  Cyprian.  Ep.9.  (al  16.)  p.  37:  Hieron.  Comment,  in  Ezekiel.  xviii. 

18.  August.  Quaest.  5.  et  N.  T.  quaest.  6. 

19.  Constit.  Apost.  ii.  c.  57  :  Hieron.  ep.  57  :  Concil.  Vasense.  II.  c.  2. 

20.  Sozom.  h.  e.  lib.  vii.  c.  19. 

21.  Constitut.  Apost.  viii.  c.  5,  6,  10  :  Clirysost.  Horn.  xvii.  in  Ileb.  ix  : 

Horn.  ii.  in  1  Cor. 

22.  Comment,  in  Ephes.  c.  iv. 

23.  Tertullian.  de  Bapts.  c.   17:    Cyrill    Hieros.   Catech.  17.   §    17: 

Hier.  contr.  Lucif.  c.  4  :  Concil.  Illiberit.  c.  77. 

24.  Constitut.  Apost.  ii.  c.  44:  25.  Epiph.  Haeres.  85.  §  5. 

§  11.    0/  .Archdeacons,  p.  113. 
Of  the  Archdeacon. 

1.  Theodoret.  h.  e.  lib.  i.  c.  26.  2.  Concil.  Agath.  c.  23. 

3.  Hier.  Comment.  Ezech.  48.  Opp.  tom.  v.  479. 

4.  Photii  Bibl.  cod.  182.  tom.  i.  p.  127  :  cod.  225,  226. 

5.  Concil.  Aurel.  IV.  c.  26  :  Chalced.  act.  10. 

6.  Hincmar.  Rhem.  Capit.  ad  Gunthar  et  Odelph. 

7.  Decret.  Gratiani.  25.  c.  1 :  Gregor.    Decret.  lib.   i.   tit.   xxiv.  c.  1 : 

Concil.  Tolet.   VIII. 

8.  Vgl.  Lampert.  Hist.  Metens.  lib.  iv.  c.95:  Concil  Lateran.  P.  xxiv. 

c.  4:  Harduin.  tom.  vi.  P.  ii.  p.  1798. 

9.  Concil.  Turon.  c.  8  :  Concil.  Salman,  c.  7:  Pellicia.  tom.  i.  p.  41. 

§  12.   Of  Deaconesses. 
Of  Deaconesses,  p.  115. 

I.  Plinii  Epist.  lib.  x.  ep.  96.  (al  97):  Lncian.  Samosat.  de  morte 
Peregrin.  §  12:  Libanii.  Orat.  16.  p.  452. 

9.  Tertull.  de  veland.  Virgin,  c.  9:  Conslit.  Apost.  lib.  iii.  c.  1  :  Ba- 
sil. ]M.  c.  24  :  Sozom.  h.  e.  lib.  vii.  c.  16.  Codex.  Tbeod.  lib.  xvi. 
tit.  ii.  1.  27. 

3.  Sozom.  h.  e.  lib.  viii.  c.  9:  Concil.  Chalcedon  c.  14.  (al  15.) 

4.  Tertull.  de  veland.  Virgin,  c  9. 


INDEX   OF    AUTHORITIES.  485 

5.  Constit.  Apost.  lib.  vi.  c.  18  :  Epiphaniiis.  ex[)OS.  ful.  c.  21  :  Justin. 

Nov.  vi.  c.  6:  I5interiiii.  S.  435 — 7. 

6.  Clemens  Alex.  Strom.  7.  395. 

7.  Constit.  Apost.  lib.  viii.  c.  19:  Coiicil.  Cliaiccd.  c.  15  :  Tiiillan.  c.  14. 

c.  40. 

8.  Conc.il.  Nic.  c.  19:   Laodic.  c.  11. 

9.  Iliier.  xc.  ,S  3. 

10.  Constit.  Apost.  lib.   iii.   c.  15,  IG:  Epiph.  exposit.  fid.  c.  21  :  Jus- 
tin. Nov.  vi.  c.  6.  etc. 
n.  Constit.  Apost.  lil).  vii.  c.  28.  lib.  ii.  c.  26,  57,  58.  c.  3.  7. 

12.  Bai.samon  Comment,  in  Concil  Clialced.  c.  15. 

13.  Jo  Morin.  de  sacr.  ordinat.  P.  II.  p.  502. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

INFERIOR  OFFICERS    OF   THE   CHURCH. 

§  1.    Of  Subdeacons,  p.  119. 

1.  Canon  Apost.  c.  42,  43  :  Constit.  Apost.  lib.  viii.  c.  21 :  Ignatius 

ep.  ad  Act.  c.  2.  p.  96  :   Hal)ert.  Archierat.  p.  49. 

2.  Baumgarten  Erlaut.  d.  ch.  Aiterth.  S.  123:    Constit.  Apost.   lib, 

viii.  c.  21. 

3.  Basil  M.  ep.  can.  51  :  Concil.  Carth.  IV.  c.  5. 

4.  Concil.  Trident.  Sess.  xxiii.  c.  2. 

5.  Const. Apost.  viii.  c.  11  :  Concil.  Laodic.  21,  22,  25:  Euseb.  h.  e. 

lib.  Ixxx.  c.  4 :  Cyprian,  ep.  24.  (29.) 

§  2.  Leclores  or  Readers,  p.  120. 

1.  Just.  INlar.  Apol.  1.  §  67. 

2.  De  praescript.  haer.  c.  41. 

3.  Comp.  Const.  Apost.  lib.  viii.  c.  22. 

4.  Sozomen,  h.  c.  lib.  v.  c.  2  ;  Socrat.  h.  c.  lib.  iii.  c.  1  ;  Greg.  Naz. 

orat.  invec.  1.  Opp.  tom.  i.  p.  58. 

§  3.   Of  Acolyths,  p.  121. 

1.  Euseb.  h.  c.  lib.  vi.  43.  Vet.  Const.  M.  lib.  iii.  c.  8  ;    Concil.  Car- 

tliag.  4.  c.  6  ;  Cyprian  ep.  7,  34,  52,  59,  77,  etc. 

2.  Concil.  Carthag.  4.  c.  6. 

§  4.  Exorcists. 

1.  Binterim.  I.  B.  I.  tli.  S.  301.  S.  308. 

2.  Bingham  B.  HI.  c.  4.  Origcn.  Cont.  Cels.  lib.  rii.  p.  334;  Socrat. 

Iii).  iv.  c.  27  ;  Tertul.  Apol.  c.  23;  Minuc.  Octav.  p.  83;  Justin. 
Apol.  1.  p.  45  ;  Iren.  lib.  ii.  c.  56 ;  Cypr.  ad  Donat.  p.  4  ;  Ar- 
nob.  Contr.  Gent.  lib.  i. 

3.  Primitive  Christianity,  chap.  8.  p.  235. 


486  INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES. 

§  5.  Of  Singers  or  Precentors. 

1.  Sclgel  II.  202.  Gesaiig;  Aiigustin.    ep.  119.  c.  18;  Plin.  epist.  lib. 

X.  ep.  9G  ;  Tertiill.  Apolog.  c.  39  ;    Tlieodoret  h.  c.  lib,  iv  c.  26. 

2.  Ignatii.  ep.  ad  Antioch,  §  12  ;    Canon.  Apost.  c.  43,  69  ;    Constit. 

Apost.  lib.  iii.  c.  11  ;  Liturg.  S.  Marci  in  Fabrici.  cod.;    Pseud, 
epigr.  N.  T.  part  iii.  p.  288  ;  Ephraim  Syr.  Serni.93.  Justin, 
Nov.  iii.  c.  1. 

3.  Conoil.  Laodir;.  c.  1,5,  59,  17;  Rat.  div.  offic.  lib.  ii.  c.  1.  c.  3. 

5.  Archaoiogisc-iiiiturgisches  Lebrbuch  des  Gregorianischen  Kir- 
chen  Gesanges  Von  J.  Antony  ;  Gregor.  Tur.  de  niir.  S.  Martini, 
lib,  i.  c.  33. 

§  6.    Ostarii,  or  Doorkeepers,  p.  125. 

1.  Alcuiniis  De.div.  opp.  p.  269  :  Stat.  can.  cler.  torn.  iii.  Canis,  p.  398. 

2.  Binterini  S.  311. 

§  7.   Of  the  lower  servants  of  the  church,  and  the  clergy,  p.  125. 

a)  Copiatae,  sextons. 

1.  Epipban.  exf)osit.  fid.  c.  21.  2.  Hieron.  De  sept  ordin.  eccl. 

3.   Augiistin.  c.  Crescent,  lib.  iii.  c.21.  4.  Justin  Novell.  43,  59. 

5.  Cod.  Justin  lib.  i.  tit.  2,  I.  4.  xi.  tit.  17  :  Cod.  Theodos.  vi.  tit. 
33,  1.  1. 

b)  Parabolani,  p.  126. 

1.  Socrat.  h.  c.  lib.  vii.  c.  22. 

2.  Cod.  Theodos.  lib.  xvi.  tit.  2.  ],  42,  43:  Cod.  Justin,  lib.  i.  tit.  3,  I. 

18,  Coll.  constitut.  eccl.  lib.  i.  tit.  3, 1.  18,Concil.  Chalced.  Act.  1. 

c)  Sacrista,  p.  126. 

1.  Du  Cange.  Medicae  Latinitatis;  Durandi  ration,  div.  of.  lib.  ii.  c. 
1.  n.  14. 

8')  Parafrenarii,  p.  126. 

1.  Ceremon.  Rom.  lib.  i.  Sec.  2:    Mabillon.  Mus.  Ital.  torn.  ii.  p.  534, 

§  8,    Occasional  officers  of  the  church,  p.  127. 
a)   Catecliists. 

1.  J.  H.  Krause  de  Catecbetis  priniitivae  ecclesiae.     Li[)s.  1704.  4. 

J.  D.  Heilrnan  de  scholis  priscorum  Cbristianoruin  theologicis 
Goettiiig.  1774.  4. 

2.  Euseb.  h.  e.  6.  c.  3.     H.  E.  T.  Guerike  De  schola  quae  Alexan- 

drae  floruit,  catechetica. 

Of  the  Capellani. 

1.  Vit.  Constant.  M.  lib.  iv.  c.  56,  .57.      Sozorn.  h.  e.  lib.  i.  c.  8. 

2.  Pellicia  p.  62 — 66.     Thoinassin.  disc.    eccl.  P.  I.   lib.  ii,  "c,  92. 

Glossar.  man.  torn.  ii.  146. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES,  487 

Hermencutai. 

1.  E.  A.  Trominan,  Dissert,  de  Hermeneutis.  vet.  ecclesiae  Altitorf. 
1747.  4. 

INotarii. 

1.  Euseb.  h.  e.  lib.  vi.  c.  26  :  Socrat.  h.  e.  lib.  vi.  c.  5— 7.c.  2  :  Sozo- 

tnen  h.  e.  lib.  vii.  c.  41 — 48.  c.  27. 

2.  Teitiillian  ad.  Scapiil.  c  4  :    Cyjirian  ep.  12. 

3.  EiLseb.  h.  e.  lib.  vii.  c.  29:  Socrat.  b.  e.  lib.  ii.  c.  30:  Concil.  Eph. 

Act.  1.      Concil.  Cbalcefl.    Act  1. 

4.  Leon.  M.  ep.  10,  15,  23:    Giegor.  M.  ep.  lib.  i.  ep.  10,  34. 

5.  Goar.  ad  Codin.  p.  5,  12. 

Aprocrisiarii. 

1.  Hineman  Rlietnensis,  ad  proceres  regni  c.  12.  Dii  Cange  Glossar. 

A.  E.  Klaiising  de  Syniellis. 
1.  Justin  Nov.  G.  c.  1.  79.  c.  1  :  Leon.  M.  ep.  37,  .58,  78  :   Procop.  de 

bello.  vand.  lib.  i.  c.  5. 

Syncelli. 

1.  S.  Cedreni  hist.  i>.  53G,  193.  602,  624:  Goari  Praefat.  ad  Georg. 

SynH'llum  Edit.  Niebiihr,  vol.  ii.  p.  .5.5 — 57. 

2.  Capitul.  Caroli   M.  lib.  v.  c.  174:    Concil.  Paris,  A.  D.  829.  c.  20, 

21  :  Concil.  London,  A.  D.  1102.  c.  1. 

CHAPTER  V. 

OF   APPOINTMENT   TO    ECCLESIASTICAL  OFFICES. 

§  1.    Election  by  lot,  p.  131. 

L  Natalis  Alendri  Dissert,  de  nsii  sortiiim  in  sacris  electionibus,  et  de 
jure  plebis  in  sacrornm  ministrorwin  eleclione.  Jo.  Petr.  de 
Ludevvigde  sorte  snfTrag.  eccl.  S.  Observat.  torn.  iv.  Observ.  13. 
Fr.  Guil.  Curstedt  Dissert,  de  ininistrorum  eccl.  apud  veteres 
Christianos  ope  sortiiionis  designatione.  1751.  4. 

§  2.  Election  by  the  church  colleclively,  p.  131. 

1.  De  Itnper.  Sumrna.  potest,  circa  Sacra  c.  10.  §  3,  4. 

2.  Neander  Kirch.  Gesch.  L  301,  308. 

3.  Neander  Kirch.  Gesch.  353,  seq. 

4.  E|>ist.  52.  p.  120.  5.  Comment,  in  Luc.  lib.  viii.  c.  17. 

6.  Lampridius  Vit.  Alcxandri  Severi.. 

7.  Paulin.  Vit.  Ambros.     Riifin.  h.  e.  lib.  ii.  c.  11  :     Theodoret.  h.  e. 

lib.  iv.  c.  6,  7.  Sozomen  h.  e.  6.  c.  24. 

8.  Sulphic.  Sev.  Vet.  S.  Martini.  9.  Theodoret.  h.  e.  lib.  i.  c.  7. 
10.  Socrat.  h.  e.  6.  c.  2.              11.  August.  Epist.  110. 

12.  Theodoret  h.  e.  lib.  ii.  c.  31,  32. 


488  INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES. 

13.  c.  22.  Compare  Cyprian  quoted  above.     Ilieron.  ep.  4.  ad  Rustic. 

Hieron.  Coinnieiit  in  Ezech.  10.  c.  23:  Possed.  Vit.  Augustini. 
c.  21  :  Siricii  ep.  1.  ad  Hemer.  c.  10. 

14.  Coiicii.  Aretat.  A.  D.  452.  c.  54  :  Barcin,  c.  3  :   Philostorg.  li.  e.  9. 

c.  13  :   Greg.  Naz.  orat.  21. 

15.  Ambrose  de  dignit.  sacei'dot.  c.  5:   Augustin.  ep.   110. 

§  3.  Elections  by  Reprtsenlalive.s  and  vitervenlors,  p.  135. 

1.  De  Sacerdot.  lib.  iii.  c.  15.  2.  Nov.  24.  ad  calnm.  Cod.  Tlicodos. 

3.  Leo.  d.  Gr.  Epist.  89.  4.  Bk.  iv.  c.  2.  §  11.  Concil.  Nic.  c.  4. 

5.  Syiurnaciuis  ep.  5.  c.  6.  Gregor.  d.  Gr.  ep.  lib.  ix.  ep.  16. 

6.  Justinian   6.  Novell.  123.  c.  1.  137.  c.  2:  Cod.  Justin,  lib.  i.  tit.  3. 

de  epis.  c.  1.  42. 

7.  Concil.  Tolet.  12.  A.  D.  681.  Gregor.  Naz.  orat.  21. 

8.  Tlioinassini.  eccl.  discipl.  part  ii.  lib.  ii.  c.  1 — 42. 

9.  Concil.  Nicen.  II.  A.  D.  787,  c.  2  :  Cecum.  VIII.  A.  D.  871.  c.  22. 

§.  4.    Unusual  foi-ms  of  elections,  ]).  137. 

1.  Horn.  Quis  dives  salvus,  in  Euseb.  lib.  iii.  c.  23. 

2.  Euseb.  1).  e.   lib.   vi.  c.  11,  29:    Sozomen  b.  e.  lib.  ii.  c.  17:    Sul- 

phic.  Sev.  Vit.  S.  Martini  c.  7:  Cyprian  ep.  34.  (al.  39),  33. 
(al.  38),  35.  (al.  40.) 

3.  S.  Gregor.  Nyssen.  Vit.  Gregor.  Thau  mat :  Opp.  torn.  iii.  p.  561-2. 

4.  Socrat.  b.e.  lib.  i.  c.  19.  Theodor.  1.  c.  23  :   Rufin.  h.  e.  lib.  1.  c.  9. 

5.  Sozomen  h.  e.   lib.  ii.  c.  17.  c.  20—28.  c.  2  :    Theodoret  4.  c.  26. 

Socrat.  7.  c.  46:  August,  ep.  110.  Possid.  Vit.  Aug.  c.  8:  Gra- 
tian.  in.  c.  12.  c.  7.  qu.  I. 

6.  Sozomen  h.  e.  lib.  ii.  c.  17. 

§  5.   Church  patronage,  p.  138. 

1.  Lud.  Thomassini  de  discipl.   eccl.  part  ii.  lib.  i.  c.  29 — 32.    Edit. 

Mogtint.  tom.  iv.  p.  150  sqq  :  J.  H.  Boelimer  jus  eccl.  Protest, 
torn.  iii.  p.  462  sqq  :  Chr.  \V.  Kindleiien  Ueber  den  Ursprung, 
Nutzen  und  die  Missbrauche  des  Kirchen-Patronats.  Berlin, 
1775.  8:  Geschichte  des  Patronatrecbtes  in  den  K.  Teutscli- 
land.  1806.  8. 

2.  Concil.  Arans.  1.  c.  10.    Concil.  Arelat.  II.  c.  36.  Justiniani  Nov. 

123.  c.  18,  A.  D.  541.  Nov.  57.  c.  2.  A.  D.  555. 

3.  Compare  Paulin.  Epist.  32.  carm.  12.  24. 

4.  Chrysost.  Horn.  18.  in  Act.  Apost.  of)|).  tom  ix.  p.  174.  ed.  Franc. 

5.  Comp.  Boehmer  tom.  iii.  p.  475  :    Stillingfleet,  Unreasonableness 

of  Separation. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES.  489 

CHAPTER  \l. 

RANK,  PRIVILEGES  AND  MANNERS   OF     THE   CLERGY. 

§  1.  Rank  of  the  clergy,  p.  140. 

1.  Codex  Thoo.los.  lib.  xvi.  I.  10.  53.  l)es,  1.  14. 

2.  Codex  Theodop.  lib.  ii.  lir.  i.  I.  10.   lib.  xvi.  tit.  viii.  1.  1. 

3.  E|)ist.  ad  Arsaciimi  Pontif.  Galat.  ep.  49,  opp.  j).  430. 

4.  De  Vit.  Constant.  M.  lib.  i.  c.  4.  vgl.  lib.  4.  c.  24. 

5.  Zosim.  hist.  lilt.  4.  c.  36:    J.  A.  Bosii  Exerc.  post,  de  Pontificate. 

M.  Iinperat.  Roman,  jiraeciptie  Cbristiaiioriitn :     S.   Graeviiis. 
Tliesaiir.  Antiq.  Rom.  tom.  v,  p.  271. 
G.  Sozom.  b.  e.  lib.  vii  c.  25.  Tiieodor.  5.  c.  17.  Rufin.  11.  c.  18.  vgl. 
Socrat.  lib.  vii.  c.  13  :  Synes.  ep.  58. 

7.  Orat.  17.  p.  271. 

8.  Horn.  4.  de  verb.  Jes.  Horn.  15.  in  2  Cor. 

9.  De  dignitate  sacerdotale. 

10.  Deer.  Grat.  part  T.  distinct  9G.  e.  9:  part  ii.  caus.  9.    quaest.  ii.  iii. 
Ph.  Rovenii  res[)ubl.  chr.  Antv.  4.  p.  1,  2,  52. 

§  2.  Immunities,  Rights,  and  Privileges  of  the  Priesthood,  p.  149. 

1.  Cod.  Theodos.  lib.  xvi.  tit.  ii.  1. 1,  2,  8,  10,  12:    tit.  i — ii :    tit.  vi. 

15,  .3G,  39,  13  :  tit.  i.  x  :  Cod.  Justin,  lib,  i.  tit,  iii.  1.  7,  8,  25  : 
Novell.  12,  79,  83,  123.  item. :  Gothofredus  :  Ritter :  Planck's 
Gesch.  der.  Kirchl.  Ge«sellschafts-Verfassiing,  Th.  i.  1.  289. 

2.  Euseb.  h.  e.  lib,  x,  c.  7  :  Augiistin.  Ep,  G8:  Collat,  Carthag.  cl,  iii. 

c.  21G, 

3.  Codex  Tlieodos.  lib.  xvi.  tit,  ii,  1,  1,2  :  lib,  xii.  tit,  i.  1.  75:  lib.  xvi. 

tit.  viii.  1.  3,  4  :   Symmach.  lib.  x.  ep.  54, 

4.  Codex  Theodos.  lib,  ii.  tit.  xvi.   1.  1.5,21,24:  lib.  xv,  tit,  iii,  1.6: 

Codex  Justin.  lib.  i.  tit.  ii.  1,  7.  11. 

5.  Codex  Justin,  lib.  i.  tit.  ii.  1.7  :  Nov.  Justin,  xxxi,  c,  5. 

6.  Nov.  Justin.  131.  c.  5.  Cod.  Justin.  Iii).  x.  tit.  xviii. 

7.  Athanas,  Apol.  2  :    Sozomen,  h.  e.  lib.  ii,  c,  24:    Theodor,  b.  e. 

lib.  iv.  c.  7  :  Auguslin.  Sertn.  49:  Cod.  Tlieodos.  lib.  ii.  tit.  i : 
tit.  xxiv.  lib,  xvi.  tit,  ii :  Binghatn,  bk.  v.  c.  3. 

8.  Cod.  Justin,  lib.  ix.  tit.  xli.  1.  tit.  iii  :  Cod.  Theodos.  lil).  ii.  tit.  xxxix. 

9.  Cod.  Justin.  Iii).  i.  tit.  iii  :  Nov.  Justin,  cxxiii.  c,  7  :  Concil.  Carthag, 

5,  c,  1  :  Concil,  Tribiir  c,  21  :  Cod,  can,  Afric,  c.  59. 

10.  Cod.  Theodos.  lib.  xvi.   tit,  xii  :   xxiii,  11:  Novel.  Valent.  xii.  ad 

Cod,  Theod.  Nov.  Justin.  86.  c.  1  :  Ambrose,  ep.  32. 

11.  Cod.  Theodos.  lil).  ii.  tit.  i. 

12.  Concil.  Sardic.  c.  8  :     Ambrose,  De  ofRc.  mini^t.  lib.  ii.  2D  :     Au- 

gust. Ej).  153:  Bingham,  bk.  ii.  c.  7,  8  :  Thoniassin.  Discipl.  ec- 
cles,  P.  2.  lib.  iii.  c.  87,  9.5,  96  :  II.  M.  Helmstreit.  Histor.  juris- 
dictionis  eccl.  Dissert,  3:.  Fred.  Wallers,  Lehrbuch  des  K. 
Rechts,  S.  328. 

62 


490  INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES. 

§  3.   Costume  of  the  Clergy,  p,  144. 

1.  Beat.  Rlienaniis,  Ar^imi.  ad   Tertull.  de  Pallio:  Ferrarius,  De  re 

vestiar.  lib.  iv.  c.  18  :  Bona.  Rer.  Litiirg.  lib.  i.  c.  5  :  Baliizius, 
Not.  ad  Cone.  Gall.  Narbon.  p.  2(> :  Tliomassini,  Discipl.  eccles. 
P.  1.  lib.  ii.  c.  45:  Aug.  Krazen,  De  amiq.  Liiiirg.  Viiulob. 

2.  Pelliccia,  De  Clir.  eccl.  polit.  P.  1.  p.  120. 

3.  Hist.  eccl.  lib.  ii.  c.  23  :    v.  c.  24  :    Epiphan.  haeres.  29.  n.  4  :    78. 

n.  14:  Hieron.  De  Scriptor.  eccl.  c.  45:  J.  F.  Cotta.  De  lamina 
pontific. 

4.  Abdias,  Babyl.  lib.  viii.  c.  2:  Comp.  Deyling,  Observat.  sacr.  P.  2. 

p.  613. 

5.  Gregor.  Naz.  Opp.  toni.  ii.  p.  78. 

6.  Baronii  Annal.  ad  A.  D.  401. 

7.  Paedag.  lib.  iii.  c.  11 :  620  ed.  Oberth. 

8.  Cone.  Laodic.  c.  22,23  :  J.  Lipsii  Elect,  lib.  ii.  c.  10  :    Cone.  Car- 

tag,  iv.  c.  41  :    Narbon.  c.  12  :  Bracar.  i.  c.  27  :    Tolet.  iv.  c.  28 : 

9.  Ezech.  c.  44  :  Contra  Pelag.  lib.  1 :    Ep.  iii.  ad  Heliod.  Ep.  127  ad 

Rabiol. 

10.  Baronii  Annal.  A.  D.  260.  n.  6. 

11.  Opp.  Leonis  ed  Qnesnel.  toni.  ii.  p.  133. 

12.  De  Missa,  lib.  ii.  c.  14  :  Opp.  torn.  iii.  p.  918. 

13.  Gregor.  Naz.  Somn.  Atlian.  Opp.  toin.ii.  p.  78  :   Chrysost.  Homil, 

82  al.  83  in  Math.:  Honiil.  .37  :  De  fil.  prod.  p.  313  :  Sozom. 
h.  e.  lib.  viii.  c.  21 :  Hieron.  ep.  ad  Praesid.  Ej).  3.  ad  Heliod. 
contr.  Pelag.  lib.  i :    Gregor.  Turon.  De  glor.  confess,  c.  20. 

14.  Jus.  Orient,  torn.  i.  constit.  29  :    Socrat.  hist.  eccl.  lib.  vi.  c.  20, 

15.  S.  A.  Krazer.  De  Liturg.  Aug.  Vind.  p.  278:  Innocent,  iii.de  Sacrif. 

Miss.  lib.),  c.  65:  Guil.  Durandus,  Ration  div.  Offic.  lib.  iii. 
c.  18  :  Jo.  Dallaeus,  De  cultibus  Lalinorum  relig.  lib.  viii.  c.  14. 
p.  1074. 

16.  J.  B.  Thiers,  Histoire  des  Perruqies  Fr.  Nicolai  iieber  der  Gibrauch 

der  falshen  Haare  und  Perriuken  in  alien  und  neuern  Tuiter. 

17.  Concil.  Matiscon,  c.  5.  18.  Capitul.  iii.  Carol.  M. 

CHAPTER  Vn. 

OF  THE   REVENUE   OF  THE  CHURCH,  AND  MAINTENANCE  OF   THE 
CLERGY,  p.  148. 

1,  De  Jejun.  c.  17.  2.  Apolog.  <;.  39. 

3.  Can.  Apost.  c.  3.  Cyprian,  ep.  28.  34.  66  :  Euseb.  h.  e.  lib.  v.  c.  18. 

4.  Cyprian  ep.  i.  Plin.  Ep.  lib.   x.  p.  114  :  Cod.  Theodos.  lib.  v.  tit. 

5:  Adam's  Antiq.  74  et  415. 

5.  Gelas.  ej>.  i.  ar9.  c.  5  :    Gregor.  Naz.   Orat.  40.  p.  655 :    Gratiani 

Deer.  c.  1.  qii.  1.  c.  8. 

6.  Concil.  Trullan.  ii.  c.  23. 

7.  Hieron.  quaest.  hebr.  in  Gen.  23.         8.   Pabls  K.  Recht.  S.  344. 
9.  Bracar.  I.  c.  25.  II.  c.  7.  Galesii  ep.  1.  al.  9.  c.  27:  Simplic.  ep.3. 

ad  Florent. :  Gregor.  M.  Ep.  lib.  iii.  ep.  11. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES.  491 

10.  Coiicil.  Bracar.  I.  c.  25.  11.  Gales,  ep.  I.  c.  27. 

12.  Cod.  Tlieodos.  lib.  xvi.  tit.  2,  1.  4  :  Cod.  Justin,  lib.  i.  tit.  2,  I.  I. 

13.  Euseb.  h.  e.  lib.  x.  c.  6  :    Euseb.  Vit.  Const,  lib.  iv.  c.  28.  38.  39 : 

lib.  iii.  c.  21.  58  :    Sozottieii  h.  e.  HI),  v.  c.  5 :  Theodos,  h.  e.  lib, 
iv.  c.  4  :  Gieselei's  Lehrb.  de  K.  Gescii.  I.  B.  2.  Ausg.  S.  204 
■  —205.  S.  308. 

14.  Cod,  Theodos.  lib,  ix,  tit,  17,  I.  5  :  Cod.  Justin,  lib.  i.  tit,  2,  I,  12. 
1.5,  Cod.  Theodos.  lib,  xvi.  tit,  10,1.  19-21:  Sozoin.  h.  e,  lib.  v.c,7,  16. 

16.  Cod.  Theodos.  lib,  xvi.  tit.  5,  I.  52  :  Socrat.  h.  c.  lib,  vii.  c.  7. 

17.  Cod,  Theodos,  lib.  v.  tit.  3,  I,  1  :  Cod,  Justin,  lib.  i.  tit,  3, 1,  20;  53: 

Nov.  5,  c.  4,  123,  c,  42. 

18.  Euseb.  Vit.  Const.  M.  lib.  ii,  c,  36. 

19.  Irenaens,  adv,  haeres.  lib.  iv.  17,  18. 

20.  Chr,  M,  Pfaft:  Irenaei  A  need.  Frag. 

21.  Adv.  haeres.  lib.  iv.  c,  8.  13.  18. 

22.  Horn,  4,  in  Ep.  ad  Ephes.  H.  14,  in  Act, :  Horn,  74,  in  Matt. 

23.  Orat.  5.  24,  In  Ps,  cxviii.  et  Matt,  xxiv, 

25.  In  Ps,  cxivi.  Serin,  de  temp,  166,  219, 

26.  Concil.  31atiscon,  II.  c.  5:  Cabilon,  II.  c.  19  :  Mogunt,c.3:    Roth- 

omag,  c,  7. 

27.  Capitul.  Caroli  M.  A.  D,  779,  c.  7  :  CapituI,  Caroli  de  part,  Saxon. 

A,  D,  789,  c,  17 :  Capit.  Francof.  A,  D.  779.  c.  23. 

28.  Capit,  VI.  Ludov.  A.  D.  819.  c.9,  A.  D.  823.  c.  21  :    Capit.  A.  D. 

829.  sect.  i.  c.  7,  10 :  Walter's  Leiirb.  des  K.  R.  S.  367—69, 
461—69. 

29.  Can.  Apost.  c.  4  :  Constit.  A  post,  viii,  c.  40, 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

ORDINATION  OF  THE  CLERGY,  AND  PUNISHMENT  OF  DELINQUENTS. 

§  1.  Remarks,  p.  152. 

1.  Fr.  Hallierii  de  sacris  electionibus  et  ordiiiationibus  ex  antique  et 

novo  usu,  Roiiiae  1749,  f.  toin.  i,  ii,  iii :  Jo.  Morini,  Commenta- 
rius  histor,  ac  dogriiaticus  de  sacris  ecclesiae  ordinationibus,  se- 
cundum antiq,  et  recent.  Latinos,  Graecos,  Syros  etc.  part  i.  ii. 
iii.  Paris,  1655,  f.  Bruxell,  1689.  Amstelod.  1695,  f. :  Jo.  Fr. 
Mayer,  JMuseum  Ministr.  eccles.  part  i,  p.  140  seq,  :  II.  Tour- 
nely,  Praeiectiones  iheol,  de  Sacramento  ordinis.  Paris.  1729,  8. : 
Forbiger,  de  nnineribus  ecclesiat.  aetate  Apostolorum.  dissert, 
i.  Lips,  1776, 

2,  Selden,  De  Synedr.  Heb,  lib.  ii.  c.  7  :  Vitringa,  De  Synagoga.  Vet. 

lib.  iii,  part  i,  c,  15, 

§  2.  Disqualifications  and  qualifications,  p.  153, 

1.  Constitut.  Apost.  lib,  iii.  c.  9:    Tertul.  De   Praescript  liaer.   De 
Bapt.  c.  17:  Epiphan.  Haer.  79.  n.  4.  69.  n.  2. 


492  INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES. 

2.  Coiistit.  Apost.  lib.  viii.  c.  19:    Cone.  Clialcedon.  c.  15:  Triillan. 

c.  14,  40  :  Sozoijien,  li.  e.  lil).  viii.  c.  9. 

3.  Cone.  Araus.  c.26:  Epaon.  c.  21  :  Aurel.  II.  c.  18. 

4.  Canon  Apost.  c.  Gl :   Cone.  Neoeaesar.  c.  8,  9  :  Nicen.  c.  2  :    Illi- 

berit.  e.  30:  Origen  Contr.  Cels.  lib.  iii.  p.  142. 

5.  Cone.  Ancyr.  e.  11. 

6.  Ep.  xxiii.  e.  6.  comp.  Ep.  iv.  c.  3.    ii.  c.  2:  Thomassin,  part  ii. 

lib.  c.  66:  Ambros.  Ep.  29:  Codex  Theodos.  lib.  xii.  tit.  i. 

7.  Coueil.  Neocaes-ar.  c.  12. 

8.  Innocent  I.  Ep.  xxii.  c.  4 :  Cone.  Illiberit.  c.  51  :  Cone.  Nicen.  c. 

8:  Cod.  Canon.  Afric.  c.  48.  al.47:  58.  al.  57. 

9.  Novel.  123.  c.  1 :  137.  e.  2  :  Canon  Apost.  c.  2§ :  Tlieodoret,  h.  e. 

lib.  i.  e.  4  :  Cone.  Clialcedon,  c.  2  :  Biriirhani,  book  iv.  c.  3.  sec. 
xiv  :  Sebiokh's  chr.  kircbengesch.  Tb.  32.  S.  580. 

10.  Euseb.  b.  e.  Ill),  vi.  e.  30:  Ambros.  Ep.  60:  Tbeodoret,  h.  e.  lib, 

ii.  c.  26  :  Socrat.  h.  e.  lib.  ii.  e.  5  :   Heiiiinaii,  Rbeim.  Vit.  Reinig. 

11.  Ep.  30  :  Siricius,  Ep.  30  : 

12.  Cone.  Neoeaesar.  e.  11  :    Agath.  c.  17  :    Tolet.  iv.  c.  19  :    Arelat. 

iv.  c.  1, 

13.  Basil  M.  Ep.  .54 :  Cone.  Nic.  c.  2,  6, 10  :  Cone.  Illiberit.  c.  76:  Neo- 

eaesar. c.  9:  Ep.  68.  al.  67.  eoinp.  E[).24  :  Cave,  Prim.  Christ, 
p.  253  seq. :  Martene,  De  Antiq.  vit.  part  ii.  p.  295. 

14.  Lainpridius,  vit.  Alex.  Sever,  c.45. 

15.  Nov.  Constit.  137.  e.  2.  16.  Cone.  Bracar.  ii.  c.  20. 

17.  Leo.  M.  Ep.  32  ad  Rustic,  c.  1. 

18.  Paulinus,  Ep.  4.  ad  Sever.  :    Sozomen,  h.  e.  lib.  vi.  c.  34  :  Tbeo- 

doret. bist.  vel-  c.  3:  Jerom,  Ep.  61.  ad  Pammach  :  Ep.  110: 
Scbrockb's  K.  Gescb.  Th.  ii.  S.  36:  Binterini  Denkwiirdigk.  der 
Katbol.  Kircbe.  I.  book  ii.  Th.  S.  .378—336. 

19.  Optat.  Milev,  De  Schism.  Donat.  lib.  ii.  c.  22:  Hieron.  Comment. 

in  Ezech.  c.  44. 

§  3.  Administration  of  the  Rite,  p.  158. 

1.  Cone.  Nic.  c.  19:  Antioch,  c.  9:  Clialcedon,  c.  2:    Carthag.  iii, 

c.  45  :  iv.  c.  3. 

2.  Chrysost.  Horn,  in  1  Ep.  ad  Tim. :  Horn.  1  in  Ep.  ad  Phil.:  Hie- 

ron. Ep.  85.  ad  Evagr. :  Epipbanius,  Haeres.  85.  n.  4 :  Cotic. 
Sardic.  c.  19:  Hispal.  ii.  c.  5  :  Athanas.  Apol.  c.  Ar. 

3.  Gregor.  Naz.  Carm.  De  Vita  sua  :  Socrates,  b.  e.  lib,  iv.  c.  29. 

4.  Leo,  M.  Ep.  81.  ad  Dioscur.  c.  1  :  Gelas.  Ep.  ix.  c.  11. 

5.  Cone.  Laodic.  c.  5 :  Tbeodoret.  h.  e.  c.  13. 

6.  Martene,  part  ii.  p.  329:  Cone.  Barcinon.  c.  3. 

7.  Const.  Apost.  lib.  viii.  c.  5 :  Dionys.  Areop.  De  Hier.  Eccl.  c.  5. 

§  5.  Punishment  of  delinquents,  p.  173. 

1.  Cyprian,  Ep.  28.(al.  34.) 

2.  Cone.  Nic.  c.  8:  Tolet.  1,  o.  4  :  Trull,  c.  20:  Chalced.  c.  29. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES. 


493 


3.  August.  Ep.  3G. 

4.  Cone.  Tolet.  1,  e.  1,  3,  8:    Ilcrdens,  c.  1,  5:    Arausiac.   I.  c.  24: 

Tauiinens,  c.  8. 

5.  Socrates,  h.  e.  lib.  vi.  c.  D:   Sozotnon,  h.  e.  lib.  viii.   Synes.  Ep. : 

Siegel,  Haudbuch.  Archaeol.  Bd.  iii.  82. 
C.  Cone!  Agath.  c.  30,  41  :  Epaon.  c.  15  :  Matiscon,  c.  5. 
7.  Const.  Apost.  27,  30,  51 :  Cone.  Neocaesar.  c.  1 :    Agath.  c.  8,  42. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

OF  CHURCHES  AND  SACRED  PLACES. 

§  1.  JVames  and  History  of  Churches,  p.  176. 

1.  Euseb,  h.  e.  lib.  vii.  e.  22:     Pliniiis,  Ep.  lib.  xix.  ep.  97:    Pert- 

schens.  K.  Histoiie,  Tb.  i.  S.  416. 

2.  Asseniani,  Bibl,  Or.  torn.  i.  p.  387  :  Enseb.  h.  e.  lib.  ii.  e.  1  :  Faber, 

De  temj)lor.  apiid  Christian,  antiq.  duhia  in  Pott's  Sylloge 
Conitnent.  Theol.  vol.  iii.  p.  334—37  :  Schrockh's  chr.  K.  Gesch. 
Th.  iv.  S.  17,  IS. 

3.  Lainprid.  Vit.  Alex.  Severi.  e.  49  :    Mosheini,  De  eccl.  ante  Con- 

stant. M.  p.  463. 

4.  Euseb.  h.  e.  lib.  vii.  c.  13. 

5.  Tertull.  De  idol.  c.  7  :    Adv.  Valent.  c.  3:    De  coron.  mil.  c.  3  : 

De  piidic.  c.  4  :  Cyprian,  ep.  55.  33 :  Gregor.  Thau  mat.  epist. 
can.  c.  11  :  Gregor.  Naz.  Vit.  Gregor.  Thaum.  Opp.  iii :  Dio- 
nys.  Al.  ep.  can.  c.  2:  Lactant.  Instit.  div.  lib,  v.  c.  11  :  De 
mot.  persec.  e.  12.  15 :   Ambrose,  in  Epis.  4.  etc. 

6.  Euseb.  h.  e.  lib.  viii.  c.  2,  13. 

7.  Euseb,  h.  e.  lib.  x.  c.  5.  c.  2  :    De  Vit.  Constant.  M.  lib.  iii.  c.  64, 65. 

8.  Soerat.  h.  e.  lib.  iv.  c.  24  :    Evagr.  h,  e.  lib.  i.  c.  16:    Cod.  Theo- 

dos.  16.  tit.  X.  1.  16,  19,  25. 

9.  Ciampini,  c.  2 — 22  :    Euseb.  Vit.  Constant.  M.  lib.  iii.  c,  25 — 40, 

41 — 58  :  lib.  iv,  c.  57 — 60:  Soerat.  li.  e.  lib.  i.  c,  16 :  ii.  c.  16, 
43:  Sozom.  h.  e.  lib.  xi,  c.  4,  26 :  lib.  iv.  c.  26. 

10.  Euseb.  h.  e.  lib.  x.  e,  3. 

11.  Gibbon's  Rome,  vol,  iii,  p.  42,  N,  Y.  ed. 

12.  Muratori,  Seriptor.  rer.  Italic,  lorn.  i.  P.  2.  p.  576  :  Manso's  Ge- 

sehichte  des  Ostgothischen  Reichs  in  Italien,  S.  137,  167,  396. 

§  2.  Form,  Site,  and  Position,  p.  180. 

1.  Tertull.  De  bapt.  c.  8.  c.  12  :  de  Piulie.  c.  13. 

2.  E.  S.Cyprian,  De  ecelesia  subtenanea:  Chr.  Sonntag  de  ecclesia 

subterran. 

3.  Cyril  Hieros.  mystag.  Catech.  1.  n.2:  Grwgor.  Naz,  Orat.  40 :  Hi- 

eron.  Comment,  in  Amos  6:  14 ;  Dionys.  Areop.  De  Hierarch. 
Eccl.  c.  3. 


494  INDEX  OF  ATJTHOEITIES. 

§  3.  Arrangement  and  constituent  Parts,  p.  181. 

J.  Concil  Tolet.  4.  c.  18 :  Isidor  Hispal.  Orig.  lib.  i.  c.  3. 

2.  Eutiel).  Ii.  e.  x.  c.  4  :   vii.  c.  15. 

3.  Concil  Laodic.  c.  21.  4.  Concil  Laodic.  c.  44. 
5.  Concil  Laodic.  c.  19,  44  :  Concil  Tiullan.  c.  69. 

G.  Ensel).  Ii.  e.  x.  c.  4,  5 :  vii.  c.  50 :    Gregor.  Naz.  Sonni  Anast.  v.  4  : 

Constit.  Apost.  ii.  c.  57. 
7.  Augiistiii.  ep.  203:  Athenas.  Apol.  ii. 

§  5.    0/theJVave,  p.  183. 

1.  Cyprian,  Ep.  33,  34. 

2.  Constit.  Apost.  lib.  ii.  c.  57:  viii.  c.  20  :  Cyril,  Hierosol.  Pro  Cat- 

ech.  c.  8  :  Euseb.  ii.  17. 

3.  Constit.  Ap.  ii.  c.  57:    August,  de  civ.  Dei,  ii.  c.  28:    Cyril,  llier. 

Pro  Catech.  c.8  :  Chrysost.  Horn.  74  in  Math. :  Steph.  Duran- 
di,  De  Vit.  eccl.  lib.  i.  c.  18. 

4.  Constit.  A  p.  ii.  57,  58. 

5.  Codinus,  De  offic.  c.  17:    Leo  Allatins,  De  tempi.  Graec.  ep.  §  5: 

Gretserns,  in  Codinuni,  lib.  iii.  c.  12. 

6.  Paulin  Not.  op.  12:  Concil  Trull,  c.  97:  Leonis.  Imp.  Nov.  73. 

7.  Chrysost.  Hom.  HI.  in  Ep.  ad  Ephes.:     Evagrius,  h.  e.  vi.  21  : 

Paul.  Nol.  nat.  Felic,  HI. 

§  6.   Of  the  N'arlhex  or  Porch,  p.  185. 

1.  Tertull.  De  Orat.  c.  11  :  Euseb.  h.  e.  x.  c.  4 :    Chrysostom,  Horn. 
52  in  Math,  in  Ps.  cxl.  :  Synes.  ep.  121 :  Pelicia,  torn.  i.  p.  133. 

§  7.   Of  the  outer  Buildings,  or  Exedrae,  p.  188. 

1.  Paul.  Nol.  ep.  12  :    Cyril,  Hieros.  Catech.  mystag.  i.  2.  ii.  1  :    Si- 

don.  Ep.  iv.  15  :  August.  De  civ.  Dei,  22.  8  :  Ambros.  Ep.  33: 
Gregor.  Turon.  hist.  6.  11  :  Justin,  Novell.  58.  42:  Concil.  Trull, 
c.  59  :  Cone.  Constant,  sub.  Minna,  Act.  1. 

2.  Theodoret,  h.  e.  v.  c.  18  :  Sulpit.  Sex.  Dial.  ii.  c.  1 :  Praef.  ad  Con- 

cil. Carthag.  iii.  iv. 

3.  Cod.  Theodos.  lib.  xvi.   tit.  v.  1.  30 :    Justin,  Nov.  79.  c.  3 :    Du 

Cange,  Comment,  in  Paul  Silent,  p.  594  :  Gregor.  ii.  ep.  ad 
Leon.  Isaur.  :  Jo.  Graetner,  De  incarcerat.  clericor.  cum  et  sine 
catena. 

4.  Euseb.  h.  e,  vi.  c.  20  :  Augustin.  De  haeres,  c.  80  :    Bosil  M.  Ep. 

82:  Hieron.  cat.  script,  eccl.  c.  3,  75,  113:  Comment,  in  Tit. 
c.  3. 

5.  Hospinian,  De  templis,  lib.  iii.  c.  6:    Lomeier,  De  Bibliothecis  : 

J.  M.  Claudenii,  D.  de  fortuna  Bibl. :  D.  Augustini,  En  excidio 
Hipponcnsi. 

6.  Euseb.  Vit.  Const.  M.  lib.  iv.  c.  59 :  Cod.  Theodos.  lib.  ix.  tit.  xlv. 

1.4. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES.  495 

^  8.  Church  Towers,  Btlls,  and  Organs,  p.  190, 

1.  Calvoer,  Rit.  eccles.  torn.  ii.  p.  143 — 44. 

2.  Tritlieni.  irn  Clii'onic.  Hirsgav. 

3.  Bentcrim,  S.  71. 

4.  Leo  Ost.  Ill),  iii.  c.  28  :    Dc  Locis  Sanctis,  p.  8  :  Mirac.  S.  Cokim- 

biini,  c.  2. 

5.  L.  Clir.  Sturm,  Prodrom.    Arcliitec.  Encykl.  der  hiirgerl.    Bau- 

kunst.  Til.  V.  S.  262:  Wiebeking's  ^leoret.  piakt.  Baukuiide, 
Til.  iv.  S.  288. 

Of  Bells. 

6.  Nicol.  Ejrgers,  Dissert,  de  origine  ct  nomine  campanarum.    Jen. 

1G84:  De  campan.  materia  et  forma.  1G85.  4:  ilarald.  Wallerii, 
Dissert,  de  campanis  et  piaecipuis  earum  iisibus.  Holm.  1694.  8: 
P.  Clir.  Hilscber,  De  campanis  templonim.  Lips.  1692.  4  :  J.  B. 
Thiers,  Trait*'  de  cloclies,  etc.  Paris,  1719. 12:  Ilistorische  Na- 
chricht  von  den  Glocken,  deren  Uisprnng,  Materie,  Nuzzen  nnd 
Missbraiich  ;  von  Irenetis  Montanus.  Cliemnitz.  1726.  8 :  Chr. 
W.  J.  Chrysander,  Hist.  Nacliricbt  von  Kirchen-Glocken.  Rin- 
lein.  1755.  8. 

7.  Polydorus  Vergil.  De  invent,  rer.  lib.  vi.  c.  11  :    Centur.  vi.  c.  6: 

Hospiiiian.  de  orig.  tempi,  lib.  ii.  c.  26. 

8.  Baron.  Annalcs  A.  D.  865. 

9.  Baron.  Annales  ad  a.  Iviii.  n.  102. 

10.  Ed,  Encycloped.  Art.  Bells. 

Of  Organs. 

11.  G.  E.  Muller's  Hist.  phil.  Sendschreiben  von  Orgeln,  ihrem   Ur- 

sj)runge  und  Gebr.  in  der  Kirche  Gottes.  Dresden,  1748.  8:  J. 
Ulr.  Sponsel's  Orgel-Historie.  Nlirnberg,  1771.  8  :  D.  B.  de  Cel- 
les,  Geschiclite  der  Orgeln.  Aus  dern  Franzos.  libers.  Berlin, 
1793.  4:  Jos.  Antony's  Geschichtliche  Darstellung  der  Entste- 
hung  nnd  Vervolkominnnng  der  Orgel.  Miinster,  1832.  8. 

12.  Monaclius    Sangallensis  de  Carol.  M.    lib.  ii.    c.  10:     Canissii. 

Thesaur.  menum.  P.  3.  p.  74. 

13.  Fischer's  Geschichte  der  gr.  Orgel  in  Breslau,  S,  26. 

§  9,   Of  the  Altar. 

1.  Godofr.  Voigt,  Thysiasteriologia,  s.  de  altaribus  vet.  Christian. 

Ed.  J.  A.  Fabricii.  Hamb.  1709.  8  :  Jo.  Fabricii,  D.  de  aris  vet. 
chr.  Helm.  1698.  4:  J.  F.Treiber,  De  situ  altarium  versus  Ori- 
entem.  Jen.  1668.  4  :  S.  Tli.  Schoenland,  Histor.  Nachricht  von 
Alfaren.  Lips.  1716.  8:  J.  Ge.  Geret,  De  vet.  Christian,  altari- 
bus. Onold.  1755.  4. 

2.  Arnobii.  Disput.  adv.  gent.  lib.  vi.  c.  1 :  Lactant.  instit.  div.  lib.  ii. 

c.  2  :    Origen,  contr.  Col.  lib.  viii.  p.  389. 

3.  Opp.  toni.  V.  p.  12,  50  :   Serm.  310  :   Hieron.  contr.  Vigilant. 

4.  Concil,  Carthag.  4,  al,  5,  c,  14  in  Justelli  Bibl,  jur.  Can.  vet.  T.  i. 

p.  370. 


496  INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES. 

§  JO.   Of  the  Doors  of  the  Church,  p.  194. 

1.  Constit.  Apost.  lib,  viii.  c.  28  :  Ignatii,  ep.  ad  Antioch.  c.  19. 

2.  Fiorillos  Knnst-Gescliichte :   Leibnitz,  Scriptor.  Rcr.   Brunsvic. 

torn.  i.  p.  446—63:  Schruckh's  Kirch.  Gesch.  21.  187—88. 

§11.    Of  the  Windows  of  the  Church,  p.  195. 

1.  De  Offic.  lib.  ii.  c.  21« 

2.  Comment,  in  Jer.  c.  7  :   in  Zech.  c.  8  :    Ep.  2.  ari  Nepot:    Ep.  8. 

ad  Demetr.  :   Ep.  12.  ad  Gaudent. 

3.  Horn.  81.  in  Math.:  51  in  Math.:  Horn.  60.  ad  Pop.  Antioch. 

§  13.    Veneration  attached  to  sacred  Places,  and  Pi^vilcges  belonging  to 
them,  p.  197. 

1.  Jac.  Lobhetii,  Liber  de  religioso  templorum  cultu.  Leod.  1641.  4 

Jo.  Fabricii,  Dissert,  de  reverentia  erga  sacra.  Helmst.  1706.  4 
J.   H.  Boehmer,    De    sanctitate    ecclesiarum.    Halae,  1722.  4 
Henr.   Lynckeri,   Dissert,   de  jurilxjs  templorum.  Francofurti, 
1698.  4  :    Jo.  Moebii,  "Aavloloyla,  s.  de  Ebraeorum,  Gentilinm 
et  Christianorimi  asyMs.  Lips.  1673.  4  :  Ge.  Goetzii,  Dissert,  de 
Asylis.  Jen.  1660.  4:  Gust.  Cartholm,  De  Asylis.  Upsal,  1682.  8. 

2.  Paedaif.  1.  8.  c.  11.  p.  255:  Comp.  Cave,  Prim.  Christ.  285. 

3.  Prim.  Christ.  156—7.  4.  Justin.  Novell.  133.  c.  31. 
5.  Concil.  Gangrense,  c.  5,  6. 

C.  Tertullian,  De  Orat.  c.  11  :    Euseb.  h.  e.  x.  c.  4:    SeVv.  11.  c.  38  : 
Chrysost.  Horn.  52.  in  Math. :  72.  in  Joann.  :  3.  in  Eph. 

7.  Chrysost.  torn.  iv.  p.  847  :    Cod.  Theodos.  lib.  ix.  tit.  xlv.  1.  4. 

8.  Julian,  Ep.  49.  ad  Arsac.  p.  431 :  Sozomen,  h.  e.  lib.  v.  c.  16. 

9.  Ambros.  ep.  33. :    Prudent,  hymn  2.  in  S.  Laur.  v.  519, 520  :  Pau- 

lin.  Nol.  natal,  vi. :  Chrysost.  Mom.  29.  in  apnd  Cor.  :  Manas, 
tom.  ii.  p.  304  :  Cassiodor.  Hist.  :  tripart.  lib.  x.  c.  30  :  Dioiiys. 
Areop.  de  hier  eccl.  c.  2.  §  4. 

§  14.  Churches  and  Mtars,  as  Places  of  Refuge,  p.  199. 

1.  Cod.  Theodos.  lib.  ix.  tit.  xlv.  1.  1,  1.  16  :  Cod.  Justin,  lib.  i.  tit.  xii. 

1.  1. :    Socrat.  h.  e.  lib.  vi.  c.  5 :  Sozomen,  h.  e.  lib.  viii.  c.  7. 

2.  Coleti  Concil.  tom.  xi.  p.  1463. 

3.  Homil.  in  Eutropiiim.  tom.  iv.  p.  481. 

4.  Cod.  Justin,  i.  12.  I.  2. 

5.  Cod.  Justin,  i.  tit.  xii.  1.  3:  Cod.  Theodos.  lib,  ix.  tit.  xlv.  I.  4. 

6.  Justin.  Nov.  constit,  xvii.  c.  7. 

7.  Capitul  Car.  M.  A.  D.  789.  c.  2  :  Copit.  ii.  A.  D.  803.  c.  3, 

8.  Lud.  Thomassiui   discipl.  eccl.  P.  2.  lib.  irt.  c.  100.  toni.vi.  p.  686. 

9.  Dunt  Grcgor.  lib.  iii.  tit.  xlix.  c.  6. 

10.  Cedreni,  Hist.  523:    Histor.  Alex.  Annae.  Comn.  lib.  ii. :    Nice- 
phor.  Gregor.  hist.  lib.  ix. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES.  497 

CHAPTER  X. 

PRAYE.RS   AND  PSALMODY  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

§  1.  Preliminary  Remarks,  p.  201. 

1.  Grotius,  adnot.  ad  Rom.  c.  8:  2G. 

2.  Corn}).  Rosoiimuller.  Ileiiiriflis,  Wegsclieider,  Hydetireich's  Pas- 

toralln-iefen  Pauli.  Th.  i.  S.  UG. 

3.  Apologet.  c.  39. 

4.  Gregor.  Nazianz.  oqoi  naxv/AiQug  edit.  Hocscliel.  v.  142  :  Chry- 

sost.  Homil.  9.  in  e|).  ad  Coioss. 

§  2.    The  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  implied  in  the  Devotions  of  the  Ancient 
Church,  p.  203. 

1.  Adv.  Praxearn.  c.  31. 

2.  Jo.  Henr.  Maji,  Synopsis  Theologiae  Judaicae,  p.  29 — 56. 

3.  Cateches,  xvi.  c.  4  :  Comi).  Tertull.  Adv.  Prax.  c.  3. 

4.  De  Spiritii  Sancto  ad  Amphil.  c.  25 — 29. 

5.  Concil.  Hippo,  A.  D.  397.  c.21  :  Carthag.  A.  D.  525:  S.  Fulgent. 

Riisp.  ad  Monimum.  lib.  ii.  c.  5.  edit.  Basil.  1621.  p.  328:  Ba- 
sil M.  De  Spiritii  Sancto  ad  Amphil.  c.  12 :  Ambrose,  De  S.  S. 
lib.  i.  c.  3:  6,  Bingham,  vol.  v.  p.  71. 

§  3.  Divine  Worship  paid  to  Christ,  p.  205. 

1.  Euseb.  h.  e.  lib.  iv.  c.  15. 

2.  Contra  Celsum.  lib.  v.  p.  233.  lib.  vii.  p.  385. 

3.  Binghatn,  bk.  xiii.  c.  2  :    Jo.  Fried.  Cotta.  De  Gloria  multus  rell- 

giosi  Christo  asserta.  Tubing.  1755.  4  :  C.  W.  Thalemann,  Je- 
sum  Christum  eodem  quo  Patrem  modo  colendum  atque  ado- 
randum. 

§  4.   JVorship  of  Martyrs,  Saints,  and  Angels,  p.  20C. 

1.  Siegel,  vol.  ii.  p.  261. 

2.  Radulphus  Tungrensis.  De  canon,  observat.  propos.  17.  p.  559. 

3.  Beliarmin.  De  Sanctorum  beatitudine,  lib.  ii.  c.  17  :  Compare  c.  3. 

12.    lib.  i.  11—20:  Eman.  a  Schelstrati.  De  Disciplina  Arcani. 

4.  Bingham,  bk.  xiii.  c.  3:    Concil.  Trident.  Sess.  25    p.  231.  P.  3. 

221 — 362:  Augsburg.  Confess.  Art.  9.  p.  425  :  Art.  21  :  Apo- 
log.  Art.  9  :  Schmalkald.  Art.  1.2:  Jo.  Dallaei,  De  cultu  relig. 
lib.  iii.  c.  25  :  Stilhngfleet's  Defence  of  the  discourse  of  idol. 
P.  1.  c.  1 :  Lib.  Carolin.  Caroli  M.  De  iin[)io  imaginum  cuire. 
lib.  iv. 

§  6.  Brevity  and  Simplicity  of  the  Prayers  of  the  ancient  Church,  p.  210. 

1.  Arnobins,  Disputat.  adv.  Gentes.  lib.  i.  c.  58,  59. 

63 


498  INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES. 

2.  S.  Proeli,  De  trad.  Missal,  horn.  22  p.580:  A.  Neander,  i.  Th.  1821. 
8.  S.  329,  30  :  Thom.  Siiiitli,  De  statu  Eccles.  Gracae  Hodier- 
no,  p.  22.seq. :  Heiiiccii  Abbildiiiig,  der  alten  und  iieuen  griech. 
Kirche,  Th.  Jii.  S.  227  :  Is.  Diacoui  Vit.  Gregor.  M.  lib.  ii.  c.  17. 

§  7.   Of  the  catholic  Spirit  of  their  JForship,  p.  210. 

1.  Contra  Celsum,  lib.  vii.  p.  402. 

2.  Eiiseb.  Oral,  de  Laudibiis  Constant.  M.  p.  706  :  Chrysost.  Homil. 

in  Job.  p.  13. 

3.  Concil.  Gerund,  c.  10.  A.  D.  517  :     Concil.  Tolet.  iv.  c.  9.  3.  A.  D. 

633. 

4.  Bk.  13.  c.  5. 

5.  Spittler's  Kirchengesch.  S.  246:    Huge's  Gesch.  des  deutschen 

Kiichen-und  Predigtwisens.  Th.  i.  S.  254. 

§  9.   Of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  p.  212. 

1,  J.  A.  Schmid,  Oratio  Dominica  historice  et  dogmatice  proposita. 

Hehiistad.  1723.  4:  J.  Ge.  Walch,  De  usu  orationis  Doniinicae 
aptid  veteres  Christianos.  Jenae,  1729.  4  :  S.  Walch,  Miscellanea 
sacra.  Amstelod.  1744.  4.  ]).  58 — 80  :  Jo.  Ern.  Ostermann,  Com- 
mentatio  de  communi  Christianorum  precatione.  Viteb.  1710.  4: 
Jo.  Ge.  Steinert,  De  pecnliari  indole  precutn  Domini  nostri, 
quarum  in  N.  T.  fit  mentio.    Ossit.  1817.  4. 

2.  Apol.  i.  p.  222,  edit.  Oberth.  3.  Apol.  i.  p.  212—220. 
4.  Adv.  Haeres.  lib.  v.  c.  17.              5.  Paedag.  lib.  iii. 

6.  De  Oratione  Dominica,  c.  1 — 9. 

7.  De  Orato  Domin.  p.  139  :  Bingham,  13.  c.  7.  §  1  :    Compare  0pp. 

edit.  Oberth.  tom.  i.  p.  366 — 388. 

8.  0pp.  edit.  Oberth.  tom.  iii.  p.  408—593. 

9.  Aiigiistin.  Epist.  89.  ad  Hilar,  p.  407  :  Chrysostom.  Horn.  42,276. 

44.  p.  288:  Cyril,  Hieros.  Catech.  mystag.  v.  p.  298. 

10.  Chrysost.  Horn.  2.  in  2  Cor.  p.  740:   Horn.  62.  p.  934:   Augustin. 

Serrn.  42:  Walch.  Miscellan.  sacr.  p.  69:  Bingham,  bk.  13. 
c.  7.  §  9. 

11.  Tertuliian,  De  Oral.  Dom.  371  :  Gregor.  Nyss.  Horn.  10  in  ep.  ad 

Coloss.  p.  1385. 

12.  Adv.  Haer.  iv.  c.  18:    Tertull.  De  Orat.  c.  6:     Cyprian,  De  Orat. 

Dom.  p.  376  :  Origen,  De  Orat.  p.  523—36:  Cyrill.  Hierosol. 
Catech.  mystag.  v.  c.  15. 

13.  Tertuliian.  De  Orat.  c.  8 :  Griesbnch.  Comment,  crit.  in  Gr.  Mat- 

thaie  textum,  p.  71  :  Pauliis.  Comment,  i.  p.  576  :  Kuinoel,  in 
libros  N.  T.  histor.  vol.  i.  p.  181,2:  M.  Roediger,  Synopsis. 
Evang.  1829.  8.  p.  231  :  Alexander  Halisius.  Summa.  theol. 
P.  2.  §  4  :  Torbesii.  a  Corse.  Instruct,  histor.  Theol.  lib.  i.  c.  18 : 
0pp.  P.  2.  Fol.  p.  32,  33. 

14.  Constitut.  Apostol.  lib.  vii.  c.  24.  p.  372 :   Tertuliian.  De  Orat. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES.  499 

c.  19  :  Concil.  Gerund.  A.  D.  517.  c.  10 :  Concil.  Tolet.  iv.  A.  D. 
C33.  c.  9. 

15.  Constitiit.  Apostol.  lib.  vii.  c.  44.  p.  385  :  Chrysostom.  Homil.  6.  iu 

ep.  ad  Coloss. 

16.  Gregor.  the  Great,  Epist.  lib.  ix.  ep.  12  :  Jerome,  Dial,  contra  Pe- 

lag.  lib.  iii.  c.  3:  Justin.  Apostol.  i.  p.  125  :  Cyril  of  Jerusalem, 
Cateclies.  mystag.  v.  c.  5:  Augnstin.  Epist.  ad  I'aulin.  .50.  p.  308. 

17.  Apost.Constitut.  lil).viii,  c.O.  j).  3'.)7,  !)3  :  Clirysostom.  torn.  x.  p.  435, 

ed.  Bened.  :  p.  51(J,  ed.  Francofurt. 

18.  Apost.  Constit.  viii.  c.  8:  Goari  Eurliolog.  Gr.  p.  397. 

19.  Apost.  Constit.  lib.  viii.  c.  9 — 1 1  :  Cluysost.  Horn.  8.  in  Ep.  ad  Cor. 

20.  Apost.  Constit.  c.  8.  9  :  C'l'T^ostotn.  Uoui.  iu  2  Cor.  p.  (373. 

21.  Apost.  Constit.  c.  41.  p.  423,  24. 

22.  Constit.  lib.  vii.  c.  47,  48.  p.  388,  9. 

23.  Constit.  lib.  vii.  c.  36.  p.  379,  80. 

§  10.  Respo7ises — Amen,  Hallelujah,  Hosanna,  etc.  p.  218. 

1.  J.  A.  Schmidt,  De  insignioribus  veterum  Christianorum  formulis. 

Ilelmst.  1696.  4:  Jo.  Ge.  Walch,  De  formulis  saliitandi  apos- 
tolicis.  Jen.  1739.  4  :  S.  ejusd.  Miscellanea  sarra.  Ainatel. 
1744.4.  p.  436  seq. :  Ge.  Ermelii,  De  veterum  Christianorum 
5o|oAo/f«  dissert,  histor.  Lipsiae,  1684.  4  :  Ad.  Recheuberg,  De 
veterum  Christianorum  do^oloyln.  Lips.  1684.  4:  S.  Syntagma 
Dissertat.  Roterod.  1690.  8. 

2.  Hilar,  on  Ps.  65 :  Chrysostom.  Horn.  35.  in  1  Cor. :   Opj).  torn.  x. 

p.  325. 

3.  Apol.  1.  §  65.  67  :  Comp.  Augustin.  contra  Pelag. :  Serm.  defer,  iv. 

Opp.  tom.  vi.  p.  446. 

4.  De  Spectaculis.  c.  25. 

5.  Constitut,   Apost.    lib.  viii.  c.  13 :    Cyril.  Hierosol.  Cateches.  23 : 

mystag.  v.  jt.  331,  32  :  Ambrose,  in  sacr.  lib.  iv.  c.  10 :  Augus- 
tin. Contra  Faustum.  lib.  xii.  c.  10:  Jerome,  Epist.  39  :  Leon. 
M.  Serm.  91. 

6.  Augustin.  Ex.  in  Ev.  S.  Joan. :    Serm.  151  de  temp.:    Isiodorus, 

Hispal.  Orig.  lib.  vi.  c.  17  :  De  div.  off.  142:  Gregor.  Nyss.  Trac- 
tat.  de  inscr.  Psalmon.  c.  7. 

7.  Gregor.  M.  Epist.  lib.  ix.  ep.  12.  p.  940. 

8.  Augustin.  Epist.  119.  ad  Jan.  c.  17.  86.  ad  Casul. :   llieron.  Prae- 

fat.  in  Ps.  50. 

9.  Werusdorf.  de  form  vet.  eccl.  psalmod.  Hallelujah,  p.  21.  25.  27: 

Augustin.  in  Ps.  118. 

10.  Hist.  eccl.  lib.  ii.  c.  23. 

11.  Is.  51.  1.    123.  3:  Virg.  ^neid.l2.  777 :  Comp.  Bona,  rer.  liturg. 

lib.  ii.  c.  4.  in  Gavanti  Thesaur.  sacr.  vit. 

12.  Epist.  lib.  vii.  12  :   lib.  ii.  m.  13.  Concil.  Toletan.  iv.  c.  12. 

14.  Ad  Guranti  Thesaur.  tom.  i.  p.  81. 

15.  Concil.  i.  can.  21  :  Harduin.  tom.  iii.  p.  352. 


500 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES. 


16.  Tertullian.  De  praescript.  liaeret.  c.  41 :  Clirysostom.  Homil.  3.  in 

ep.  ad  Coloss. :  Optat.  Milevit.  de  schisniate.  Donat.  lib.  iii  : 
Guraiite,  Tliesaur.  saci*.  rit.  torn.  i.  p.  77  :  Atiibios.  De  dignat. 
sacerd.  c.  5.  2. 

17.  Caivoer.  rit.  eccl.  i.  p.  472. 

18.  De  Oiatioiie  Dornin.  0})p.  torn.  i.  p.  384. 

19.  Cateches.  niystairog.   v.   §  4  :    Ciirysost.  Ilomil.  24.  in  1  Cor.  10  : 

Tlieopliyiact.  Conuiient.  in  Coloss.  3d.  0pp.  ton),  ii :  Isidor,  Pe- 
lus.  Epist.  lib.  i.  ep.  77.  ad  Diosciir.  p.  23:  Augustin.  De  vera 
relig.  c.  3  :  De  bono  perseverantiae.  c.  13. 

§  11.   Of  the  Psalmody  of  the  Church,  p.  221. 

1.  Aug.  Jac.  Rambach's  Anthologie   christlicher   Gesange  aus  der 

alten  nnd  rriittiern  Zeit.  Tli.  i — iii.  1817 — 19.  8:  Joannis 
Bonae,  De  divina  Psaltnodia  ejusque  caiisis,  mysteriis  et  dis- 
cipiinis,  deque  variis  ritibiis,  oniniinii  Ecciesiaruin  in  psallendis 
divinis  officiis,  tractatus  liist.  syrrd)ol.  asceticus  ;  sive  psalieiitis 
ecclesiae  barmonia  etc.  Edit,  nova,  auctior  et  eniendatior. 
Colon.  1677.  8:  Mart.  Gerberti,  De  cantn  et  niusica  sacra  etc. 
Bias.  1774.  2  vol.  4:  Job.  Zach.  Hilligeri,  De  psalrnorum, 
hyrnnorum  atqne  odarutn  sacr.  discrimine.  Viteb,  1720.  4.  S. 
Thesaur.  nov.  tbeol.  1720.8:  Jo.  Godofredi  Baumanni,  De 
hymnis  et  hymnopoeis  vet.  et  rec.  ecclesiae.  Breniae,  1765.  8: 
J.  Ge.  Walcb,  De  hymnis  ecclesiae  apostolicae.  Jenae,  1737.  4: 
S.  Miscellanea  sacra.  Anistelod.  1744.  4.  pag.  34.  seq  :  Jo. 
Frickii,  Orat.  de  sacra  carrninnm  divin.  hymnodia:  S.  Melete- 
n)ata  varia.  Ubnae,  1756.  4  :  Jo.  Henr.  a  Seelen,  De  j^oesi  chr. 
non.  a  tertio  |)ost  Chr.  nat.  saecnio  demum,  sed  a  j^rinio  etiatn 
et  seenndo  deducenda.  Lubecae,  1754.  8 :  Friedr.  Miinter, 
Ueber  die  alteste  cbristliche  Poesie :  S.  Dessen,  OfFenbarnng 
Johannes,  metrisch  iibersetzt.  Zweyte  Ausg.  Kopenhagen, 
1806.  8.    S.  17—54. 

2.  Constitut.  Apost.  lib.  ii.  c.  57:    Socrat.   h.  e.   lib.  v.  c.  22:    Basil. 

Epist.  63:  Sozomen,  h.  e.  lib.  v.  c.  19:  Dionys.Areopag.de 
Hierarch.  eccl.  c.  3. 

3.  Concil.  Laodic.  c.  17:    Augustin.  Serm.  10.  de  verbis  Apost.  opp. 

torn.  X.  p.  112. 

4.  Constitut.  Apost.  lib.  viii.  c.  37  :  Iii).  ii.  c.  .59  :  Chrysostom.  Com- 

ment, in  Ps.  Opp.  tom.  iii :  Athanasius,  Epist.  ad  Marcel,  torn.  i. 
p.  957  :  De  Virgin,  p.  1057  :  Cassian.  Institut.  lib.  iii.  c.  3. 

5.  Contra  Celsunv  lib.  viii.  c.  67:  Edit.  Oberth.  tom.  ii.  p.  512,  13. 

6.  Lib.  v.  c.  28. 

§  12.  Attitude  and  Gestures  in  Singing  and  Prayer,  p.  222. 

1.  Joach.  Hildebrand,  De  Precibus  veterum  Christianorum.  Helmst. 
1735.4:  De  invocatione  et  precibus.  Ibid.:  Rituale  orantium. 
Ibid.  1740.  4:  Abr.  H.  Deutchniann,  Ritus  antiqui  precum.  Vi- 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES.  501 

teb.  1G95.  4:  Jac.  Tlioinasii,  Dissert.de  ritu  vet.  Christianorum 
precandi  versus  OrieiUein.  Lips.  1670.  4  :  Adami  Rechenberg, 
De  %HQ(xQtjin  orantiiiin.  Lips.  1688.  4:  Clir.  Christ.  Sturm,  De 
ritu  veterutn  sulilatis  manibus  precandi.  Jeuae,  1761.  4  :  Aug. 
Nath.  Hiibner,  Disseriat.  de  genuflexione,  Ilitiae,  1711.  4:  J.  J. 
Ch-f-g.  De  crucis  signaculo  precuui  ciiristiauarum  coinite  des- 
tiiiato.  Lips.  1759.4:  Godofr.  Wegiier,  De  orationibus  jacula- 
toriis.  Regiomont.  1708.  4:  J.  Burger,  De  gestibus  precantium 
vet.  Christianorum.    1790.  8. 

2.  Tertullian,  De  Orat.  c.  11— 2.3.  ed.  Obertli.  torn.  ii.  p.  23—39. 

3.  Comp.  Hug.  Grotii  adnotat.  ad  Math.  6:  5. 

4.  Tertullian.  De  Corona  mil.  c.  3:  Concil.  Nicaen.  A.  D.  325.  c.  20. 

5.  De  Orat.  c.  31.  ed.  Oberih.  toin,  iii.  p.  580. 

6.  Epist.  119.  c.  15.  7.  De  Spirit,  S.  c.  27. 

8.  Augustin.  3.  in  Ps.  36:  Jo.Cassian.  De  instit.  rer.  lib.  ii.  c.  12. 

9.  Apost.  Constit.   lib.  viii,  c.  9,  10:      Hermae  Pastor.  P.  1.  vrs.  1: 

Clemens  Rom.  1  Ep.  ad  Cor.  §48:  Tertuli.  ad  Scapul.  c.  4: 
Origen.  De  Orat.  c.  31  :  Euseh.  h.  e.  lib,  ii.  c.  23:  lib.  v.  c.  5: 
De  vita  Constant.  M.  lib.  iv.  c.  61  :  Ciirysostom.  Homil.  18.  in 
2d  Epist.  ad  Cor. :  Augustin.  De  civit.  Dei.  22.  c.  8  :  Caesar. 
Arelat.  Homil.  34:  Prudent.  Cethemer  hymn  ii. 

10.  Chrysostom.  Homil.  28,  29:  Constit.  Apost.  lib.  viii.  c.  6. 

11.  Socrat.  h.  e.  lib.  iii.  c.  13.  c.  37 :     Theodoret.  h.  e.  lib.  v,  c.  18, 19. 

12.  Origen,  De  Orat.  c.  15 :     Chrysostom.  in  Ps.  140 :      Euseb.  vit. 

Constant,  lib.  iv.  c.  15. 

13.  Constitut.  Apost.  lib.  vii.  c.  44:    Cyrill.  Hierosol.  Catcehes.  Mys- 

tag.  i.  c.  2.  4.  9:  Bingham,  Antiq.  vol.  v.  p.  275—80:  Jerome. 
Comment,  in  Amos  6.  14. 

14.  Tertulhan.  De  Orat.  e.  19:    De  Jejun.  c.  10  :    Cyprian.  De  Orat. 

Dom.  p.  386  (ed.  Oberth.) :  Chrysostom.  Horn.  4:  De  S.  Anna. 

15.  Lib.  ii.  c.  59 :    lib.  viii.  c.  34  :    Jo.  Cossian.  De  Institut.   lib.  iii. 

c.  2-4. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

USE  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES  IN  PUBLIC  WORSHIP,  p.  228. 

1.  Chr.  Fr.  Walch's  kritische  Untersuchung  vom.  Gebrauche  der 
heligen  Schrift  unter  den  alten  Christen  in  den  drey  ersten 
Jahrhiinderten.  Leipzig,  1779.  8;  J.  A.  Cramer,  vom  Gebrauch 
der  heil.  Schrift  im  xii.  Jahrhundert.  S.  Fortsetzung  von  Bos- 
suet's  Einleitung.  Th.  vi  S.  81  ff:  K.  A.  Credner,  Ansehen  u. 
Gebrauch  der  neutestam.  Schriften  en  den  beyden  ersten  Jahr- 
hunderten.  S.  Beytr.  zur  Eiideitung  in  die  bililirchen  Schriften. 
B.  I.  1832.  8.  S.  1 — 92:  Jac.  Usserii  Historia  dogmatica  contro- 
versiae  inter  Orlhodoxos  et  Ponlificios  de  scripturis  et  sacris 
vernaculis.  Ed.  Henr.  Wharton.  Londini,  1690.  4:  Chr.  Kor- 
tholt  Comment,  de  lectione  biblioruiu  in  Unguis  vulgo  cognitis 


502  INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES. 

iieque  sacris  publicis  idiomate  popular!  peragnendis.  Lips. 
1692.  4  :  Tob.  Gottfr.  He^eimair's  Gescliichte  des  Bibelverbots. 
UIrn,  1783.  4:  Nic.  le  Maire  Sanctuaritim  [)rofanis  occhisum  s. 
de  sacrorum  bibliorum  probibitione  in  lingua  vernacula  tracta- 
tus.  Herbipoi.  1662.  4:  Jo.  Fr.  Mayer,  Disput.  contra  Nic.  le 
Maire  sanctuarium  profanis  occhisum,  lectionern  S.  S.  Laicis 
concedendam  esse.  Gryjtliisw.  1667.  edit.  2.1713.  4:  Leand. 
van  Ess,  Ausxiige  ans  den  heil.  V'atern  und  anderen  Lehrern 
der  kathol.  Kirche  liber  das  norlliwendige  und  nlitzliche  Bibel- 
lesen  ?  zur  Aufmunterung  der  Katboliken.  Leipzig,  1808.  8. 
Zweyte  Ausgabe.  Sulzbacli,  1816.  8:  Gnii.  Ern.  Tentzel :  de 
ritu  Lectionuin  sacrarum.  Viteb.  1685.  4  :  Jo.  Andr.  Scbmid, 
de  primitivae  ecclesiae  lectionibus.  Helinst.  1697.  4  :  de  Lec- 
tionariis  utrinsque  ecclesiae.  ibid.  1703.  4. 

2.  Apolog.  i.  c.  67.  p.  222.  ed.  Obertb. 

3.  Apologet.  c.  39  :  Ad  Uxorern.  lib.  ii.  c.  6 :  De  Anima.  c.  9. 

4.  Tertullian    de    Praescript.   haeret.  c.  41  :  Cyfirian    Epist.  34,  33. 

5.  Apost.  Conslitut.  lib.  ii.  c.  25.  c.  .57  :  Origeu  Contr.  Cels.  iii.  45,  50 : 

Huetii  Comment.  Orig.  in  S.  S.  p.  8.  108  :  Chrysost.  Horn,  in 
John  :  Horn.  viii.  in  Ep.  ad  Ileb. :  Honi.  in  Pentac.  torn.  iii.  p. 
85—88. 

6.  Apost.  Constitut.  lib.  ii.  c.  59.  lib.  viii  c.  5.  lib.  v.  c.  19  :  Theodo- 

ret.  h.  e.  lib.  i.  c.  7  :  Concil.  Land.  c.  59  :  Cartliag.  iii.  c.  47: 
Chalcedon,  c.  13,  14  ;  Tolet.  i.  c.  2  :  Vasense,  ii.  c.  3  :  Valen- 
tin, c.  1.  etc. 

7.  Laodic.c.  59:  Concil.  Carthag.  iii.  c.  47  :  Cyril  of  Jern.salem,  Cat- 

eches.  iv.  c.  33:  Rufini.  Exposit.  Symbol.  Ap.  c.  37,  38. 

8.  Euseb.  h.  e.  lib.  ii.  c.  23 :  Hieron.  ep.  ad   Dardan.  0pp.  torn.  iii. 

p.  46:  Gregor.  Nyss.  Orat.  in  simm  ordin. 

9.  J.  Miincher's  Handbuch  der  clirist!.  Dogmenesch  Th.  iii.  S.  75.ff. 

10.  Mabillon  de  Liturg.  Gal.  lib.  ii.  p.  137  seq. 

11.  Euseb.   h.  e.  vi.  14.  iii.  25.    iii.  3.    iii.  16.    iv.  23.  iv  15  :    August. 

Serm.  xii.  De  Sanctis:  De  Divers.  45,63,  101—3,  109. 

§  2.  The  order  in  which  the  Scriptures  ivere  read,  p.  230. 

1.  Athanas.  Apolog.  ii.  contra  Arain.  p.  717 :  Agust.  in  Ps.  cxxxviii.  p. 

650:  August.  Serm.  143,  144. 

2.  Tertullian   adv.  Marc.   lib.   vi.  c.  2.  lib.  v.  c.  3 :  De    Praescript. 

haeret.  c.  36  :  Lenaeus  haeres.  lib.  iii.  c.  29. 

3.  Augiislin.  Expos,  in  1  John.  torn.  ix.  235. 

4.  Augustin.  Serm.  139,  140,  194,  148. 

5.  Augustin.  Tractat.  vii.  in  Joan.  torn.  ix.  p.  24  :    Chrysostom  Horn. 

63.  (66.) 

6.  Concil.  Tolet.  iv.  c.  16. 

7.  Chrysost.  Horn.  7.  ad    popul.  Antioch :  Augustin.  Serm.71.de 

temp. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES.  503 

§  3.  Mode  of  designating  the  Divisions  of  the  Scriptures,  p.  231. 

1.  Hug's  Einleit.  in's  N.  T.  The.  i.  S.  243,  266:  Zacagni  Collectun. 
momim.  vet.  eccl.  Gr.  et  Lat.  toiri.  i.  p.  401 :  Gallandi  Bibl. 
Patr.  torn.  x. 

§  4.  Manner  of  reading  the  Scriptures,  p.  232. 

1.  Confession,  lib.  x.  c.  33. 

2.  Concil.  Cartliag.  iii.  c.  4:  Aiigustin.  ep.  155  :  De  civit.  Dei.  22.  c. 

8  :  Chrysost.  Horn,  in  Coloss.  iii.  p.  173. 

3.  Chrysost.  Horn.  iii.  in  2  Thess.  p.  381. 

4.  S.  Gavanti  Thesaiir.  torn.  i.  p.  90 — 94. 

5.  Lib.  ii.  c.  57. 

6.  Serni.  xxvi,  ex.  L.  torn.  viii.  p.  174 :  Selvaggli.  Antiq.  chn.  instit. 

hb.  ii.  p.  I. 

7.  Chrysost.  Hotn.  i.  in  Matt.  p.  13. 

8.  Contra  Vigil,  c.  3 :  Vgl,  c.  4. 

§  5.   Of  the  Psalter. 

1.  Concil.  Tolet.  vii.  c.  10  :  Concil.  Nicaen.  ii. : 

2.  Athauas.  ad  Marcell.  torn.  i.  p.  959  :    Arnbros.  in   Ps.  Dav.  praef. 

0pp.  p.  1270. 

3.  Concil.  Tolosat.  A.  D.  1129.  c.  12:  Hard.  torn.  ii.  P.  ii. 

CHAPTER   XII. 

5  1.    General  Remarks,  JVames,  etc.  p.  239. 
Of  Homilies. 

Franc.  Combefisii  Bibliotheca  Patrum  concionatoria  :  h.  e.  anni  totius 
evangelia,  festa  Dominica,  sanctissimae  Deiparae  illustriorumqne 
Sanctorum  solemnia,  patrum  symbolis,  tractaiibus,  panegyricis  iis- 
que,  qua  novum  ex  vetustis  MSS.  codd.  productis,  qua  recensitis, 
emendatirf,  auctis,  ad  fontes  compositis,  e  Graeco  castigatis  elegan- 
tiusque  redditis,  illustrata  ac  exornata  latine.  Paris,  1662.  torn,  i — 
viii.  f.  :  L.  Pelt  et  H.  Rheinwald  Bibl.  concoinatoria.  Vol.  i.  ii. 
Beaol,  1829 — 30.  8  :  Bernh.  Ferrarii  libri  thres  de  vet.  Chr.  con- 
cionibus.  3Iediol.  1621.  Ultraj.  1692.  Venet.  1731.  8:  Joach.  Hil- 
debraud  Exercit.  de  veterum  concionibus.  Helms.  1661.  8  :  Bernh. 
Eschenburg's  Versuch  einer  Geschichte  der  bflentlichen  Religions- 
Vortiage  in  der  griechischen  und  lateiuischen  Kirche  von  den  Zei- 
ten  Christi  bis  zur  Reformation.  Erster  Hauptabschnitt  von  Christo 

■  bisClirysostomusund  Augustin.  Jena.  1785.  8:  H.  Th.  Tzschirner: 
de    Claris    ecclesiae    veteris  oratoribus.     Commentat.   i — ix.  Lips. 
1817—1821.  4. 
1.  S.  Camp.    Vitiinga   de    Synagogue,   vet.    p.  580   seq.  590   seq: 
Rhempherdus  de  decem.  Gliosis,  p.  226. 


5114  INDEX  OF  ATJTHORITIES. 

2.  Apol.  i.  c,  67.  p.  222.  ed.  Oberth. 

3.  Apologet.  udr.    gent.  c.  39. 

4.  Lib.  ii.  c.  57.  Comp.  S.  Coteler.  a.  a.  O.  n.  1  :  J.  L.  Selvaggli  An- 

tiq.  clir.  iiistitiit.  lib.  ii.  p.  1. 

5.  Lib.  ii.  c.  58.  lib.      .  c.  19. 

6.  S.   Patr.  Aoi)st.   ed.    Cot.    edit.    Arastelod.    1724.  f.    torn.   1.   p. 

621  seq. 

§  2.  By  lohom  the  Homilies  loere  delivered,  p.  239. 

1.  Apolog.  c.  67.  ed.  Obeilh.  p.  222  :  Rufin.  hist.  eccl.  lib.      .  c.  2. 

Paulini  Vita. 

2.  Ambrose,  Tlieodor.  h.  e.  iv.  c.  Q7. 

3.  Hoin.  X.  in  1  ep.  ad  Tim.  p.  464. 

4.  Sozomen.  hist.  eccl.  lib.  viii.  c.  27. 

5.  Populii   Vita  Agust.   c.  5:    Chrystost.   Horn,   in  2  Tit.    x.   in  1 

Tim.  iii. 

6.  Concil.  Vasens.  ii.  c.  2.  A.  D.  529:  S.  Gregor.  M.  Praefat.  ad  lib. 

xl.  Hom.  in  Evangel,  ad  Secund.  und  Jo.  Diaconi  Vit. :  Gregor. 
M.  lib.  ii.  c.  18  :  Euseb.  e.  h.  lib.  vi.  c.  19  :  Euseb.  Vit.  Constit. 
lib.  iv.  c.  29—34. 

8,  Apost.  Constit.  lib.  iii.  c.  9. 

9.  De  Praescript.  c.  41 :    De  Bapt.  c.  17 :    De  Veland.  Virgin,  c.  9. 

§  3.  Frequency  of  Sermons,  p.  241. 

1.  Gaudentius  Tract,  v. :  Augustin  Tr.  in  Ps.  86. 

2.  Apost.  Constit.  lib.  ii.  c.  57  :  Concil.  Laodic.  c.  19 :  Concil.  Au- 

relian.  c.  3 :  Augustin.  Serm.  237  :  De  Tern.  Serm.  49. 

3.  Basil.  M.   in   hexaem.   Hom.  2,9:  Chryost.   Hom.  x.   in   Gen: 

Hom.  9.  et  10.  ad  Antiochen  :    Socrat.  h.  e.  lib.  v.  c.  21. 

§  4.  Length  of  the  Sennons,  p.  242. 
1.  Homil.  Ixiii.  p.  605.  2.  Bingham.  Vol.  vi.  p.  513. 

§  5.  Place  of  the  Preacher,  p.  242. 

1.  Socrates  h.  e.  lib.  vi.  c.  5  :  Sozomen  h.  e.  lib.  c.  5  :  August,  de  civit. 
Dec.  lib.  xxii.  c.  8  :  Ep.  225,  253. 

§  6.  Mode  of  Delivery,  p.  243. 

1.  Agust.  S.  Hom.  L.  Serm.  26:  Serm.  de  Diversis:  Serm.  49 :  De 

Cateohiz.  rudibus.  c.  13:  Euseb.  de  Vita.  Constit.  lib.  iv.  c.  33. 

2.  Hom.  iii.de  incomprehens.  totn.  viii.  p.  407  :  Hom.  iii.  in  1  Thess. 

p.  381. 

3.  Gregr.  Naz.  Orat.  2 :  0pp.  torn.  i.  ed.  Colon,  p.  46 :    Caesarius 

Arelatensis.  Horn.  xii. 

4.  Cyprian  de  Vit.  Caesarii,  c.  12. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES.  505 

5.  Ferrarlns  de  concion.  Rit.  p.   287  scq. :    Bingham,  Vol.   vi.  pp. 

525,  526. 

6.  Eiiseh.  h.  e.  lil>.  vii.  c.  30 :    Chrysost.   ITom.  xxx.  in  Acts  Apost.: 

Gregor.  Njiz.  Orat.  32.  p.  510  :  Angiistin.  Horn.  l.  :  Serm.  25. 
Serm.  dc  Temp.  45:  Doctr.  clir,  vi.  24—26. 

7.  Socrat.  Ii.  e.  Ml),  c.  4:  Sozomen.  li.  e.  lib.  viii.  c.  27:  Gregor.  Naz. 

Orat.  32.  p.  528. 

8.  Eiiseb.  h.  e.  lil).  vii.  c.  36. 

§  7.  Conslruclion  of  a  Sermon,  p.  244. 

1.  Serm.  121.  Conip.  Tractat.  15.  in  .Toann. :  Tractat.  36,  40. 

2.  Aiisriistiii  <I(3  Dortr.  chr.  lib.  iv.  c.  15  :    Serm.  46:    de  Temp.  Serntl. 

15:  (le  verl).  Apost.  :  Grogor.  M.  19.  in  Ezech.  p.  1144. 

3.  Serm.  6.  De  Sanctis. 

4.  Cluysosf.  Hon).  4,  11,  12,  13,  20:  3d.  in.   Ep.  ad   Coloss.:  Apost. 

Constit.  lib.  viii.  c.  5. 
.5.  Optat.  Milevit.  de  Schism.  Don.  lib.  iii.  fin.  7. 

6.  Bingbam.  Vol.  vi.  p.  490. 

7.  Gregor.  Naz.  Orat.  1.  De  Fuga.  |).  15. 

8.  lioni.  de  Bapt.  Cln*.  torn.  i.  p.  276.  ed.  Tr. 

^  8.  Subjects  of  Discourse,  p.  246. 
1.  Orat.  De  Fnga.  p.  15.  2.  De  Bapt.  Chr.  torn.  i.  p.  276. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

CATECHETICAL  INSTRUCTIONS  p.  252. 

1.  Mich.   Walcker  de  Catecbisatione  Veternm  :  J.   C.    Walch    de 

xA|iostolor.  Institntione  Catecbetica :  Conf.  Ejnsdem  Miscel- 
lanea Sacra:  G.  T.  Zacbariae  de  Methodo  Catecbetica:  G. 
LansemacU  Historia  Catecbetica  :  J.  G.  Walch  Einleitung  in  die 
Catechetiscbo  Historic  Kltercr,  mittelcrer,  nnd  neiierer  Zciten  : 
J.  G.  Kijcber  Einleitung  in  die  Catecbelisciie  Tbeoiogie. 

2.  Tortull.  A|)ol.  c.  2  :     De  Anima,  c.  37  :   Adv.   jMarc.  v.  c.  14  :    De 

Pndicit.  c.  4  :  Clem.  Alex.  Strom,  vi.  c.  16  :  Iren.  adv.  lieares. 
iv.  c.  3,  10,  26,  31  :    Orig.  Hom.  viii.  in  Exod.  etc. 

3.  Orig.  viii.  in  Exod.  Opp.  toni.  v.  p.  419.   ed.   Ol)ertb. :  Augnstin 

Qiiaest.  71.in  Exod.:  Ep.  cxix.  c.  11,12:  Contra.  Faust.  15.7: 
De  decem.  cborilis.  c.  5,  6  :  Serm.  De  Temp.  95.  481. 

4.  1  Pet.  3:  21  :  1  Tim.  6:  12:  Tertull.  De  Cor.  mil.  c.  3,  48  :  De  vel. 

virg.  c.  1  :  De  Praescri[)t.  baer.  c.  13:  Iren.  adv.  baer.  i.e.  2,  70: 
Apost.  Constit.  Op,,  c.  41  :   Socrat.  b.  e.  i.  c.  8. 

5.  Cyril.  Hieros,  Catecb.  v.  §  5 :  August,  de  Symb.  Ser.  1.  De  tract. : 

Svmb.  S.  112,  114. 

6.  Bingbam,  Vol.  iv.  79—119  :  Walch.  Bibl.  Symb. 

64 


506  INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES. 

CHAPTER   XIV. 


§  1.  J^'ames  or  Appellations  of  Baptism,  p.  255. 

1.  Ant.  van  Dale  :  Historia  baj)tismoKimi,  turn  judiacorum,  tiinn  chris- 

tainorum.  S.  Dissert.  sii|>er  Aristea.  Anistelod.  1705.  4.  p.  370 
seqq.:  J.  A.  Stark's  Gescliiclite  der  Tanfe  iind  der  Taiifgesinn- 
ten.  Loipz.  1789.  8:  Chr.  F.  Ei-senlolir's  liistorische  Bemerkun- 
^en  liher  die  Tanfe.  Tliliingei)  1804.  8  :  J.  F.  Th.  Zimriiermann 
CornmeMt.  de  haptismi  origine  et  necessitiidine,  nee  rion  de  for- 
niulis  bapt.  Goectiog.  1816.  8:  Willi.  Sclienck's  Taiifbnch  fiir 
cUristliclie  Religions-Verwandte  ;  oder  Unterrieht  uher  alle  Ge- 
genstande,  welche  die  Taiiniaiidliiiig  sowobl  in  kirehlicher  als 
anch  biirgerlicber  Hinsict  betreffen  u.  s.  w.  Weimar  1803.  8. 
Fr.  Brenner's  geschicbtliche  Darstellung  der  Venichtung  der 
Taufe  von  Christns  bis  auf  unsere  Zeiten.     Banjberg  1818.  8. 

2.  Clemens  Ale.x.  Paedag  lib.  i.  c.  6  :  Justin  Mart.  Apoi.  3.  c.  61 :  Ter- 

tuilian  De  Ba]).  c.  5,  7,  16. 

3.  Cyriil.  Hieros.  Procatecb.§16:   Gregor.  Naz.  nrat.  40.  Joh.  Damasc. 

DeFideOrth.  iv.  19.  Optat.  Mil.  lib.v.  p.  80:  Justin  Mart.Apol. 
2.  c.  61 — 67  :  Tertnllian  De  Bajit.  torn.  ii.  p.  40—57.  ed.  Oberth. 
Advr.  Prax.26:  Const.  Apost.  lib.  ii.  c.  7.  lib.  c.  9—1  J,  16,  17, 
18.  lib.  7.  c.  22.  lib.  c.  32.  Gregor.  Naz.  Ejg  to  uyiov  ^amianu 
Orat.  Cyriil.  Hieros.  Catecb.  Mystag.  I.  et  IL 

§  2.  Historical  Sketch,  p.  256. 

1.  Tractat.  5.  in  Joann.  c.  5. 

2.  De  Spir.  S.  lib  i.  c.  3:  comp.  Cyprian,  epist.  83.  ad  Jubaj. 

3.  Cyriil.  Hieros.  Catech.  Algst.  2.  Ambrose  Chrysost.  Horn.  6.  in  Co- 

loss.  Serm.  10. 

4.  Comp.    Petr.   Zornii,    Historia   Encbaristiae    Infantum.    Chr.  E. 

Weismann,  De  praepestera  Encbaristiae  rediictione. 

5.  TertnlL  De  Bapt.  c.  15.  Cyprian  Ep.   7,  3.  ad  Jubaj.  de  nnitate 

eccl.  ]).  112. 

6.  De  Baptism,-c.  15.  comp.  De  Praeseript:    Haer.  c.  14.  c.  37.  De 

Pudicit.  c.  19,  40. 

7.  Concil.  Arelat.  1.  c.  8.  Cone.  Nic.  c.  8.  19:  Cone.  Trull,  c.  &5: 

Cone.  Constant.  1.  c.  7.  Cone.  Laodic.  c.  7.  8. 

8.  OptatnsMilevit  De  scbismat.  Doiiat.  lii).  i.e.  ii.  c.  10.  v.  c.  3, 7,  8: 

Augnstin  De  Bapt,  contr.  Donat.  lib.  iv.  c.  19.  1.  c.  3.  Fulgen- 
tius  Rusp.  De  Fide,  c.  29. 

§  3.  Infant  baptism,  \>.  258. 

3.  W.  Wall :  Thehistory  of  Infant-Baptism.  In  two  Parts.  Edit.  III. 
London   1720.  8.    P.  I.  P.  II.    (als  P.  III.  ist  zu   betrachteB : 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES.  507 

WilU  Wall,  Defence  of  the  History  of  Infant-Baptisni,  ngainst 
the  reflections  of  Gale  and  others.  Lond.  1720.  8:)  Dasselbe 
Werk  iatcinisch.  Historia  l)ai>lisriii  infantum  Guil.  Wallii.  Ex 
Ana;lico  hitiiie  vertit  noiiniillis  etiain  ohservatiotiihiis  et  vindiciis 
nuxit  I.  L.  Schlosser.  IJreinac  174^.  4:  Jo.  Go.  VValch.  Historia 
Paedobaptisini  qiialiior  prionmi  saecidorimi.  Jenae  173'J.  4.  S. 
Ejiistl,  Miscelian.  sacr.  Ainstelod.  1744.  4.  p.  487—509:  Marq. 
Giidii  de  Chnicis,  sen  Grabatariis  vet.  eccl. :  Mich.  Screiber.  de 
dilatione  baptistni.  Regiom,  170G.  4 :  A.  F.  Biisching  de  pro- 
crastinatioiie  baptisnii  apud  vet.  ejusque  caiisis.  Hal.  1747.  4; 

2.  Archaeolowie  p.  314. 

3.  Apol.  2.  p|).  G2,  94.  Dial.  c.  Tryph.  pp.  315,  2G2. 

4.  Lib.  i.  vision.  3.  c.  3.  lil>.  iii.  Siinii.  9,  n.  16. 

5.  Ep.  1.  ad  Corimh.  n.  17. 

6    Concil.  Carthag.  3.  c.  5.  Decret.  cod.    eccl.  Afric.  c.  18. 

7.  Gregor,  Naz.  Oral.  40.  De  Bapt. 

8.  Adv.  Maricon  lib.  v.  c.  10.  9.  Horn.  40.  in  Cor. 

10.  Haeres  28.  c.  6. 

11.  Concil.   Colon.    A.  D.  1281.  c.  4:    Cone.  Laod.  A.  D.  1287.  c.  2: 

Cone.  Turin.  A.  D.  1310,  c.  114. 

12.  Ep.  69.  ad  Magn. 

13.  Const,  apost.   lib.  viii.  c.  32:  Cone.  Illiber.  c.  37,  29  :    Araus.  1.  c. 

15,  etc. 

14.  Tiinoth.  Alex.  Respons.  c.  3:  Cassian.  Collat.  lib.  vii.  c.  30. 

15.  Cyprian  Ep.  76.  Angiistin.  De  adult.:  Conj.  lil).  i.  Confess,  lib.  iv. 

c.  4:  Cyril  of  Alexandria  in  Joann.  11:  Ftilgeiitius,  De  Bapt. 
Aeth.  c.  8  :  Euseb.  eccl.  hist.  lib.  vi.  c.  43:  Concil.  Neo.  Caesar. 
c.  12. 

16.  Bingham,  bk.  ii.  c.  5.  §  2. 

17.  S.  Gregor.  Tnron.  Hist.  Franc,  lib.  vi.  c.  17 :    S.  Caroli.  M.  Capi 

tul.  iii.  A.  D.  769:  Concil.  Toletan.  4.  c.  56. 

18.  Concil.  Cat  thag.  4.  c.  6.    Leo.  M.  Ep.  90,  92 :  ad  Rustic,  Gregor. 

IL  Ep.  1.  ad  Bonif 

19.  Const,  apost.  lib.  riii.  c.  32.  Tertull.  De  Idolat.  c.  2  :    De  Spectac, 

c.  22  :  adv.  Hertnog.  c.  7. 

20.  Cone,  IHiber.  c.  62  :    Cone.  Carthag.  3.  c.  35  :    Cyprian  Ep,  61  : 

Augiistin  De  Civ.  Dei.  II.  14. 

21.  Cone.  Arelat.  1.  c.  4:  Hieron.  Vit.  Hilar,  c.  13. 

22.  Cone.  Laodic.  c.  .36 :    Cone.  Trull,  c.  61  :    Chrysost,  Horn,  13,  in 

Ep.  ad  Eph, :  Horn.  8  in  Ep.  ad  Coloss, :  Horn  6  adv,  Jud, : 
Cone.  Tolet,  1,  c.  17. 

23.  Bingham,  bk,    ii.  c.  5.  §  6.  9. 

§  4.  jWnislers  of  Baplism,  p.  269. 

1.  Clemens  Alex.  Hypoth.  lib.  v. :  Nicephorus,  h.  e.  lib.  ii.  c.  3. 

2.  Ep.  ad  Smyr.  3.  De  Bapt.  c.  17. 

4l  Lib.  iii.  c.  2.    Comp.  also  Jerome  Dial:    adv.  Lucif,  c,  4.  Synod. 


508  INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES 

Roman. ad  Gall.  Ei)isc.  c.  7.  ed.  Hard.:  Concil.  Hispal.  2,  A.  D. 
619. 
5.  Justin  Martyr,  apol.  ].  c.  G7.  G.  Hieroii.  advr.  Pelag.  lib.  i. 

§  5.  Times  of  Baptism,  p.  273. 

1.  Natalis  Alexandri  Dissert,  de  baptisiiii  snlettinis  tempore.  S.  Tlie- 

saiir.  tlieol.  Venet.  1702.  4  :  Du  baptismate  pascl)ali  etc.  liber. 
ex  Omiphrii  Paiivinii  Veron.  commeutariis  :  cum  coroliariis  Joh. 
Marc.  Suaresii.  Romae,  155G.  4. 

2.  De  Bapt.  c.  19. 

3.  Leo  M.  Epist.  4.  ad  Sicil.  Ep.:    Siricius  Ep.  ad   Ilemmer.  c.  2 : 

Socrat.  e.  li.  lil).  i.  c.  5  :  Aiiibros.  de  Myst.  Pasclial.  c.  5:  Au- 
gustiu  Serm.  De  Temp.  IGO. 

4.  Concil.  Antissiodor,  A.  D.  578.  c.  18:    Concil.  Maliscon  2.  c.  3: 

Geiasius  Epist.  9. 

5.  Euseb.  Vit.  Constant,   lib.  iv.  c.  22.  comp.   c.  57:   Gregor.  Naz. 

Orat.  42.  Gregor.  Nyss.  Orat.  4 :  Socrat.  e.  h.  lib.  vii.  p.  5  :  Cy- 
rill  Hierosol.  Procatech.c.  15. 

6.  Op|).  torn.  ii.  p.  367  seq. 

7.  De  Bapt.  c.  19.  comp.  also  Basil.  M. :  Horn.  13,  Exiiortat.  ad  Bapt. 

Chrysostom  Iloni.  in  Act.:    Augustin  De  Quadrages.  Serin.  6. 

§  6.  Place  of  Baptism,  p.  273. 

1.  J.  II.  Wedderkanip  :  de  baptisteris.  Heimst.  1703.  8:  Paid  Pacia- 

ndi  de  sacris  Christianorum  balneis.  Venet.  1750.  ed.  2.  Rotn. 
1758.  4. 

2.  Apolog.  1.  c.  61.  3.  Horn.  9,  19.  4.  De  Bapt.  c.  4. 

5.  Gesta  S.  Marcelli  in  Surii  Vit.  S.  d.  16. 

6.  Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  x.  c.  4.  De  Vit.  S.  Const,  lib.  iii.  c.  50. 

7.  Catecb.  Mystag.  i.  ii.  :  ii.  i. 

8.  De  Init.  c'2,  5.  De  Sacram.  lib.  iii.  c.  2.  Ep.  33. 

9.  De  Civ.  Dei,  lib.  22.  c.  8.  10.  Duranli  Kit,  Eccl.  lib.  i.  c.  19. 

§  7.  Element  of  Baptism,  ]>.  274. 

1.  Tertull.  De  Bapt.  c.  3,  4,  5  :   Andiros.  De  Initlat.  mystar.  c.  4:  De 

Sacr.  lib.  iii.  c.  II  :  Cyprian  De  Bapt.  cbr.  c.  4  :  Basil  M.  in  Ps, 
23:  Gregor.  Naz.  Orat.  40  :  Cbrysost.  Hom.  35.  in  John  5.  Horn, 
in  Acts:  Augustin  Ep.  23.  ad  Bonif.  Tract,  ii.  in  John  :  Cyrill. 
Hieros.  Cateoh.  3.  c.  5  :  Job.  Dramas.  De  Fide.  ortb.  lil).  2.  c.  9. 

2.  Tertull.  De  BajJt.  c.  4:  Cyprian  Ep.  70:    Constit.  apost.  Iii).  7.  c. 

43:  Dyonis.  Aness.  De  Heir.  cat.  3.  Aml)ros.  De  Sacr.  1.  c.  5. 
2.  c.  5 :  Basil  M.  De  Spir.  S.  c.  27  :  Augustin.  De  ]]apt.  iii.  10. 
V.  2.  vi.  25. 

§  8.  Mode  and  Form  of  Baptism,  p.  275. 
I.  Heur.  Pontuni  Dissertatt.  de  rilu   uiersionis  in  sacro  bapt.      Tra- 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES.  509 

jecti  1705.  4 :  Jo.  Gill,  the  ancient  mode  of  baptizing  by  Inri- 
mersion,  etc.  Lond.  172(3.  8.  G.  Ge.  Zultner,  de  mersione  in 
ba|ilisiiio  ajiostolica  lai-j^^a  perfusione  iii'-tauraiida.  Aitd.  1720, 
1725.4:  Jo.  ]}ailliolini  dissert,  de  baptisnio  per  adspersionem 
legitime  aihninisiriito.   liavniae  1557.  4. 

2.  Brenner's  Gescliichtl.  Darstelhing  der  Verriclitiing  dcrTaufe,  etc. 

1818.  S.  1-70. 

3.  Muratori.  Liturg.  Rom.  Vet.  tom.  ii. 

4.  Adv.  Prav.  c.  2,  G.  De  Coron.  31  il.  c.  3. 

5.  De  Spiritu  Sancto.  c.  27. 

6.  Advr.  Lucif.  c.  4.  Comment,  in  Ep.  Epb.  4. 

7.  De  Sacr.  2.  c.  7. 

8.  Cyrill.  Hieros.  Catecli.  Mystag.  2.  c.  4  :  Gregor.  Nyss.  in  De  Bapt. 

Cbr.  Allianas.  De  Parabol.  Ser.  Quaest.  94:  Leo,  iMag.  Ep.  ad 
Episc.  Sic.  c.  3. 

9.  Gregor.  3Iag.  Ep.  lib.  i.  ep.  41.  10.  Cone.  Toletan.  4.  c.  5. 

11.  Ambros.  Ser.  20  :    Cyrill.  Hieros.  Cateeb.  Mystag.  2,  2  :  Cbrysos- 

tom  Mom.  C.  E[).  ad  Coloss.  Ep.  1.  ad  Iniiocinit  :  Atbanas.  Ep. 
ad  Orthodox  Com|).  Vass.  De  13api.  Disspiitat. 

12.  Leo  Allat.  Eccl.  Occid.   et  Orient.  Con.   lib.  iii.  c.  12,  §   4:    Alex. 

De  Sto'irdza.  Consideratione.s  siir  la  doctrine  et  I'esprit  de  I'eg- 
lise  Orthodoxe  :  Act.  et  Scri|)t.  Tlieol.  Wertemberget  Patriarch 
Constant.  Jerom.  p.  63.  p.  21^8:  Metrophan.  Crito|)uii  Confess. 
c.  7.  p.  86.  Comp.  Christ.  Angeli.  enchiriel  de  statu  hodiern. 
Graceor.  c.  24. 

13.  Ep.  76.  ed.  Oberth.  vol.  i.  p.  279,  280. 

14.  Jo.  Ciampini  monument.  Vet.  part  ii. :  Mal)illon.  Mus.  Ital.  tom.  i. 

Brenner's  Geschichll.  Darstell.  S.  14 — 16. 

15.  Walafr.  Strabo.  de  rebii.s  eccl.  c.  26. 

16.  Jo.  Gerhard,  Loc.  Thcol,  tom.  ix.  p.  146. 

17.  Sumina.  p.  3.  quaest.  G6.  art.  7.  ]&.  De  Bapt.  lib.  vi.  c.  25. 
19.  Apol.  1.  c.  61.              20.  De  Bapt.  c.  13.  Adv.  Praxeam.  c.  26. 

21.  Ep.  73.  ad  Jnbaj.  Opp.  tom.  i.  ed.  Oberth.  p.  233. 

22.  Apost.  Const,   lib.  iii.  c.  16.    Canon,  c.  49:  Comp.  Bingham,  bk. 

ii.  c.  3. 

23.  Am!)rose  De  Sacrament,  lib.  c.  ult. 

24.  Bingham,  bk.  ii.  c.  3.  §  3. 

§  9.  Rites  connected  icith  Baptism,    p.  278. 

1.  Ambrose   De  Sacrament,  lib.  ii.  c.  2.  De  Initiat.  c.  2:    Aiigustin. 

De  Synd)olo  ad  Catech.  lib.  ii.  c.  1  :  Hicron.  Com.  in  Amos,  6, 
14:  Gregor.  Naz.  Orat.  40.  De  Bapt.  j).  ()70,  ed.  Par.  Chrysost. 
Horn.  6.  in  E[).  ad  Colo.-s. :  Horn,  ad  pop.  Ant.  p.  2'i7.  Const, 
apost.  lib.  viii.  c.  41:  Justin  Martyr  Apol,  L  c.  61,  apol.  11,  p, 
93.  Bingham,  bk,  ii.  c.  7,  §  6 :  Jos.  Vieccomitis,  Do  Ritibns 
Bapt.  lib.  ii.  c.  27. 

2.  Mart.  Chladenii    dissert,    dc   abrenuntiationc    baptismali.    Viteb. 


510  INDEX  OF   AUTHORITIES. 

1713  4:  Th.  Stolle.  De  origine  Exorcismi  in  bapt.  Jenae, 
1735.  4:  Jo.  Clir.  Weriisdorf.  De  vera  ratione  exoicismorum 
eccl.  veteris.  Viteb.  1749.  4:  J.  M.  KrafFt's  aiisfiihrliche  His- 
torie  voin  Exorrismo.   Hamburg.  1750.  8. 

3.  Henke's  All.  Gescb.  tier  cbr.  Kircbe,  i.  97:  Stark's  Gesch.  des 

ersten  Jabr.  toin.  iii.  S.  203:  Sc^brockh's  cbr.  Kircbengiscb. 
torn.  iv.  S.  25  :  Optatus  Milevit  De  Scbisni  Donat.  lib.  xxiv.  c.  6  : 
Basil  M.  De  Spiritu  Sancto.  c.  27 :  Gregor.  Naz.  Oral.  40, 

4.  Augustin.  De  Fide,  ad  Catecbumen.  2.  1. 

5.  Cbryst.  Floin.  ad  Baptiz. :  Concil.  Constant.  Sub.  Menn.  act.  5. 

6.  Cyril).  Hieros.  Catecb.  Mystag.  i.  §  2  :   Pseudo  Dionys.   De  Hier- 

arcb.  Eccl.  c.  2:  Gregor.  Naz.  Orat.  40:  Ambrose,  De  Initial. 
c.  2  :  De  Myster.  c.  3:   Hieron.  in  Amos  6:  14. 

7.  Apost.  Constit.    lib.  vii.   c.  41  :  Tertuil.   De  Cor.   Mil.  c.  3 :  Cy- 

prian Ep.  vii.  De  Lapsis  :  Jerome,  Com.  in  Matl,  xxv. 

8.  Assemani  Codex.  Liturg.  lib.  ii.  c.  1.  §  1 — 5. 

9.  Apost.  Constit  lib.  iii.  c.    17  :  Cy|)rian.  Ad    Demet.   De  Unitate. 

Eccl. :  Cyprian.  Ep.  1.  al  Iviii. :  Hieron.  Ep.  cxiii. :  Augustin. 
Serin.  De  Temp.  101 :  Assemani  cod.  Liturg.  lib.  i.  p.  43. 

10.  Pseudo  Ambrosius.  De  Sacram.  lib.  i.  c.  2  :  Justin  Respons.  ad 

Ortbodox.  Quaest.  137:  Apost.  Constit.  lib.  ii.  c.  22. 

Ceremonies  after  Baptism,  p.  281. 

11.  Cyprian,  Ep.  64  al   59.:    Augustin.   contra.  Ep.   Pel.   iv.   c.  8 : 

Clirysost.  Ser.  50.  Util.  Leg.  Scri|)t. 

12.  Concil.  Araus.  c.  2  :  Innocent  I.  Ep.  ad  Decent.  Eugub.  Brenner. 

S.  97. 

13.  Cyrill.  Hieros.  Catecb.  Mystag.  vi.  §  8  :  Euseb.  Vit.  Const.  4.  62: 

Socrat.  h.  e.  5.  8  :  Sozomen,  b.  e.  7.  8  :  Gregor.  Naz.  Orat.  39: 
Paladins.  Vit.  Cbrysost.  c.  9  :  Jerome,  Ep.  57,  78,  128.  August. 
Serm.  232. 

14.  Gregor.    Orat.   40 :   Baron.    Annal.  401  :     Ainbros.     De     Laps. 

Virg.  Sacr.  c.  5:   Gregor.  Turon.  Hist.  Franc,  lib.  v.  c.  2. 

15.  Augustin.  (Caesar  Arelat.)  Serm.  160.  De  Temp. :  Assemani,  Cod. 

Lit.  lib.  ii.  p.  42:  Mabilion.  Mus.  Ital.  toin.  i.  Sacram.  Gallic. 

§  10.   Of  Sponsors,  p.  284. 

1.  De  Bapt.  c.  8. 

2.  Ep.  23.  ad  Bonif.  :    De  Peccator.  merit,  lib.  i.  c.  34 :    Serm. 

116  :  De  temp.  163:    De  Temp,  de  Bapt.  lib.iv.  c.  21. 

3.  Augustin.  Serm.  116:  De  Tem.  tom.  x.  p.  304  :  Epist.  23  ad  Bonif. 

4.  De  Hier.  Eccl.  c.  2.  5.   Horn,  in  Ps. 

6.  Hen.  Cyrop.  lil).  i.  c.  6  :  Tlieopbrast.  Etbic.  c.  12. 

7.  De  Hierarcb.  Eccl. 

8.  Serm.  163.  De  Temp.:    Comp.  116.  De  Temp.;    De  Bapt.  lib.  iv. 

c.  24:    Ep.  ad  Bonif.  De  Peccator.  merit,  lib.  i.  c.  34. 

9.  Bingham,  bk.  xi.  c.  8. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES.  '^'** 

10.  Angustin.  116.  De  Temp.  torn.  x.  p.  852. 

II     nionvs   Areop.  llicrarcli.  eccl.  c.  2.  .. 

12.  A.^Sn   EP  a.lBonif.23:  Vit.  Epipl..  c^8:  Opp.  torn.  n.  p.324. 

13.  CuMC.  Amissidor.  c.  25.  14.  Cone.  Mogunt.  c.  55. 

§  11.  JVames  given  at  Baptism,  p.  287. 
1.  D.  Mart.  Lutl.er's  Naluncn-BUchlein.  1537  :  Neu  e.jin  mi^  Arv- 
ineik.  voM  Godofr.  Wegener.  L.ps.  1674.  8  :  Jo.  Herir.  btnss, 
Den^-inum  n.utatione  sacra.  Goth.  1735.  4 :  II.  A.  Me.nder  , 
De  non.inibus  et  cognorninihus  Gernianorum  ct  a  .oru.n  popu- 
loriun  septentr.  vet.  S.  Miscell.  Lips.  ten.  v..  p.  1  «.«'l-  Cata- 
Incrus  no.ninn.n  pr.  in  Goldasti  Antiq.  Alenjann.  torn.  ".  p.92seq. 
2    Baron.  Annal.  A.  D.  259.  3.  Soc.  eecl.  hist,  hk  vn.  c,  21 

4    Cyril  H"^>"«-  P'-catech.  and  Catech.  3:    Gregor.  Nyss.  Orat.  .n 
cos.  qui  differ.  Bapt. :  Angustin.  Confess?,  lib.  ix. 

CHAPTER  XV. 

OF  CONFIRMATION,  p.  288. 

1    Godofr.  Wegener,  De  confirmatione   Ca  techumenorum   in   vet. 
'       eccl   Rc-ion..  1692.  4  :  Chr.  M.  Pfaff,  De  initiations, exp.al.one, 
benedictrone  et  confinnatione  Catechnmenoruni.   Tubnig.  17-^^. 
4  •  Frid   Spanhemii  Dissert,  de  ritu  impositionis  manuuni  in  vet. 
ec"cl.    S.  Opp.  torn.  ii.  p.  871  seq. :  Lnc.  Ilolstenii  Dissert.  ...  De 
forma    et    n.inistro   sacramen.i   Confi.-.naiionis  apud   G.-aecos 
Ron..  1666.  8  :  S.  Jo.  Morini  Opp.  posth.   Pans.  1/03.  4  :   Henr. 
Benzelii  De  sac.-amento  Confirmationis  Ron.anens.um.    b.  feyn- 
taa   Dissert   t.  ii.  1745.  4 :    Cin-.  M.  Pfaft;  Disse.-t.  de  confinna- 
tione Catechumen,  in  ecclesiis   Aug.  Conf.  usitata   .temque  de 
confirn.at.Anslicana.  Tubing.  1723.4  :  F.-.  Brenner  s  gesch.cht- 
liche  Darstollung  der  Ve.richtung  der  Firmung,  von  Chr.stus 
bis  auf  unsere  Zeiten,  mit  bestandiger  Rucksicht  auf  Deutsch- 
land  und  besonders  auf  Franken.  Bamberg  u.  Wurzb.  1820.  8. 
2    Hist.  eccl.  lib.  iii.  c.  23. 

3.  De  Bapt.  c.  7.  8  :    De  Resu.Tec.  earn,  c  8.    .       ^.        _        ^„      , 

4.  Sent.  Episcoporum,  87  :  De  Haereticis  baplizandis:   Opp.  74.  ad 

Stei)h.  ,  ...       ..         .r, 

5    Cyrili.  Hieros.  Catech.  Mystag.  3.  1  :  Const.  Apost.  lib.  vn.  c.  43. 
44  •  Oi.tat.  Milen.  de  Schism.  Donat.  lib.  .v. 

6.  Bingham,  bk.  ii.  c.  1.  sU.  2 :  Gennad.  De  Dogmat.  :   Jo.  Dalleus. 

lib.  iii.  c.  13 :  Eccles.  c.  52.  ^    ^  .   .    ,..  o« 

7.  Chrysost.  Horn.  18.  in  Acts:    Augustin.  De  Tr.nit.  l.b.  xv.  c.  26: 

Com]).  Cyprian,  Ep.  73.  ad  Jubaj. 

8.  Cone,  liliber.  c.  38.  77  :    Cone.  Carthag.  ii.  c  3  :   m.  c.  36  :    iv.  c. 

36  :  Cone.  Tolet.  i.  c.  20. 

9.  Ed.  Martene.  De  Antiq.  Eccl.  Rit.  lib.  i.  c  2.  art.  4  :     Assemani, 

Cod.  Liturg.  Eccl.  Uuivers.  lib,  iii. 


512  INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES. 

10.  Lib.  iii.  p..  17  :  vii.  c.  22.  44.  45. 

11.  Catech.  Mysta^.  3. 

12.  Innocent.  E|).  1.  ad  Decent,  c.3:  Martin  Biucliaren.  c. 52  :  Cone, 

Constant,  i.  c.  7. 

\ 
CHAPTER   XVI. 

OF   THK  lord's   SUPPER. 

§  1.  JVames  and  ^Appellations,  p.  299. 

1.  Suiceri  Ohservatt.  sacr.  p.  91  :  Casauboni  Exercit.  16.  ad  Baronii. 

annal.  p.  450  seq. :  Jo.  Gerhardi  Loc.  theol,  torn.  x.  p.  3. 

2.  Ad  uxor.  lib.  ii.  c.  4. 

3.  Jo.  Gerbaid.  Loc.  theol.  torn.  x.  j).  4,  5  :  Corpus  juris  eccl.  Saxon. 

S.  13G,  137. 

4.  Justin  Martyr,  Apol.  i.  c.  65,  66.  p.  220  :  Iren.  adv.  liaeres.  lib.  iv. 

c.  -34  :  Clem.  Al.  paedag.  lib.  ii.  c.  2.  p,  178. 

5.  Constitut.  Apost,  lib.  viii.  c.  13. 

6.  Cbr.  Mattli.  Pfaff.  notae  in    Irenaei  fragmenta  anecdota.  Hagae, 

1715.  8.  p.  128. 

7.  De  ilierarch.  eccl.  c.3.  8.  Jo.  Gerhard,  x.  p.  8. 

9.  Bona,  Rer.  liturg.  lib.  ii.  c.  1.  p.  2.  ed.  Colon.:  J.  Steph.  Duranti. 
Do  Rit.  eccl.  cath.  lil).  xxi.  1  :  Gerhard.  Loc.  Theol.  x.  p.  10: 
Isidor.  Ilispal.  etyniol.  lib.  vi.  c.  19:  Guil.  Durandi  Ration,  div. 
off.  lib.  iv.  c.  1. 

§  2.  Accounts  given  in  the  J^civ  Testament,  p.  298, 

1.  Matth.  de  la  Roque,  Histoire  meniorabie  et  interessante  de  1'  Eu- 

charistie.  Ed.  nouv.  Anisterd.  1737.  8  :  Rud.  Hospiniani  His- 
toriae  sarraineutariae.  P.  1,  2.  Genev.  1681.  f.  :  Dav.  Blonde), 
De  Eucharistia  vet.  eccl.  1640.  4  :  J.  A.  Quenstedt,  De  s.  Eu- 
charistiae  in  primitiva  eccl.  usitata.  1715.8:  Fr.  Brenner's 
Geschiclitliche  Darslellung  der  V^errichtung  und  Ausspendung 
der  Eucharistic,  von  Christus  bis  auf  unsere  2eitea  u.  s.  w. 
Batnberg.  1824.  8. 

2.  Efiiphanius,  Haeres.  70.  3.   Hotn.  83  in  INIath. 

4.  De  Doctrina  Christ,  lib.  ii.  c.  9:  J.  Fr.  Biiddeus,  Inst,  theol.  Dogin. 

p.  .369 :  Gerhard.  Loc.  Tlieol.  toni.  x.  p.  387 :  Witsius,  On  Cov- 
enant, lib.  ii.  c.  10. 

5.  Gerhard,  toiii.  x.  p.  393:    J.  S.  Baumgarten.  Dissert,  de  Juda  sa- 

crae.  coenae.  conviva.  Hal.  1744.  4  :  Guil.  Saldini  Otior.  theol. 
lib.  ii.  exercit.  viii.  p.  376. 

6.  c.  41.  p.  106—108:    c.  117.  p.  300,  ed.  Oberth. 

§  3.   Testimovy  of  pagan  Writers,  p.  300. 
L  De  Morte  Perigrini.  Opj).  torn.  viii.  272  ed  Bipont. 


INDEX  OF  AtJTHOHITIES. 


513 


2.  Contra  Celsum.  lib.  i.  c.  1. 

3.  Chr.   Kortolt.  Pagaiius  Obtrectator.    Lnbec.  1703.  4.    lib.  ii.  c.  9  : 

lib.  iii.  c.  9:  G.  Fr.  Gtidii,  Paganus  Chiistianorum  laudator  et 
fainor.  Lips.  1740.  p.  17,  18  ;  J.  H.  Boehrner,  Diss.  xii.  De  Ju- 
ris eccles.  autiqui :  Dissertat.  iv.  De  Coitionibus  Cbristianorum, 
adcapiondurn  cibuin:  Stuckii  Antiq.  convivial.  1.  i.  c,  31  :  Dal- 
laeus,  De  Cult,  relig.  lib.  iii.  c.  x. 

§  4.   Testimony  of  the  Apostolical  Fcdhers,  p.  300. 

1.  Adv.  Haer.  lib.  iv.  c.  18.  c.  17. 

2.  Munsclier,  ii.  380  :   Irenaei  Fragmenta  Anecdota  :   M.  PfafF.  Hag. 

Com.  1715.  8  :  Fragment.  2.  pp.  26—28  :  Innaeus,  Adv.  Haeres. 
lib.  i.  c.  13 :  V.  c.  2. 

3.  Paedag.  lib.  ii.  4.  Horn,  in  Exod.   H,  13. 

5.  De  Corona  Militis.  c.  3:    De  Resurrectione  Carnis.  c.  1  :    Comp. 

Apologet.  c.  39. 

6.  Ep.  63.   ad  Caecilium  De   Sacrament.  Domini  calicis.  0pp.  ed. 

Oberth.  torn.  i.  p.  185—96  :  De  Oral.  Domini,  p.  147.  ed.  Brem. : 
De  Lapsis,  p.  132 :  Ep.  75 :  De  bono  patient,  p.  216  :  Ep.  58. 
p.  125. 

7.  Cyrill.  Uieros.  Catech.  Mystag.  v.  c.  18  :  Ambros.  De  sacr.  lib.iv. 

c.  5:  De  Init,  c,  9:  Augustin.  c.  Faust,  xii.  c.  10 :  Hieron. 
Ep.  62,  etc. 

8.  Lib.  ii.  c.28,  57:  lib.  iii.  c.  10  :  lib.  v.  c.  19. 

9.  Lib.  vii.  c.  25 :  lib.  viii.  c.  12 — 15. 

§  5.   Times  of  Celebration,  p.  304. 

1.  Serm.  8.  in  Ps.  118.  2.  Ep.  118.  ad  Jan.  c.  5—7. 

3.  Ad  Uxor.  lib.  ii.  c.  4. 

4.  Amalarius,  De  divin.  Offic.  lib,  iv.  c.  30. 

5.  Canones  Apost. :    Hieronymiis  contra  Vigilant,  c.  4,  7 :    Innocent 

III.  De  Myster.  Miss.  lib.  ii.  c.21. 

6.  See  chap.  i.  §1:  Comp.  J.  H.  Boemer,  Dissert.  12.  juris  eccl.  ant. : 

Dissert,  i.  De  stato  Cbristianorum  die.  p.  5 — 35. 

7.  Ad  Nation,  lib.  i.  c.  13.  8.  Apol.  i.  c.  67. 
9.  Advr.  Haeres.  lib.  iv.  c.  34. 

10.  Tertullian.  De  Jcjun.  c.  14  :  De  Idol.  c.  7  :  Cyprian.  Ep.  54  :  Am- 

bros. Ep.  14  :  Marcell.  sor. :  Augustin.  Ep.  1 18.  ad  Januar.  c.  2: 
ibid.  c.  3:  Chrysostom.  Horn.  3.  in  Ep.  ad  Eph.  torn.  v.  p.  886. 
ed.  Francof. :  see  also  p.  633. 

§  6.  Place  of  Celebration,  p.  306. 

I.  Balthas.  Bebelii,  Exercit.  de  aris  et  niensis  eucharisticis  veterum. 
Argentor.  1666.  4  :  Jo.  Fabricii,  De  aris  vet.  Christian.  Hclmst. 
1698.  4  :    Godofr.  Voigtii,  Thysiasteriologia,  s.  de  altaribus  vet. 
Chr.  Edit. :  J.  A.  Fabricii.  Hamb.  1709.  8. 
65 


514  INDEX  OP  ATTTHORITIES. 

2.  Concil.  Epaon.  c.  26. 

3.  De  Schismat.  Donat.  lib.  vi.  c.  1  seq. 

4.  Victor.  De  Persec.  Vandal,  lib.  i:    Isidor.  Peliis.  lib.  i.  Ep.  123: 

Pallad.  Hist.  Laus.  Tlieod.  i.  31. 

§  7.  Ministers  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  p.  307. 

1.  Hugonis  Grotii,  De  administratione  S.  Coeiiae,  ubi  pastores  non 

sunt,  et  an  semper  cominiinicandiim  sit  per  symbola?  1638: 
S.  H.  Grotii,  Opp.  theol.  torn.  iv.  p.  505  seq.  :  Dionys.  Petavii, 
Diatribe  de  |)otestate  consecrandi  et  sacrificandi  sacerdotibus  a 
Deo  concessa.  Paris.  1640.  S.  de  Thool.  dogniat.  torn.  iv.  ed. 
Clerici  p.  206  seq. :  Jo.  Harduini,  Dissert,  de  potestate  conse- 
crandi. S.  Opp.  sel.  J).  300  seq.  :  Henr.  Dodwelli,  De  jure  Lai- 
coruin  sacerdotali,  etc.  Lend.  1685.  4:  Jo.  Ge.  Walch,  De  S. 
Coena  a  Laicis  administranda.    Jen.  1747.  4, 

2.  Apol.  i.  C.65.  p.  220.  3.  Ep.  ad  Smyrn. 

4.  Lib.  viii.  c.  13. 

5.  Catech.  Mystag.  cat.  5  :    Pseudo  Dionys.  Areop.  De  Hier.  Eccl. 

c.  8. 

6.  Gregor.  M.  Ep.   lib.  viii.  ep.  35  :    Surii  Vit.  SS.  a.  d.  26.    Mart. 

c.  33. 

7.  Diatr.  De  synod,  epist.  synod.  Illyr.  S. :    Petr.  De  Maria  Dissertat. 

Sel.  torn.  iv.  p.  336.  4.  ed.  Bamberg. 

8.  Constitut.    Apost.    lib.  viii.  13:     Cone.    Tolet.  i.  c.  14 :     Ambro- 

sius,  De  ofRc.  lib.  i.  c.  41  :  Hieron.  Ad  Evagr.  ep.  85. 

9.  Cone.  Arelat.   c.  15:    Cone.  Nic.   c.  18  :    Hieron.   Dialog,  contr. 

Lucif.  Epist.  85:    Angustin.  Quaest.  v.  et  N.  T.  c.  46. 

10.  Litiirgia  S.  Baseiii  by  Renaiidot :  Liturg.  Orient,  torn.  i.  P.  1.  p.  26 : 

torn.  ii.  p.  1, 47  :  Gavanti  Tliesaur.  toni.  i.  p.  136  :  Augustin.  Ep. 
118.  Ad  Januar.  c.  vi :  Socrat.  h.  e.  lib.  v.  c.  21. 

11.  Duranti.  De  rit.  cath.  lib,  ii.  c.  28  :    Cyrill.  Catech.  Mystag.  v.  §  2. 

Const.  Apost.  lib.  viii.  c.  11. 

§  8.   Of  Communicants,  p.  308. 

1.  Jo.  Fechtii,  Tractat.  de  excommunicatione  ecclesiastica.  1712.  4 

J.  F.  Meyer,  De  Eucharistia  infantibus  olim  data.  Lips.  1673.  4 
Petr.  Zornii,  Historia  Eucharistiae  infantum.  Berol.  1737.  8 
Chr.  Eberh.  Weissmann,  De  praepostera  Eucharistiae  infantum 
in  Eccl.  reductione.  Tul)iiig.  1744.  4  :  Jo.  Andr.  Gleich,  De  S. 
Eucharistia  nioribuniiis  et  niortnis  olim  data.  Viteb.  1690.  4  : 
J.  A.  Schmidt,  De  Eucharistia  Mortuorum.  Jenae,  1695.  4 : 
Cf  Ejusd.  Decas  Dissertat.  iiistor.  iheol.  Dissert,  i. 

2.  Bk.  viii.  c.  11,  12. 

3.  Canones  Apost.  c.  x.  p.  443.  ed.  Cotel. :  Comp.  can.  7  :  Cone.  An- 

tioch.  c.  2. 

4.  Horn.  3.  in  Ep.  ad  Eph. :   Caesarius  Arelat.  serm.  5. 

5.  Cone.  Agath.  c.  44 :  Cone.  Aurelian.  i.  c.  28. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES.  515 

6.  Cyprian.  Ep.  64.  p.  158,  161.  ed.  Brem.:    De  Lapsis,  p.  132.  ed. 

Bretn. :  Constitiit.  Apost.  lib.  viii.  c.  12,13:  Dionys.  Areop. 
De  Hieiarch.  Eccl.  c.  7.  §  11. 

7.  Angiistin.  Ep.  23.  ad  Boiiif.  epist.  lOG:  Contra  duas  Epist.  Peiag. 

lib.  i.  C.22:  Serin.  8.  Do  Verb.  Apost. :  Comp.Bingliain,  bk.  15. 
c.  4.  §  7. 

8.  Al.  Atotirdza,  Considerat.  sur  la  doctrine  et  I'esprit  de  I'Eglise 

Orthodoxe,  1816. 

9.  Clirysostntn.  Horn.  40.  in  Cor. :    Concil.  Carlhag.  iii.  c.6:  Antis- 

sidor.  c.  12:    Trull,  c.  83  :  Cod.  African,  c.  18. 

10.  Cyprian.  Epii.  5:  Grogor.  Naz.  Orat.  VJ.  §  II.    Philost.  Hist.  Eccl. 

lib.  ii,  c.  3. 

11.  Tertull.  Ad  uxor.  lib.  ii.  c.  5:     Concil.  Cartb.  iii.  c.  41  :    Augus- 

tin.  Epist.  118.  ad  Jaiiuar.  c.  5,  6:  Pascbas.  Ratbert.  De  cor- 
pore  et  sanguine  Domini,  c.  20, 

12.  Concil.  Antissidor.  c.  36.  42. 

13.  Caesar  Arletan  serm.  152.  al.  229. 

14.  Constit.  Apost.  lib.  viii.  c.  12. 

15.  Constit.  Apost.  lib.  viii. c.  12:  lib.  ii..57:  Auguslin.  De  Serm.Dom. 

in  Monte,  lib.  ii.  c.  5  :  Basil  IM.  De  Spiritu  Sancto,  c.  27. 

16.  Constitut.  Apost.  viii.  c.  13. 

17.  Cone.  Laodic.  c.  19.  c.  44  :  Trullan.  c.69:  Cyprian,  ep. 52. 68. 72. 

18.  Psendo-Ambros.  De  Sacrani.  lib.  iv.  c.  5  :    Augustin.  contr.  Faust. 

lib.  xii.  c.  10.  Serm.  De  Verb.  Apost.  c.  29  :  Euseb.  h.  e.  7:  9 ; 
conip.  6:  43. 

19.  Const.  Apost.  lib,  viii.  c.  14,  15. 

20.  Basnage,  I'Histoire  de  I'Eglisse,  lib,  xvii,  c,  1,  3:  J.  F,  Cotta,  Sup- 

plem,  ad  Jo,  Gerhard,  Loc,  Tbeol.  torn.  x.  459  seq,  p,  463. 

§  9.   Of  the  Elements,  p.  314. 

1.  J.  Fr.  Budeus,  De  Symbolis  Eucliaristicis. — Parerga  Hist.  Theol. : 

J.  G.  Hermann,  Historia  concertationum  de  pane  azymo  et  fer- 
mentato  in  Coena  Domini :  Kortholt,  C.  Dissertat.  de  Hostiis  s. 
placentnlis  orbicularibus,  niitn  varus  sit  Panis  ?  J.  A.  Schmidt, 
De  01)lalis  Eucharisticis  quae  Hostiae  vocari  solent :  J.  A. 
Schmidt,  Dissert.de  fatis  calicis  Eucbaristici  in  Ecclesia  Romana 
a  ConcilioConstantiensi  ad  nostra  usque  Tempora  :  L.  T.  Spit- 
tier,  Geschichte  des  Kelche  in  Abendmahle. 

2.  Bochart,  Hieroz.   P.  1.  lib.  ii.  c.  12  :    Buxtorf.  Dissert,  de  Coena 

Domini,  Tbcs.  20. 

3.  Cyprian.   Ep.  63.  ad  Caecileum   de  sacramento  Domini  Calicis, 

Augustin.  De  Doctr.  Christi,  lib.  iv,  c.  21. 

4.  Iren,  adv,  Haeres.  lib.  iv.  c.  57  :  Cone.  Carthag.  3.  c.  24. 

5.  Bellarmin.De  Sacram.  Eiichar.  lib.  iv.  c.  10  :  Cone.  Bracar.  3.  (al. 

4.)  i.  c.  1  :  Cone.  Tribur.  c.  19:  Cone.  Trull.  2.  c.  32. 

6.  Jac.  Goari.  Eucholog.  Gr.  ad  missam.  Chrysost.  n.  167:    Arcudii, 

Concord,  lib.  iii.  c.  39:  Tbom.  Aquin.  Summa,  part  iii.  Quaest. 
83,  art.  6:  Bona,  Rer.  Liturg.  lib.  ii.  c.  9.  §.  4. 


516  INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES. 

§  10.  Consecration  of  the  Elements,  p.  317. 

1.  Micrologus,  c.  12  :  Berno,  De  missa.  c.  1 :  Steph.  Durantus,  De  Rit. 

eccl.  cath.  lib.  ii,  c.  18 — 28  :  Giiil.  Diirandus,  Ration,  div.  Offic. 
lih,  iv.  c.  35,  36 :  Chr.  M.  Pfaff,  Dissert,  de  consecratione  vet. 
eucharistica.:  J.  Fr.  Cotta.  Ad  Gerhardi,  Loc.  Tiieol.  torn.  x.  p. 
264. 

2.  Steph.  Diiranti,  De  elevationeetostensione  Eucharistiae:  S.  Ejiisd. 

De  ritil).  eccl.  eathol.  lib.  ii.  c.  40.  p.  673  seq. :  Carol,  de  Lith. 
de  adoratione  panis  conseciati  et  interdictione  sacri  calicis  in 
Eucharistia.  Suobac.  1753.  8. 

§  11.  Distribution  of  the  Elements,  p.  317. 

1.  J.  Ge.  Calixti,  Liber  de   comnmnione  sub   utraque  specie,  etc. 

Helmst.  1642.  8  :  J.  A.  Schniid,  De  fatis  calicis  cucliaristici. 
Helnistad.  1708.  4  :  L.  Tb.  Spittler's  Geschicbte  des  Kelchs  im 
Abendmahl.  Leriigo,  1780.  8  :  Chr.  Sonntag,  De  intinctione  pa- 
nis eucbaristici  in  viiuitii.  Altb.  1635.  4:  Jo.  Vogt,  Historia  fis- 
tulae  eucbaristicae.  Brem.  1740.  ed.  2.  1771.  8:  Jo.  Cbr.  Koe- 
cber,  Historia  fistularurn  eucbarislicaruni.  Osnabr.  1741.  4  :  S. 
M.  C  .  .  .  de  ritu  vet.  formulae  adplicativae  individualis  in  S. 
Coena.  Lubec.  1741.  4. 

2.  Cone.  Laodic.  c.  19,  44. 

3.  Tertull.  De  Spectac.  c.  25  :     Euseb.  h.  e.  6.  43:     Cyrill.  Hieros. 

Catecb.  Mystag.  5.  §  18  :  Anibros.  De  Sacram.  lib.  iv.  c.  5.  De 
Init.  c.  9 :  August.  Contra  Faust,  lib.  xii.  c.  10. 

4.  Bona,  Rer.  Lit.  lib.  ii.  c.  17. 

5.  Muratorii,  Antiq.  Ital.  Med.  Revi.  torn.  iv.  p.  178. 

6.  Tertull.  De  Orat.  c.  14.    Ad  Uxor.  ii.  c.  5  :    Cyprian,  De  Laps.  c. 

7  :  Basil  M.  Ep.  289 :  Hieron.  Ep.  05:  Cone.  Caesaraugust.  c.  3  : 
Cone.  Tolet.  1.  c.  14  :  Tolet.  11.  c.  11. 

§  12.  Accompanying  Rites. 
1.  Psalmody  at  the  Sacrament,  p.  323. 

1.  Lib.  viii.  c.  13.  Hieron.  Ep.  28 :  Cyrill.  Hieros.  Catech.  Mystag.  5. 

§17. 

2.  Hieron.  Ep.  28.  ad  Lucin. :    Tertull.  De  Jejun.  c.  13:    Augustin. 

Tract,  in  Ps.  133  :  Cotel.  Ad  Const,  apost.  8.  c.  13 :  Chrysost.  in 
Ps.  144.  torn.  iii.  p.  516. 

2.  Kiss  of  Charity,  p.  323. 

3.  Petr.  Miiller,  De  osculo  sancto.    Jon.  1675.    1701.  4:    De  osculis 

Cbristianorum  vet.  Dissert,  in  Tob.  Pfanneri  Observat.  eccles. 
torn.  ii.  diss.  3  :  J.  Gotlfr.  Lange,  Voni  Friedens-Kuss  der  alten 
Christen.  Leipz.  1747.  4. 

4.  Apost.  Const,  viii.  c.  11 :    Origan,  Comment,  in  Ep.  ad  Rom.  lib. 

X.  c.  33:  Tertull.  ad  Uxor.  lib.  ii.  c.  4:  Clemens.  Alex.  Paedag. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES.  517 

lib.  iii.  c.  11 :  Athenagoras,  Legal,  c.  32  :  Amalarii,  De  eccl.  offic. 
lib.  iii.  C.37. 

3.  Incense  and  Sign  of  the  Cross,  p.  324. 

5.  De  Spir.  S.  ad  Amphil.  c.  27. 

6.  Demeristr.  quod  Cliristiis.  sit.  Deus,  c.  9. 

7.  Tract.  118,  in  Joan.  8.  Lib.  viii.  c,  12. 

§  13.   Of  the  Agapae,  p.  325. 

Jo.  Hilberti,  Disput.  de  Agapis  :  C.  S.  Schurtzfleisch,  (J.  F.  Creitlov.) 
De  veter.  Agaparum  ritu  :  J.  A.  Muratori,  De  Agapis  suhlatis,  in 
Anecdot.  Graee. :  J.  H.  Boehmeri,  De  Coitionib.  Christianoriim  ad 
capiendum  cibiim,  in  Dissertatt.  Juris  Ecclesiast.  Antiquiss. :  Quis- 
torp,  De  Aga|)is  nascentis  Ecclesiae :  J.  Moeriin,  De  Agapis  vett. 
Christian.  :  G.  Scblegel  De  Agajtis  aetate  Aj)ostolorum  :  J.  Th.  Fr. 
Dresclier,  De  veter.  Christ.  Aga[)is  Comment. 

1.  Justin  Martyr,  Apol.  1.  c.  67  :  Hieronym.  Comment,  in  1  Cor.  xi. 

Ciwysost.  Horn.  27  in  1.  Cor. 

2.  Clem.  Alex.   Paed.  lib.  ii.  c.  1  :    Augustin.  E)).  64  :    contr.  Faust. 

lib.  XX.  c.  21  :  Confess,  lib.  vi.  c.  2  :  Chrysost.  Horn.  27  in  1  Cor. 
11  :  Greg.  Naz.  Praecept.  ad  Virgin. 

3.  Augustin.  Ep.  64.  ad   Aurel.  :    Cone.  Laod.  cir.  A.  D.  .364,  c.  28: 

Cone.  Carthag.  A.  D.  397 :    Cone.  Aurel.  ii.  c.  12 :  Cone.  Trul- 
lan.  c.  74. 

4.  Justin  Martyr,  Apol.  ii :  see  also  1  Cor.  xii. 

5.  Cyprian.  Ep.  de   Spectac. :     Tertull.   DeCoron.  c.  3:      Socrat. 

Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  V.  c.22. 

6.  Justin  Mart.  Apol.  ii  :  Origen.  in  Ep.  ad  Rom.  16:  16. 

7.  Clem.  Alex.  Paedagog.  ii.  1,  2.  8.  Tertull.  Apol.  c.  39. 
9.  Justin  3Iart.  Apol.  ii.  c.  97.            10.  Cyprian.  De  Lapsis. 

11.  Chrysostom,   Ad    1  Cor.  xi.  Hom.  54,   and   Horn.  22  on  the  text 

Oportet  haereses  esse. 

12.  Acts  20:  7  :    Tertull.  Ad  Uxor.  lib.  ii:  Cyprian.  De  Orat.  Domini. 

13.  Cone.  Aurelian.  ii.  A.  D.  535  :   Cone.  Trullan.  A.  D.  692. 

14.  Theodoret.  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  iii.  c.  15:  Evang,  Verit.  viii.  p.  633— 4, 

ed.  Schultz. 

CHAPTER   XVII. 

OF  THE  DISCIPLINE   OF  THE  ANCIENT   CHURCH. 

§  Origin  of  Penance,  p.  3.32. 

1.  S.  Flugge's  Beytrag  zur  Gesch.  der  Rel.  und  Theol.  Th.  ii.  1798. 
8.  S.  3 — 248  :  J.  Chr.  Ernesti,  De  antique  Excommunicationis 
ritu.  Viteb.  S.  a.  4  :  Krause,  De  Lapsis  primae  ecclesiae.  Lips. 
1706.  4  :  Chr.  F.  Quell,  De  Excommunicationis  originc  inanii- 
qua  ecclesia.  Lips.  1759.  4. 


518  INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES. 

2.  De  Peonitentia,  c.  8. 

3.  D.  Gratz,  Disquisit.  in  Past.  Hermas.  4.  P.  III.  Simil.  G— 8, 

5.  P.  III.  Sitnil.  G:  Coinp.  Bellarmin,  P.  I.  1820.4.  p.  9  :  De  Scrip- 

tor,  eccl.  p.  27. 

6.  Coinp.  Neander,  Geist.  des  Tertuliianus.  Berlin,  1825.  8.  p.  220. 

7.  Epist.  10,  13,  25,  46,  48,  54,  etc.  8.  Stromal,  lib.  ii.  c.  13. 
9.  Biblioth.  torn.  i.  p.  216:  Vgl.  pp.350,  351. 

§  3.  Subjects  of  Penance,  p.  337. 

1.  Cyprian,  Epist.  52,  31. 

2.  Cyjirian,  Epist.  55,  67  :  Pfanner,  Observat.  eccl.  P.  1.  Obs.  3. 

3.  Angustin.  De  Baptism,  contr.  Donalist.  lib.  vii.  c.  2:  Concil.  Are- 

lat.  i.  c.  13. 

§  4.  Different  Classes  of  Penitents,  p.  338. 

J.  Concil.  Ancyran.  c.  4 — 6,  9:  Coucil.  Nicaen.  c.  11 — 14:    Concil. 
Laodic.  c.  2,  19. 

2.  De  Poenit.  c,  9  :  De  Pud.  c.  13  :  Basil,  can.  22:  Ambros.  ad  Virg. 

Laps.  c.  8  :  Eiiseb.  h.  e.  lib.  v.  c.  28  :  Socrat.  h.  e.  lib.i  ii.  c.  13. 

3.  Can.  75  :  Concil.  Nic.  c.  11,  12.  4.  Chr.  Beger.  p.  40. 

5.  Concil.  Laodic.  c.  19:  Concil.  Nice.  11. 

6.  Concil,  Nic.  c  11 :  Concil.  Aiicyr.  c.  4. 

§  5.  Duties  of  Penitents,  p.  340. 

1.  Ep.  xlvi.  p.  107.  Comp.  De  Lapsis  p.  325,  326. 
2    Concil.   Toletan.  iii.  c.   12:    Concil.   Agath.  c.  15.    Ambros.  ad 
Virg.  Laps.  c.  8. 

3.  Sozom,  h.  e.  lib.  vii.  c.  16:     Hieron.  in  Joel,  c.  ii. :    Ambros.  De 

Poenit.  lib.  ii.  c.  40 :  Concil.  Arelat.  c.  21. 

4.  Concil.  Carthag.  iv.  c.  82.  5.  Carthag.  iv.  c.  81. 

§  6.  Readmission  of  Penitents,  p.  342. 

1.  Concil.  Nic.  c.  12:  Ancyr.  c.  5  :  Herd.  c.  5  :  Chalced.  c.  16. 

2.  Chrysost.  Hom.  xiv.  in  2  Cor.  p.  644:  Concil.  llliberit.  c.  3,  5, 14  : 

Albaspinaei,  Observat.  lib.  ii.  c.  30. 

3.  Concil.   Nic.  c.  13:    Concil.  Carthag.  ii.  c.  3,  4  :    iv.  c.  76 — 79: 

Pertschen's  Vers,  einer   Kirchenliist.  des  iv.  Jahr.  Th.  ii.  S.  322. 

4.  Concil.  Carthag.  iv.  c.  68:  Aurelian.  iii.  c.  6:  Agath.  c.  43:  To- 

letan. i.  c.  2,  etc. :  A  post.  Can.  c.  3  seq. 

5.  Concil.  llliberit.  c.  53  :  Arelat.  i.  c.  16, 17  :  Nic.  c.  5 :  Sardic.  c.  13. 

6.  Concil.  Caesaraug.  c.  5  :  Carthag.  ii.  c.  7  . 

7.  Concil.  Tolet.  i.  c.  11  :    Theodoret.  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  iv.  c.  9 :  Au 

gijstin.  contr.  Petil.  lib.  iii.  c.  38. 

8.  A  post.  Constit.  lib.  ii.  c.  26  :  Agustin.  De  Bapt.  iii.  c.  16  :  De  Pec- 

cator.  merit,  et  rem.  lib.  ii.  c.  26. 

9.  Hieron.  Comment,  in  Matt.  xvi. :  Cyrill.  Alex.  Joann.  20.  lib.  12. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES.  519 

10.  Basil,  M.  Ep.  G3.  0pp.  torn.  iii.  p.  96 :  Athanas.  Ep.  .-.d  Marcell. 
De  Interpr.  Psalm,  totn.  i.  p.  975. 

§  7.  Private  Penance,  p.  344. 

1.  Gabriel  Albaspinaeus,  Observat.  Eccl.  lil).  ii.  c.  26 :  Basil.  M.  in 
Ps.  37:  8  :  Chrysost.  Horn.  xxxi.  in  Ep.  ad  Hel). :  Socrat.  Hist. 
Eccl.  lib.  V.  c.  19  :  Sozotn.  Hist.  Eccl.  vii.  16  :  Biiigliam,  Antiq. 
bk.  xviii.  c.  3.  §11:  Scliroeck,  Kirchensgeschichte,  iv.  318 — 321. 

§  8.   Of  Councils,  356. 

1.  Ziegler's  Vers,  einer  kritisch  pragmat.  Darstelliing  des  Urspnings 

der  Kirchensynoden  und  der  Aiisbihiung  der  Synodalverf.  in 
den  ersten  drei  Jahrli.  in  llenke's  neiiern  Magaz.  f  iir  Religions. 
Philos.  bd.  i.  St.  i.  p.  125  :  Schrcickh  ThI.  iii.  p.  143—149.  ThI. 
V.  p.  Ill  :  Schone's  Gescbiclitsforschnngen  1  r.  bd.  p.  307 — 
372.  3  r.  bd.  p.  340—378  :  Freitniitliige  Gedanken  iider  Syno- 
den  der  alten  nnd  neuesten  Zeit.  In  der  Jenaer  Opposition- 
scbr.  i.  4.  p.  505.  ff. :  J.  Cp.  Greiling  liber  die  Urverfass.  der 
apost.  Christensetn.  oder  bibl.  Winke  fiir  die  evang.  Synoden. 
Halberst.  1819.  8:  K.  H.  Sack  de  optima  ecclesiae  christ.  con- 
stitutione.  In  sein.  Commentatt.  nd  hist.  eccl.  Bonn.  1822.  8  : 
Bretschneider  und  R.  J.  Meyer,  ob  die  Kircbenverfass.  z.  Z.  der 
App.  e.  detnokrat.  od.  e.  aristokrat.  od.  vvelche  sonst  gewesen  sei 
11.  In  Allg.  Khz.  1833.  Nr.  103—100,  182.  vergl.  Schlatter 
ebendas.  1834.  Nr.  47  :  G.  B.  Schtdtze  Darstell.  der  Form  des 
Kirclipnregiments  im  apost.  Zeitalter  u.  In  Allg.  Kirchenzeit. 
1833.  Nr.  94.  ff.  vergl.  Nr.  148. 

2.  Enseb.  v.  10.  3.  Can.  Apost.  iii.:  Concil.  Nic.  v. 
4.  Euseb.  vii.  27.  5.  Eiiseb.  vii.  28. 

6.  Tillemont,  Hist,  du  Concile  fficumeniqne  de  Nicee,  in  his  Me- 
moires:  Natalis  Alexandri  Dissertationes  de  Nicoeni  Concilii 
convocatione,  and  De  Praeside  Nicoeni  Concilii:  in  Thesaur. 
Theol.  Venet.  1702. 

CHAPTER   XVIII. 

DOMESTIC  AND  SOCIAL  CHARACTER  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE 
CHRISTIANS,  p.  367. 

Neander'sDenkweurdigkeiten  and  Kirch.  Gesch. :  G.  Arnold's  Kirch, 
und  Ketzer,  Gesch. :  Fleury,  Moeurs  des  Chretiens:  Cave's  Prim. 
Christianity:  Lives  of  the  Fathers  :  Lord  Hade's  Christian  Antqui- 
ties:  Ryan's  Effects  of  Religion  on  Mankind:  Burton's  Lectures 
on  Eccles.  Hist. :  King's  Primitive  Christianity. 


520  INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES. 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

ON  MARRIAGE. 

§  1 .   Of  the  Laws  of  Christian  Marriage,  p.  399. 

1.  Th.   Sancliez,  De  sacramento   matrimonii,  torn,  i — iii.  1592.  f. : 

Gisbert,  Histoire  sur  le  sacr.  du  Mariage,  depiiis  Jesus  Christ 
jusqiies  -k  nous.  vol.  i — iii.  1725.  4  :  Jo.  Geriiard,  Loci  theol. 
ed.  Cotta.  torn,  xv,  xvi  :  C.  F.  Staeudlin's  Gesch.  der  Vorstell. 
u.  Leiiren  von  der  Elie.  1826.  8. 

2.  Socrat.  hist.  eccl.  lib,  iv.  c.  26.  al.  27  :  Staudlin's  Gescii.  der  Ehe 

S.  100.  114,  etc. :  Cod.  L.  L.  lib.  v.  tit.  v  :  Dig.  iib.i.  13,  1.2. 

3.  Tertull.  Apolog.  c.  6  :  De  Idol.  c.  16  :    De  Corona  Mil.  c.  13  :    De 

Pudic.  c.  4  :  Optat.  Atnbros.  epist.  24.  ep.  70:  Milev.  De 
Schism.  Donat.  I.  16 :  Clemens  Alex.  Paedag.  lib.  iii.  c.  2  :  Au- 
gust. Epist.  234  :  De  Fide  et  oper.  c.  19 :  De  civit.  Die.  lib.  xv, 
xvi. 

4.  Cone.  Nic.  c.  8  :    Ancyra,  c.  19  :    Laodic.  c.  1 :   Neo-Caesar.  c.  3  : 

Constit.  Apost.  lib.  iii.  c.  2  :  Atheiiag.  Legat. :  Theophil.  Art. 
ad  Antol.  lib.  iii  :   Irenaeiis,  Adv.  Haer.  li!).  iii.  c.  19. 

5.  Tertull.  De  Monog.  c.  11:      Ad  Uxor.     Iib.i.   c. 7:     De    Poenit. 

C.9:  Origen,  Horn.  17.  in  Luc. :  Ambros.  De  Offic.lib.  i.e.  50  : 
Hieron.  Ep.  2.  11.33. 

6.  Capitul.  Reg.  Fr.lib.  vi.  C.408:    vii.  c.  179:     Capit.  11.  Karlom. 

A.  D.  743.  c.  3.  c.  10.  xxxv.  q.  6:  G.  W.  Boehmer,  Ueber  die 
Ehe-Gesetze  im  Zeitalter  Karl's  d.  Gr.  Goetengen,  1826.  8. 

7.  Wilhelm  Occum.  Tractatus  de  jurisdictione  Imperatoris  in  causis 

matrimonalibus:  Goldastus.  tom.  ii.  p.  21 — 24. 

8.  Krit.  und   systemat.  Darstellung  der  Verboten  Grade  der  Ver- 

wandschaft:  Schwagerschaft.  Hannover,  1802  bes.  S.  350 — 524  : 
Comp.  Jo.  Gerhard,  Loc.  theol.  tom.  xv.  p.  332. 

9.  Tertull.  Ad  Uxor.  lib.  ii.  c.  2—9  :   De  Coron.  Mil.  c.  13:  Cyprian. 

Ad  Quirin.  lib.  iii.  c.  62 :  Ambrosius,  De  Abrahame,  Iib.i. 
c.  9 :  Ep.  lib.  ix.  ep.  70:  De  Fide  et  Oper.  c.  xix  :  Hieron.  in 
Jovin.  lib.  i.  c.  10. 

10.  Cone.  Chalcedon.  c.  14:    Arelat.  i.  c.  11  :    Illiberit,  c.  15,  16,  17: 

Aurelian.  ii.  e.  18  :  Cod.  Justin,  lib.  i.  tit.  ix.  1.6  :  Cod.  Theo- 
dos.  lib.  iii.  tit.  vii.  I.  2  :   lib.  xvi.  tit.  viii.  I.  6. 

11.  Cone.  Laodic.  c.  10:    Ebendas.  e.  31  :    Agath.  c.  67:   Chalcedon. 

c.  14. 

12.  Augustin.  Confess,  lib.  ix.   c.  9  :    Gregor.  Turon.  hist.  Fr.  lib.  ii. 

c.  28. 

§  2.  Divorce,  p.  401. 

1.  Herraae  Pastor,  lib.  ii.  mandat.  iv :    Jo.  Gerhard,  tom.  xvi.  p.  178, 
79. 


INDEX  OT  AUTHORITIES.  ^^* 

2.  Bingham,  bk .  xxii.  c.  5  :  Assemann's  orient.  Bibl.  im.  Ausz.  S.  340, 

52G. 
a  Jo.  Gerhard.  Loc.  th.  xvi.  p.  218—242. 

§  3.  Marriage  Rites  and  Ceremonies,  p.  402. 

1.  Joach.  Hildel.rancl,  Dc  nu,>tiis  vet.  Chr.  1G56.  Eel.  im  4  :    Sam. 

Sclielvvi"-  De  aiiiifinitate  consecrationis  niiptialis.  10»J.  4  :  i^nr. 
Konhnir,  De  necessitate  consecr.  n.ipt.  1690.  4:  Jac.  Emme- 
n.-h,  De  spo„salilM,s  ot  matritn.  sacr.  1747.  8:  Ch.  W^Fk.|ges 
Gesch.  der  kirchl.   Einsegnung  u.  Copulation   der  Ehe.  -J.  A. 

1809.  8. 

2.  Tertull.  Ad  uxor.  lib.  ii.  c.  2.  9 :  De  Monogram,  c.  11. 

3.  Concil.  Lateran.  ii.  A.  D.  1139.  c.  51  :  iv.  A.  D.  l2lo.  c.  12. 

4.  Concil.  Carthag.iv.c.  13:    Gregor.  Naz.  ep.  57  :    Chrysost.  Horn. 

18  in  Gen.  p.  549  :  Basil.  M.  Horn.  7.  in  Heram.  Opp.  tom.  i. 
p.  84  :  Sericius  Ep.  1.  ad  Himmer,  c.4  :  Gerhard.  Loci.  Theol. 
tom.  XV.  p.  394. 

§  4.   General  Remarks,  p.  405. 

1  Isidorus  Hispalensis,  De  ecclesiasticis  officiis.  lib.  ii.  c.  19. 

2  Du  Cange,  Glossa  s.  v.  Arra  nuptialis:    Martene,  De  Antiq.  eccl. 

fit  P  2  p  606-8:  Cone.  Carthag.  iv.  c.  13:  Cap.tul.  Caroli. 
m'  lib  vii.  c.  363  :  Hildehrand  De  Nuptiis  vet.  Christian,  p.  86. 

3.  Apoioget.  c.  6 :    De  Idol.  c.  16.  vgl.  Plinius,  Hist.  nat.  xxxni.  c.  1. 

4.  Paedag.  lib.  iii.  c.  1 1  :  Comp.  Ambros.  Ep.  34.  ,o     i^ 

5.  De  Eccl.  Oif.  lib.  ii.  c.  19.  6.  De  Corona  miht.  c.  13-15. 

7.  Hildebiand.  De  nupt.  p.  78  :  Steinberg,  Abhaudl.  von  den  Hoch- 

zoit-Kranzen.  1764.  4  :  p.  17seq. 

8.  Hildebrand,  De  Nui)tiis,  p.  76,  77  :  Calvoer.  p.  106. 

9.  Chrvsost.  Ho.n.  iv.  in  ep.  in  Hebr.:  Nicephor.  h.e.  hb.  xvi.i.  c  8. 

10.  Ambrose,  serm.  25:    Chrysostom.  Horn.  41.  in  Act.  Apost. :    JNi- 

ceph.  h.  e.  lib.  18.  c.  8. 

1 1.  Hom.  12  in  Ep.  ad  Coloss.  0[.p.  tom.  vi.  p.  247-62  :  Horn.  48  in 

Gen.  p.  549  seq. :    56.  p.  605  seq. 

12.  Concil.  Laodic.  c.  53. 

13.  Concil.  Autissidor.  c.  34  :  Agath.  c.  39  :  Neo-Caesar.  c.  7. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

FUNERAL  RITES  AND  CEREMONIES. 

§  1.   Treatment  of  the  Dead,  p.  408. 

1    Joach.  Hildebrand,  De  veteris  ecclesiae,  Martyrnm  imprimis  et 

et  SS.  Palnim,  ars  bene  inoriendi,  sive  praxis  circa  monbumlos 

et   de    morieniinm   virtiitihiis.    Hrlmst.  1661.    ed.  2.    I'Y     ,' 

Jac  Gretseri,  De  Christianorum  funcre  libri  tres.     Ingolslart. 

66 


522  INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES. 

1611.  4  :  Auch  in  Gretseri  Oper.  Ratisb.  1735.  f.  torn.  v.  p.  79 
seq. :  Onuphiii  Panvinii,  Libellus  de  ritu  sepeliendi  mortuoa 
apud  veteres  Christianos,  et  de  eorum  coemeteriis.  Ed.  J.  Ge. 
Joch.  Lips.  1717.  4:  Antiqiiitatum  circa  funera,  et  ritus  vet. 
Christianoriim  qiiovis  tempore  in  ecclesia  observat.  libri  vi,  auc- 
tore  J.  E.  F.  U.  L.  (i.  e.  Jo,  Ern.  Franzen,  Ulza-Luneburgico). 
Cum  Praefiit.  Jo.  Fabricii  et  Jo.  Andr.  Schmidii.  LijiS.  1713.8  : 
Jo.  Nicolai,  Liber  de  bictu  Christianoriim,  sive  de  ritibus  ad 
sepulturam  pertinenlibus.  Liigd.Bat.  1739.  8  :  C.S.  Senffii,  Dis- 
sert, de  cantionibus  funebribus  veterum.  Lips.  1689.  4. 

2.  De  ciira  gerenda  pro  mortuis  ad  Pauli  num.  Opp.  edit.  Bened. 

Venet.  1731.  b.  torn.  vi.  p.  516— 532. 

3.  Jnliani,  Inc.  Ep.  49,  ad  Arsac.  Opp.  ed.  Si)anhem.  p.  429. 

4.  Job.  Gerhard.  Loc.  Theol.  torn.  xvii.  p.  85,  86. 

5.  Cicero,  De  Legib.  lib.  ii.  c.  58:  Cod.  Theodos.  lib.  ix.  tit.  xvii.  1.6. 

Coucil.  Bracar.  c.  36. 

6.  Gregor.  Turen.  De  Gloria.  Confessor. 

7.  Chrysostom.  Horn.  81. 

8.  Prudenliiis  Peristeph.  Hymn.  11  :  Ilieron.  Comment,  in  Math.  23. 

9.  Gothofredi,  Observat.  in  Cod.  Theodos.  lib.  ix.  tit.  57.  1.  5. 

10.  Enseb.  h.  e.  lib.  vii.  c.  22. 

11.  Franzen.  Antiquit.  funer.  1713.  8.  p.  96 — 111. 

§  2.  Jlffeciion  for  the  Dying,  p.  411. 

1.  Theodoret.  h.  e.  lib.  i.  c.  18  :    v.  c.  25  :    Gregor.  Nyssen.  Ecom. 

Ephraemi :  August.  Conf.  ix.  c.  11, 13. 

2.  Euseb.  li.  e.  lib.  iv.  c.  15  :  viii.  c.  9  :  De  Vit.  Constant.  M.  iv.  c.  61 : 

Gregor.  Nyssen.  De  Vita  Gregor.  Thaum.  p.  311. 

3.  Gregor.  Naz.  torn.  i.  p.  173  :  Balil  M.  ep.  84. 

4.  Ambros.  in  Ep.  ad  Thess.  e.  4  :  Athanas.  Vit.  S.  Anthon. :  Chrys. 

Hom.  55.  in  Math.  c.  16 :  Gregor.  M.  Homil.  38.  in  Evang. 

5.  Hildebrand,  De  Arte  bene  mor.  p.  230  :   De  Precib.  Vet.  c.  28. 

6.  Euseb.  h.  e.  vi.  c.  3  :  Chrysost.  Ilonj.  i :  De  Patient.  Jobi. 

7.  Chrysost.  Hom.  i.  De  Pat.  Jobi,  etc. 

8.  Franzen.  Antiq.  Fun.  p.  72. 

9.  Clemen.  Alex.  Paedag.  3.  8  :    Euseb.  h.  e.  lib.  ii.  c.  22.  16:    De 

Vit.  Constant,  iv.  c.  66. 

10.  Ambros.  Orat.  in  Obit.  Theodos. 

§  3.  Funeral  Solemnities,  p.  412. 

1.  Gregor.  Naz.  Orat.  20.  p.  371 : 

2.  Gregor.  Nyssen.  Vit.  Macrin.  torn.  ii.  p.  201  :  Theodor.  h.  e.  lib.  v. 

c.  36. 

3.  Clemen.  Alex.  Paedag.  lib.  ii.  c.  8. 

4.  Ambros.  De  Ob,  Valent.  c.  56  :  Prudent.  Hymn,  pro  exseq. 

5.  Chrysost.  Hom.  30.  De  Dormient.  torn.  v.  p.  380  :  Hierar.  Ep.27: 

Gregor.  Naz.  Orat.  10. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES.  ^^ 

6.  Cone.  Carthag.  iii.  c.  29  :  Possid.  Vit  August,  c.  13. 

7.  Cone.  Carthag.  iii.  c.  6  :  Trull,  c.  133. 

8.  Andr.  Quenstedt.  De  Sepult.  Vet.  p.  13d. 

§  4.  Mourners,  p.  414. 

1    Tertull.  De  Patient,  c.7:    Chrysost.  Horn.  32  in  Math  :    61.  in 
'•      Johan.:  6.  in  Ep.  ad  Thess. :  Hieron.  Ep-  2o.  ad  ^aul. 

2.  Cyprian.  Ser.  de  Mortal. :  Chrysost.  Horn.  09.  ad  Fop. 

3.  Ser.  2.  De  Consolat.  IMort. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

SACRED    SEASONS. 

§  1.  Preliminary  Remarks,  p.  423. 

1.  Rud.  Hospiniani  festa  Christianorum  h.  e  de  o'-'p^"^'!^;* Jj«|^"' 

cerernoniis  et  ritibus  festorum  ^-^^^^,^^1^^'^''^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
f.  ed.  Genev.  1669.  1675.  f. :  G.  B.  E.senschnnd  s  «-  h-ju« 
der  Sonn-und  Festtage  der  Christen  u.  s.  w.  1/93. 8 :  Uebei  den 
ettenU  sprung  und^lie  erste  Beschaffenheit  der  Feste,  tasteu 
und  Bitr.hnge  u.  s.  w.  Mlinchen  1804.  8  :  J.  G.  Buh.ne  s  Un- 
e  id.t  Ube^.  den  Ursprung  und  die  Benet.nung  a  er  Sonn- 
Fest-und  anderer  Tuge  durchs  ganze  Jahr  Z-f^\}?  J.  8 
Die  Festes  des  Herrn  :  bearbeitet  von  D.  Rass  und  D.  We.s  Th. 
I.  II.  Mainz  1827.  8.  2.  Ausg.  1S34.  8. 

2.  Clemens.  Alex.  Strom.  7.  c.  7.  427  :  Or.gen.  Contra  Ces  g.  c.  21 

-23:  Hieron.  Comment,  in  Gal.  4:  Augustm.  Ep.  118,  ad  Jan. 

3.  GtS:::^^^  Cl^-  .b  .  c.  l  sen. :    Chr.  Wildvogel  Chronas- 

copia  legalis  de  jure  festorum,  lb99.  „  .   t  r..i1 

4.  G.  Hamberger,  De  Epochae  Christianae  ortu  et  aucto.e  .  J.  Guil 

Jani  historia  Aerae  Dionysiae. 

5.  Jo.  Chr.  Fischer  de  anno.  Hebr.  Gust.  Sommelu  ^^  .«""''•  Hfj-; 

ecclesiastico  atque  ci vili :     Josephus  Ant.q.  i.  c.  3.  m.  c.  lU.  ^  o . 
Anastasius  in  Meursii  var.  div. 

6.  Leonis  AUatii  de  hebdomad.  Gr.  p.  1464. 

7.  Baumann  De  Calendis  Januarii :  Coned.  Ant.s.dor,  c.  1  :    Turon. 

xi.  c.  17,  23  :  Tolet.  iv.  c.  lO  :  Trullan.  c.02. 

8.  Fiske's  Manual,  p.  630.  .k  vu  ■  r  .  m-^-a]  Cod 

9.  Euseb.  Vit.  Constant,  lib.  i.  c.  48.  m.  c.  15.  l.b.  ,v  c.  40  .  vg  1.  Cod. 

Theodos.  lib.  ii.  tit.  viii.  1.  2.  lib.  vi.  tit.  xxvk  lib.  xxv..  hb.  xv. 

tit.  Bin-iham,  vol.  ix.  p.  11— 13.  ..         _ 

10.  Hist.  eccL^lib.  ;  c.  22.  p.  283.  .11.  H'st.  eccl.  hb   xn  c.  32. 

12  Clemens  Alex,  stromal,  vii.  c.  7.  torn.  m.  p.  427  :  Ong.  c.  uels.  vm. 
U.  ^1^'"«^^J         ^33.    ^^  ,^  Horn.  1.   De  S.  Pentec.  torn.  u.  p. 

458:  Hieron.  Comment,  in  Gal.  4.  torn.  iv.  p.  270:  Augustm.  ep. 


524  INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES. 

118,  ad  Januar.  contra  Adimant.  c.  16:  Hospinian  de  origine 
festor.  c.  11. 

13.  Concil.  llliber.  c.  21 :  Sardic.  c.  11 :    Gangrense.  c.  5,  6:  Laodic. 

c.  29. 

14.  Chemnitii  exan).  Concil.  Trident,  torn.  iv.  p.  263. 

15.  Can.  A  post.  c.  70,  72  :  Concil.  Laodic.  c.  37,  39  :  Concil.  Trullan. 

c.  81  :  llliber.  c.  49,  50  :  Cod.  Theodos.  16.  tit.  v.  vi.  ix. :  tit.  vi. 
1.6. 

16.  Orat.  De   Domini   nostri    Jesu  Christi   Assumptione.    Opp.  ed. 

Patar.  torn.  ii.  p.  286  :  Gregor.  Naz.  Orat.l9:  Ephraem  Syrus. 
De  Cruce  Domini  in  Pascliate  :    Synesius  Sermo.  in  Ps.  75. 

17.  Philo.  Tractat.  De  Ciierul/im.  Opp.  vol.  ii.  p.  48. 

18.  Orat.  38,  in  Thoj)!!.  p.  614,  615. 

19.  Euseb.  De  Vit.  Const,  lib.  iv.  c.  18—23. 

20.  Cod.  Theodos.  xv.  tit.  v.  1.  5.  tit.  v.  1.  2. 

21.  Cod.  Justin,  lib.  iii.  tit.  xii.  1.  11. 

22.  "         "       lib.  iii.  tit.  xii.  1.  7. 

23.  "         "       lib.  ii.  tit.  viii.  1.  1. 

24.  Epist.  Ignatii  ad  Smyrn.  c.  8. 

25.  Concil.  Carthag.  iii.  c.  29 :  Tertullian  apologet.  c.  39  :  Ad  Mart.  p. 

156.  De  Baptismo,  c.  9  :  De  Jejun.  adv.  Psycheios,  c.  17  :  Clem- 
ens Alex.  Paedag.  lib.  ii.  c.  1  :  Chrysost.  Horn.  27  in  1  Ep.  ad 
Corinth.:  August,  ep.  116,  ep.  233  :  Socrat.  h.  e.  11.  43 :  Bever- 
idge  Pandect,  canon,  torn.  i.  p.  415:  Concil.  Carthag.  iii. 391.  c. 
30 :  Concil.  Aurel.  ii.  c.  12  :  Concil.  Trull. 

§2.  Of  the  Sabhath,  428. 

1.  C.  A.  E.  Becker's  Abhandlung  vom  Sahbate  der  Juden    und 

Sonntage  der  Christen.  Halle  1775.  4  :  C.  C.  L.  Franke  Com- 
mentat.  de  diei  Dominici  apud  veteres  Christianos  celebratione. 
Hal.  1826.  8. 

2.  Ep.  St.  Barab.  c.  15.  3.  Dial.  c.  Tryph.  p.  34. 
4.  Apol.  1.  p.  222.  5.  Plan.  ep.  x.  96. 

6.  Tertullian  Adv.  Jud.  c.  4,  5:    De  fuga  persev.  c.  14.    Apol.  c.  16. 

Ad  nat.  c.  13.  De  cor.  mil.  c.  3. 

7.  Stromat.  v.  p.  138.  8.  Cyprian  ep.  38. 

9.  Ai'.gustin.  ep,  118  ad  Jan.  c.  1.  10.  Opp.  tom.  i.  p.  1060. 

11.  Ignat.  ad  Magnes.  c.  10.  12.  Concil.  Nic.  A.  D.  325. 

13.  Opp.  tom.  iii.  312. 

14.  A  post.  Const,  lib.  vii.  c.  23.  ii.  c.  49.  viii.  c.  33. 

15.  Euseb.  Vit.  Const,  lib.  iv.  c.  18. 

16.  Gesch.  d.  Rel.  und  Kirche,  bk.  ii.  S.  635 :    Chrysost.  de  Resurr. 

Homil.  5. 

17.  Augustin.  Epist.  36.  al  86.  ad  Casulanum.  §  31,  32. 

18.  Canon.  Apost.  66.  19.  Justin.  M.  Apol.  1.  p.  225. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES.  525 


§  3.  General  view  of  the  Sacred  Seasons,  and  of  the  three  great 
Festivals,  p.  432. 

1.  Lib.  vi.  e.  15  :  Vgl.  Constant.  M.  Oiat.  ad  Coetiim.  Sanctor.  c.  13. 

2.  Chrysost.  in  Ge. :  Hamartoli  Chronic,  vit.  Justin:  Bingham,  Vol. 

ix.  p.  185. 

§  4.  Of  Christmas,  p.  434. 

1.  J.  G.  Hasse,  de  rituuin  circa  Nat.  Chr.  prima  origine  ex  Graeco- 

rum  et  Roman.  Saturnaiibus.  1804.  4. :  G.  J.  Planck  variarnm 
de  origine  festi  Nat.  Chr.  sententiarum  epicrisis.  1796.  4. :  Fr. 
Gedike,  Uber  den  Ursprung  der  Weihnachts-Geschenke.  S,  Ber- 
lin. Monatsschr.  1784.  Jan.  S.  73.  fF. :  Fr.  Schleiermacher's 
Weihnachts-Feyer  ;  ein  Gespriich.  1806.  12, 

2.  0pp.  ii.  p.  384 :  3.  Strom,  i.  349,  406. 

4.  Expos.  Fidei.  c.  22  :  Haer.  li.  c.  29.         5.  Comment,  in  Ezech.  i. 

6.  Ep.  118,  119:  Serm.  380. 

7.  Chryost.   llom.  24,33:  Cassian,  Collat.  x.  c.  2 :  Apost.  Constit. 

lib.  V.  c.  13  :  vii.  c.  3:  Krabbe,  liber  ursprung  der  Apost.  Con- 
stitut.  1829.  S.  163  seq.  228—232. 

8.  Jacob  Edessen  in  Asseinani,  Bibl.  Or.  tom.  ii.  p.  1636. 

9.  Ephraem    Syrus,  Serm.   de  Nativ.  Chr.  V.  tom.  ii.  p.  417 — 419: 

Serm.  8.  p.  424  :  Serm.  12.  p.  431  :  Vgl.  p.  324,  328. 

10.  Concil.  Turon.  ii.  c.  18  :  Constant.  Porphyr.  de  cerem.  eccl.  By- 

zant.  lib.  i.  c.  83.  ed.  Bonn. :  tom.  i.  p.  381  :  tom.  ii.  p.  360  : 
Ephraem  Syrus,  Opp.  Syr.  torn.  ii.  j).  396  seq. 

11.  Hom.  31.  de  Philogonio,  tom.  i.  p.  39.  9. 

12.  Arnoldus  Bonnerallis,  Serm.  De  Nativ.  in  Opp.  St.  Cyprian. 

§  6.  Whitsunday,  p.  439. 

1.  Ad  Tabiol.  §  7. 

2.  Concil.  Constant.  A.  D.  1094  :  J.  D.  Winckler,  de  iis  quae  circa 

festum  Pentec.  sunt  memorabilia. 

3.  Tertull.  De  Bapt.  c.  19:  Hieron.  in  Zach.  14:  8. 

4.  Concil.  Agath.  c.  18.         5.  Durandus  rat.  div.  off.  vi.  c.  107. 

§  7.  Festivals  to  the  memory  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  p.  440. 

1.  J.  A.  Schmid,  Prolusiones  Marianae,  Prol.  i — x. 

2.  Combefisii  Nov.  Auctar  Bibl.  Patr.  tom.  i.  p.  301. 

3.  Garante  Thesaur.  tom.  ii.  p.  24 — 26. 

4.  Angel.  Rouha,  De  Praesentationis:  Nicephor.  Hist.  17.  c.  28. 

5.  Binterim,  v.  bd.  i.  Th.  S.  354—356 :  Concil.  Tolet.  A.  D.  659.  c.  1 : 

Trull.  692.  c.  52. 

6.  Concil.  Basil,  A.  D.  1441. 


526  INDEX  OF  AUTHORITIES. 

7.  Nicephor.  Hist.  17.  c.  18:  Concil.  Mogunt.  A.  D.  813.  c.  36. 

8.  Binterirn,  a.  a.  O.  S.  450,  455. 

9.  Controv.  torn.  ii.  lib.  c.  16 :  Binterirn,  S.  516. 

§  8.  Feast  of  the  Martyrs,  p.  441. 

1.  J.  P.  Schvvabe,  de  insigni  veneratione  quae   obtinuit  erga   Mar- 

tyres  in  primitiva  eccl.  1748.  4. 

2.  Serm.  in  Cyprian  Mart.  p.  129. 

3.  Gregor.  Naz.  Orat.  22.  de  Maccab.  torn.  i.  p.  397:  Augustin.  Serm. 

de  Divers.  S.  300.  torn.  v.  p.  1221. 

4.  Schroeckh's  christl.   Kircliengesch.  Th.  ix.  S.  154 — 232 :  Nean- 

der  K.  Gesch.  ii.  b.  S.  712. 

§  9.  St.  John's  Day,  p.  442. 

1.  Augustin.  Serm.  in  Nat.  Dom. 

2.  Concil.  Agath.  c.  21  :  Binterirn,  S.  380. 

§  10.  Apostle's  Day,  p.  442. 

1.  Apost.  Constit.  v.  c.  20:         2.  Sacranientar  Leonis  et  Galesii. 

3.  Micrologus,  c.  55:  Durandus,  7,  10. 

4.  Concil.  Tolos.  A.  D.  1229.  c.  26. 

5.  Alcuinus.  De  div.  offic.  p.  87. 

6.  Karle  de  Gr.  Capitul.  ii.  A.  D.  805.  c.  17. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  LIST  OF  COUNCILS. 


A.  D 

215 
240 
2.-)! 
to  " 
256' 
265  ■ 
269 
313 
313 
314 
314 
315 
324 
325 
344 
348 
359 
361 
362 
381 
381 
381 
390 
393 
397 
399 
400 
401 
402 
402 
416 
419 
419 
431 
441 
442 
451 
452 
455 
461 


Africa,  under  Agrippinus. 
Africa,  under  Donatus. 

>•  Africa,  several  under  Cyprian. 

Antioch  1. 

Antioch  2. 

Rome,  against  the  Donatists. 

Elvira,  (al.  305,  al.  324.) 

Ancyra,  in  Galatia. 

Aries  I. 

Neocaesarea. 

Gangra,  in  Paphlagonia. 

Nicaea  1,  (Gen.  1.) 

Sardica. 

Carthage  1. 

Ariniinum,  or  Rimini. 

Laodicea. 

Alexandria. 

Aquileia. 

Constantinople  1,  (Gen.  2.) 

Saragossa. 

Carthage  2. 

Hippo. 

Carthage  3. 

Carthage  4. 

Toledo  1. 

Carthage  5. 

Turin. 

Milevi  1. 

Milevi  2. 

Carthage  6. 

Carthage  7. 

Ephesus,  (Gen.  3.^ 

Orange  1. 

Vaison  I. 

Chalcedon,  (Gen.  4.) 

Aries  2. 

Aries  3. 

Tours  1. 


A.  I). 

465  Rome  under  Hilary. 
494  Rome,  under  Gelasius. 
499  Rome,  under  Symraachus. 
506  Agde. 
511   Orleans  1. 

516  Tarragona. 

517  Epone. 
524  Lerida. 
529  Orange  2. 
529  Vaison  2. 
531  Toledo  2. 
533  Orleans  2. 
538  Orleans  3. 

553  Constantinople  2,  (Gen.  5.) 

561   Braga  1. 

567  Tours  2. 

572  Braga  3. 

578  Auxerre. 

581  Ma<;on  1. 

585  Macon  2. 

589  Narbonne. 

589  Toledo  3. 

590  Seville  1. 
619  Seville  2. 
633  Toledo  4. 
636  Toledo  5. 
638  Toledo  6. 
646  Toledo  7. 
653  Toledo  8. 

655  Toledo  9. 

656  Toledo  10. 
670  Autun. 
675  Toledo  11. 

680  Constantinople  3,  (Gen  61 

681  Toledo  12. 

692  Constantinople,  Trullan, 

787  Nicaea  2,  (Gen.  7.) 

788  Aix  la  Chapelle. 
815  Mentz. 

869  Constantinople  4.  (Gen.  8.) 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX. 


Our  Savior  born  four  years  before  the 
the  Julian  period 

^.  D.  I  Roman  Emperors. 


vulgar  era,  and  in  the  year  4709  of 
Crucified  A.  D.  34. 

Bishops,  Eecl.  Officers  and  Writers. 


20 
30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 

100 
110 
120 
130 

140 

150 


160 


170 


Augustus,  d.  14. 

Tiberius,  d.  37. 

Caligula,  d.  48. 

Claudius,  d.  54. 

Nero,  d.  68. 

Galba,  d.  69. 
Vespasian,  d.  79. 
Titus,  d.  81. 

Domitian,  d.  96. 

Nerva,  d.  98. 
Trajan,  d,  117. 

Hadrian,  d.  138. 


Antoninus  Pius,  d.  161. 


Marcus  Aurelius,  philosopher, 
d.  180. 


Peter  and  Paul,  martyrs  at  Rome. 


Shepherd,  of  Hermas. 
Clement,  bishop  of  Rome. 


Ignatius,  bishop  of  Antioch,  d.  116. 

Papias,  B.  of  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia, 

Justin  Martyr,  d.  165. 

The  Gnostics  Marcion  and  Basilides. 

Cornelius,  Bp.  of  Antioch. 

Polycarp,  Bp.  of  Smyrna,  d.  167. 


Montanus — The  Montanists. 
Anicet,  Bp.  of  Rome. 
Hegesippus,  ecclesiastical  historian. 
Celsus,  Against  the  Christian  reli- 
gion. 

Soter,  Bp.  of  Rome. 
Claudius  Apollinarius,  Bp.  of  Hier- 
apolis. 
Melito,  Bp.  of  Sardis. 
Bardesanes,  the  Gnostic. 

Eleutherus,  Roman  bishop. 
Dionysiiis,  Bp.  of  Corinth. 
Theophilus,  Bp.  of  Antioch. 
177.  Irenaeus,  Bp.  of  Lyons,  d.  202. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX.  529 

Historical  Events. 


50.  Presbyters  {irQea^vrsQot  =  tniaxoTioi),  an  order  for  the  management  of 
church  affairs.— Baptism  by  immersion.— Confession  of  belief  made 
at  baptism. 
60.  Deacons.— Deaconesses.— Meetings  of  Christians  in  private  houses. — 
Daily  meetings  for  divine  service.— Daily  instruction  by  prayer,  sing- 
ing, and  reading  of  the   Old   Testament.— E.xclusion  of  unworthy 
members  from  the  church. — Love  feast  connected  with  the  commu- 
nion. 
70.  Common  care  for  the  poor.— Contributions  to  other  churches.— Church 
officers  carry  on  their  former  occupations. — The  Ebionites  use  unlea- 
vened bread  in  the   supper. — Choice  to  church-offices  usually  by 
church-officers  and  the  churches 
80.  Particular  days  selected  for  the  worship  of  God.— The  keeping  of  Sun- 
day.— Consecration  to  church  offices  by  the  laying  on  of  hands. — The 
celebration  of  the  Jewish  sabbath  by  the  Jewish  Christians  continued. 
— The  yearly  feasts   of  the  Jews  (passover  and   pcntccost)  continue 
among  the  Jewish  Christians. — One  of  the  presbyters  presides  in  the 
college  of  presbyters. 
90.  Country  churches  with  their  own  officers. 

100.  Reading  of  the  New  Testament  Scriptures  in  the  churches. 

110.  The  communion  connected  with  the  meetings  for  divine  service,  parti- 
cularly with  those  on  Sunday. — Catechumens. —  Preparation  for  bap- 
tism by  fasting  and  prayer. — Growing  importance  of  the  president  in 
the  college  of  presbyters. 

120.  The  celebration  of  marriages  brought  into  connection  with  the  church. 
— Heathen  Christians  begin  to  celebrate  the  yearly  feasts,  but  with 
altered  views. —  Voluntary  offerings  {nqoaifooai)  at  the  celebration  of 
the  communion.  Traces  of  a  separation  of  divine  service  into  two 
parts. 

130.  In  divine  service  the  scriptures  are  explained  and  applied  by  the  min- 
ister.— Then  follows  a  simple  celebration  of  the  supper. — The  dea- 
cons carry  the  elements  to  the  absent  members. 

140.  The  Scriptures  and  church  Fathers  are  read  in  divine  service.— Episto- 
lary correspondence  between  churches  (formatae). — Formula  of  bap- 
tism as  generally  prevalent  mentioned  in  Justin  Martyr. 

150.  During  the  persecutions  the  Christians  hold  their  meetings  in  retired 
places. — Laying  on  of  hands  in  baptism— Difference  about  the  cele- 
bration of  the  passover  between  the  oriental  and  occidental  churches. 
— Infant  baptism. — Those  that  have  been  regeneiated  are  incorpora- 
ted into  the  body  of  the  church  by  baptism 

160.  First  appearance  of  buildings  appropriated  to  public  worship. — Polycarp 
has  a  conference  with  Anicetus  on  the  disagreement  respecting  the 
passover. —  Images  and  pictures  in  the  houses  of  Christians. — Week- 
ly or  monthly  collections  in  the  meetings  for  public  worship,  for  the 
poor  and  the  sick. — Special  fasts  for  the  benefit  of  those  in  distress. — 
The  use  of  the  sign  of  the  cross  in  all  the  actions  and  events  of  life. — 
Transfer  of  the  ordinances  of  the  Jewish  Sabbath  to  Sunda}'. 

170.  Catechists.— Contest  about  the  passover  in  Asia  Minor.— Deaconesses, 
who  are  widows  above  sixty  years  old,  receive  the  usual  ordination. — 
In  the  Lord's  supper  the  common  bread,  and  wine  mingled  with  wa- 
ter, were  used. — Images  of  Christ  among  the  heretics. — The  deacon- 
esses are  consulted  in  the  celebration  of  marriage.  The  bride  and 
bridegroom  partake  of  the  Lord's  supper  with  each  other, — Abrenun- 
tiatio  at  baptism  and  trine  immersion. — More  definite  form  given  to 
the  confessions  made  at  baptism. — Easter  eve  and  'Whitsuntide  favor- 
ite times  for  administering  baptism  in  the  whole  church— Celebration 
of  Easter  night  by  vigils. — Festival  of  fifteen  days  from  Easter  to 
Whitsuntide. — Catholic  epistle  of  Dionysius  of  Corinth. 
ii7 


530  CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX, 

j3.  D.  I  Roman  Emperors.  \    Bishops,  Ecd.  Officers  and  Wriierg. 


ItiO 


190 


200 


210 


220 


230 


Commodus,  d.  IU2. 


240 


250 


Pertinax,  d.  193. 
Septimius  Severus,  d.  211. 


Caracalla,  d.  217. 
Macrimus,  d.  218. 
Heliogabulus,  d.  222. 

Alexander  Severus,  d.  235. 


Maximus  the  Thracian,  d.  238, 


Gordianus  HI.  d.  244. 
Fliillip,  tlie  Arabian,  d.  I 
Decius  Trajanus,  d.  251. 


Trebonianus  Gallus  I.  d.  253. 
Gallus  Volusianus,  d.  253. 


Pantaenus,  Catechist  in  Alexandria. 
Tertullian  at  Carthage,  d.  220. 


Victor,  Bp.  of  Rome,  d.  202. 
Clemens,  Catechist  in  Alexandria. 
Caius,  presbyter  in  Rome. 
Polycrates,  Bp.  of  Ephesus. 


Zephyrinus,  Bp.  of  Rome,  d.  218. 
203.  Origen,   Catechist  in   Alexan- 
dria. 

Demetrius,  B.  of  Alexandria,  d.  232. 


223.  Origen    ordained   presbyter   at 

Caesarea. 
Hippolitus,  bishop. 
Origen  flees  to  Caesarea  in  Palestine. 

233.  Heraclus,  Bp.  of  Alexandria. 
Julius  Africanus. 


Dionysius,  head  of  the  catechetical 

school  in  Alexandria. 
Minucius  Felix,  a  lawyer  in  Rome. 
244.  Gregory  Thaumaturgus,  Bp.  of 

Neo-Caesarea,  d.  270". 
Dionysius,  B.  of  Alexandria,  d.  2G5. 
248.  Cyprian,  B.  of  Carthage,  d.  258. 


Fabian,  Bp.  of  Rome,  d.  251. 

Cornelius,  Bp.  of  Rome,  d.  252. 

Novatian. 

Lucius,  Bp.  of  Rome. 

Stephanus,  Bp.  of  Rome,  253 — 257. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX.  531 

Historical  Events. 


180.  The  christian  custom  of  bunjivg  tlie  dead.  Church  festival  in  com- 
memoration of  the  dead  iinniediately  ailcr  death  and  on  its  anniver- 
saries.— Among  tlie  Catholics  the  division  of  the  form  of  worship  into 
two  parts  is  tiie  universal  custom. — Tertulhan  opposed  to  inlant  bap- 
tism.— The  heretics  on  their  entrance  into  the  Catholic  church  are,  in 
Asia  Minor  and  North  Africa,  again  baptized  ;  in  Rome,  they  are 
treated  as  penitents. — In  the  oriental  cliurch  divine  service  on  the 
sabbath,  and  no  fasts — In  the  Romish  church  and  other  places  of  the 
West,  fasts  on  the  sabbath. — Attempts  to  determine  the  day  of  Christ's 
birtii.  I'erliaps  a  celebration  of  it  in  Kgypt  (j). — in  the  churches  an 
altar  and  pulpit  (pulpitum,  suggestus). — The  office  of  readers. — The 
performance  of  particular  penances  by  the  penitents. 

190.  Images  of  Christ  among  tiie  heathen. — Symbolical  rites  in  baptism. — 
Anointing  atler  baptism. —  Use  of  milk  and  lioney. —  Kiss  of  peace. — 
Tiie  laying  on  of  hands  as  a  concluding  act,  regarded  as  particularly 
important. — Contest  between  the  Cliristians  of  Asia  Minor  and  of 
Rome  respectinop  the  celebration  of  the  passover. — \\)~ .  Victor  of 
Rome  withdraws  from  the  fellowship  of  the  Christians  of  Asia  Minor. 
— The  college  of  the  presbyters  still  exists  in  subordinate  connection 
with  the  bishop. 

200.  Public  discussions  upon  the  baptism  of  heretics  in  North  Africa. — Com- 
munion in  private  houses  in  North  Africa. — The  birth  day  of  the 
martyrs  celebrated. — A  house  of  public  worship  in  Edessa. 

210.  Introduction  of  Old  Testament  ideas  of  a  particular  priesthood  into  the 
christian  church, — The  clergy,  as  a  body,  called  y.Xr^ooe,  y.Xt;oty.ot,  ordo, 
in  distinction  from  the  kuog,  plebs.  laid. — The  catechumens. divided 
into  classes  by  Origen. 

220.  Choice  of  bishop  by  the  provincial  bishops  in  connection  with  the  adja- 
cent churches. — Tlie  symbol  of  baptism,  the  rite  of  baptism,  the  Lord's 
prayer,  and  some  church  songs  kept  concealed  from  the  catechumens. 

230.  Origen  gave  theological  instruction  in  Cesarea  in  Palestine. — Hippoly- 
tus  writes  upon  the  disagreement  of  the  East  and  VVest  in  respect  to 
sabbatical  fasts,  and  the  contest  about  the  passover. -Composed  a. canon 
paschalis. — Opposers  of  infant  bajitism  in  Egypt. — Candidates  for 
baptism  exorcised.  Consecration  of  the  water. — Houses  of  public 
worship  become  more  frequent. — The  clergy  are  not  permitted  to 
become  guardians,  or  to  engage  in  any  worldly  business. — The 
churches  provide  for  the  su|iport  of  their  clergy. — Comparison  of  the 
christian  clergy  with  the  Jewish  priests.  Episcopus  =Summus  sa- 
cerdos,  Presbyter!  =  Sacerdotes,  Diaconi  or  Clerici  (generally)  =  Le- 
vitae. 

240.  Infant  communion  in  Africa,  afterwards  also  in  the  East. — Clinic 
baptism. — The  laying  of  hands  on  the  newly  baptized  begins  to  be 
regarded  as  the  appropriate  act  of  none  but  the  bishop. — Tlie  commu- 
nion is  extended  to  the  sick  and  dying. —  Frequent  and  large  church- 
edifices. — Provincial  synods  common  in  Africa  and  proconsular  Asia. 
The  whole  body  of  the  clergy  and  the  people  participate  in  them. — 
Contests  of  the  bishops  and  presbyters  in  Rome  and  Africa. — Subdea- 
cons.  Acolyths.  Exorcists.  Ostiarii. — Doclores  audentiuni  in  Af- 
rica.— Cyprian  consults  with  the  presbyters  ujjon  the  aifairs  of  the 
church.     Sometimes  the  advice  of  the  whole  church  is  asked. 

250.  Easter  sabbath  a  common  fast  day  in  the  church — Libelli  pacis  nume- 
rously distributed  by  the  confessors. — The  people  take  part  in  the 
elections  to  the  ciiurch  offices,  particularly  in  the  election  of  bishops 
and  presbyters. — The  bishop  nominates  the  lower  clergy. — Pope,  title 
of  illustrious  bishops. — Synods  in  respect  to  penitents  in  Asia  Minor. 
— Triumph  of  the  Episcopal  over  the  Presbyterial  s^-stem. 


532 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX. 


Jl.  D.  [  Roman  Emperors. 


Bishops,  Eccl.  Officers  and  Writers. 


250     Valerian,  d.  200. 


260 


270 


280 


290 


300 


310 


320 


Gallienus,  d.  268. 

Claudius  Gothicus,  d.  270. 

Aurelianus,  d.  275. 

Tacitus,  d.  276. 
Auielius  Frobus,  d.2S2. 


Aurelius  Carus,  regent  with 
Carinas,  d.  283. 

Nuinerianus,  d.  284. 

Diocletian  with  Maximian, 
from  286  to  305,  regents  for 
the  emperors  Galerius  and 
Constantine  Chlorus. 


306.  Constantius  Chlorus,  d. 
Constantine,  Maxentius,iVlax- 

imianus,  Galerius,  Severus, 
and  Maximin,  rulers. 

307.  Severus  d.  succeeded  by 
Licinius. 


Maximian,  d. 

311.  Galerius  d. 

312.  Maxentius  d. 

313.  Maximinus  d. 


Licinius,  d.  324. 

Constantine  sole  emperor,  d. 
337. 


330     Constantine  II.  d.  340. 
Constantius,  d.  361. 
Conslans,  d.  350. 


Firuulianus,  Bp.  of  Caesarea  in  Cap- 
padocia,  d.  269. 

254.  Origen  d. 

Sixtus  II.  Bp.  of  Rome,  d.  258. 

Dionysius,  Bp.  of  Rome,  d.  270. 
Sabellius. 

Paul  of  Samosata,  Bp.  of  Antioch, 
265—269. 

Commodianus. 

Felix,  Bp.  of  Rome,  d.  275. 

Mani,  d.  277. 

Eutychianus,  Bp.  of  Rome,  d.  283. 

Methodius,  Bp.  of  Tyre, 

Pierius  and  Theognostus  in  Alexan- 
dria. 
Caius,  Bp.  of  Rome,  d.  296. 


Pamphilius,  Pres.  in  Caesarea. 
Marcellinus,  Bp.  of  Rome,  d.  304. 
Lucian  and  Dorotheus,  Pres.  in  An- 
tioch. 

Peter,  Bp.  of  Alexandria,  d.  311. 
Marcellus,  Bp.  of  Rome,  d.  309. 

Arnobius,  orator  in  Sicca. 

Eusebius,  Bp.  of  Rome,  311. 

Melchiades,  Bp.  of  Rome,  d.  314. 


Lactantius. 

Alexander,  Bp.  of  Alexandria. 

Sylvester,  Bp.  of  Rome,  d.  335. 

Arius  in  Alexandria,  d.  336. 
Eusebius,  Bp.  of  Caesarea  in  Pales- 
tine, d.  340. 
Eusebius,  Bp.  of  Nicomedia. 
Eustalhius,  Bp.  Antioch. 
Alexander,  Bp,  of  Constantinoole. 
Athanasius,  Bp.  of  Alexandria,  d. 373. 


Juvencus. 

Marcus,  Bp.  of  Rome,  d.  336. 
Julius  I.  Bp.  Rome,  d.  352. 
Macarius,  Sea.  et  Jun. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX.  533 

Historical  Events. 


250  Grrgory  Thaumaturgus  permits  banquets  to  be  introduced  into  the  fes- 
tivals in  honor  of  the  martyrs.— 252.  Infant  baptism  at  the  council  of 
Carthage  declared  to  be  necessary.  Anointing  at  baptism  required  by 
Cyprian. — 253.  Stephen  of  Rome  withdraws  fellowship  from  the 
Christians  of  Asia  Minor  on  account  of  the  baptism  of  heretics. — Two 
councils  in  North  Africa  confirm  the  old  African  principles  upon  the 
subject  of  the  baptism  of  heretics  ;  on  this  account  Stephen  excom- 
municates the  North  Africans. — The  African  synod  in  the  autumn  of 
25(.),  declare  in  favor  of  the  customs  of  the  African  church. 

2G0.  The  practice  of  cheering  the  preacher  during  the  delivery  of  his  ser- 
mon.— The  Lord's  supper  has  become  more  complicated  and  splendid. 

270.  Fixed  formularies  for  the  administration  of  this  rite  are  formed. — Cata- 
logues of  the  members  of  the  church  and  of  Christians  that  have  died 
are  kept, 

2S0.  Infant  baptism  common  among  the  Persian  Christians. 

290.  Pamphilus  establishes  a  theological  school  in  Caesarea. — The  church 
year  begins  with  Easter  festival. — Attempt  to  introduce  images  into 
the  churches. 

300.  Peculiar  dress  of  the  clergy. — Beginning  of  sacred  hermeneuticks. — 
Tiie  beginnings  of  the  school  of  Antioch. — 305.  The  council  of  Elvi- 
ra forbids  images  in  churches. — The  splendid  church  in  Nicomedia 
destroyed. — The  council  at  Elvira  enjoins  sabbatical  fasts,  censures 
the  irregularities  in  the  keeping  of  vigils,  and  limits  the  festival  of 
Whitsuntide  to  one  day. — In  the  Romish  church  the  beginning  of  an 
eighty-four  years' Easter  cycle. — The  council  at  Elvira  determines 
the  duration  of  the  catechumenate. — The  practice  of  sending  conse- 
crated bread  as  a  sign  of  church  fellowship. — The  subterranean  vaults 
in  Rome  (catacombs)  used  for  christian  burial  places. — Christian  em- 
blems, pictures,  carving  on  the  coffins, and  funeral  lamps  in  the  niches 
of  the  walls. 

310.  The  council  at  Aries  gives  laws  respecting  the  baptism  of  heretics. — 
Churches  are  solemnly  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  God. — The  order 
of  rural  bishops  in  most  places  suppressed. — Regular  division  of  the 
penitents  into  classes. — Easter  cycle  of  nineteen  years  ;  perhaps  es- 
tablished by  Eusebius  of  Caesarea. — Church  in  Tyre  built  by  Paulinus. 

320.  Establishment  of  the  canonical  age  for  bishops  and  of  seven  as  the 
number  of  Deacons. — Exclusion  of  such  as  had  received  clinic  bap- 
tism from  the  rank  of  clergy. — Ecumenical  synods. —  Laws  against 
taking  those  who  have  been  penitents  and  neophytes  into  church  of- 
fices.— Fixed  regulations  respecting  the  number  and  time  of  the  pro- 
vincial synods. — Altars  mostly  of  wood. — Constantine  and  his  mother 
very  active  in  building  churches  in  Asia  and  Europe. — The  church 
of  St.  Sophia  built. — Several  Basilicae  are  granted  to  the  Christians. 
— 321.  (in  March  and  June)  Decrees  of  Constantine  in  respect  to  the 
observance  of  Sunday.  His  orders  respecting  the  army.  Law  for 
the  religious  observance  of  Friday. — 325.  The  Nicene  council  ordains 
a  uniform  celebration  of  the  passover  for  the  churches,  and  commits 
to  the  Alexandrians  the  calculation  of  Easter. — Celebration  of  a  festi- 
val of  the  Ascension. — Four  classes  of  catechumens. — Arius,  a  writer 
of  sacred  songs. — In  the  public  worship,  particular  prayers  for  cate- 
cliumens,  energumens,  and  penitents. 

330.  Arch-presbyters.  Arch-deacons.  Favorite  division  of  churches  into 
three  parts — ante-temple,  nave,  and  bema  or  sanctuary. — At  the  feast 
of  Epiphany  the  celebration  of  the  passover  is  announced.  The  ori- 
ental eighth  of  Whitsuntide  a  general  martyr  festival. — Supplications 
for  the  repose  of  the  souls  of  the  dead. — The  pretended  discovery  of 
the  cross  in  the  Holy  Land  promoted  the  superstition  about  the  use  of 
the  sign  of  the  cross. 


534 

Jl.D.\ 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX. 


Roman  Emperors. 


Bishops,  Eccl.  Officers  and  Writers. 


340 


350 


360 


370 


HGl.   Constantius,  d. 
Julian  the  Apostate,  d.  3G3. 
Jovian,  d.  3(J4. 
Valentinian  I.  in  the  West,  d. 

375. 
Valens  in  the  East,  d.  378. 


Gratian,d.  383. 
Valentinian  11.  d.  392. 
Theodosius  in  the  East. 


Julius  Finn.  Maternus. 
Gregorius,  bp.  of  Ale.xandria. 
342.  Macedonius,  bp.  of  Constanti- 
nople. 
Eusebius,  bp.  of  Einesa,  d.  360. 
Eeontius,  bp.  of  Antioch. 
Hilarius,  bp.  of  Pictavium,  d.  368. 


Liberins,  bp.  of  Rome,  352 — 55  and 

58—06. 
Felix,  bp.  of  Rome,  355 — 58. 
Cyrill,  bp.  of  Jerusalem,  d.  386. 
Zeno,  bp,  of  Verona. 
Hilary,  Dea.  Luciferit. 


Aerius,  Presb.  in  Sebaste. 
Ephraem  the  Syrian,  dea.  of  Edessa, 

d.  378. 
Hieronymus  Stridon,  d.  420. 
Rufinus  of  A(]uileia,  d.  410. 
Epiphanius,  bp.  of  Constantia,  d.  403. 
Damasus,  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  384. 


Optatus,  bp.  of  Mileri. 

Basil,  bp.  of  Caesarea  in  Cappado- 
cia,  d.  379. 

Gregory  bp.  of  Nyssa,  d.  after  394. 

Martin,  bp.  of  Tours,  d.  after  400. 

Amphilochius,  bp.  of  Iconium,  d. 
after  31)4. 

Diodorus,  bp.  of  Tarsus,  d.  about  390. 

Ambrose,  bp.  of  Milan,  d.  397. 

Philastrius,  bp.  of  Brixia. 

Gregory  Nazianzen,  bp.  of  Constan- 
tinople, d.  391. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX.  535 

Historical  Events. 


340.  Bishops  and  emperors  exert  an  important  influence  upon  church  elec- 
tions.—341.  Decision  upon  the  riglits  of  provincial  synods.  New  re- 
strictions upon  the  country  bishops.— 344.  Decision  upon  the  passage 
of  the  bishop  through  the  diflercnt  grades  of  the  clergy.  The  instal- 
lation  of  country  bishops   prohibited. Images    in    many    oriental 

churches. — 341.  Decision  in  Antioch  upon  the  celebration  of  the  pass- 
over. — Festival  of  the  Maccabees   in   Syria.— Anniversary  festival  in 
commemoration  of  the   dedication  of  churches. — Celebration   of  the 
festival  of  the  birth  of  Christ  in  Rome  (on  the  25th  of  December).— 
The  ceremonies  before   and    at   baptism  have  become  complicated. 
Anointing  before  and  after  baptism.     The   changing  of  the   name  at 
baptism  is  practised.     The  delaying  of  baptism  a  somewhat  general 
fault  particularly  of  the  oriental  churches. 
350.  Church  singers.     In   the    East  the  emperors  are  allowed  to  go  into  the 
bema. — Aerius  urges  to  a  reformation  of  life  in  the  church,  and   is 
particularly  opposed  to  distinction  of  rank  in  the  church. — In  Gangra 
Sunday  fasts  prohibited. — The  heathen  calends  of  January   kept  a- 
mong  the  Christians  as  a  fast  day. — Responsive  singing  introduced  by 
the  monks  into  the  cimrch  of  Antioch. — Hilarius  of  Pictavium  a  wri- 
ter of  hymns. — Liturgies   are    written  (.').     Preparatory  exorcism  on 
the  days  previous  to  baptism  by  Cyril!  of  Jerusalem. — Aerius  attack- 
ed the  false  notion  of  the  elficacy  of  prayers  for  the  dead. — A  special 
burial  service. — Solemnization  of  funerals.    Joyoi  irnruifiut,  particu- 
larly in  the  East. 
360.  Itinerant  presbyters  appointed  in  the  place  of  country  bishops. — Theo- 
logical school  at  Edessa. — The  teaching  of  heathen  literature  in  chris- 
tian schools  forbidden  by  Julian.     He  establishes  a  christian  institu- 
tion afterwards  among  the  heathen. — The  office  of  oeconomus  (stew- 
ard of  tlie  church). — Benevolent  institutions  of  every  kind  proceeding 
from  the  church,  in  the  cities  and  in  the  country,  particularly  in  the 
East. — Western    churches  begin  to  lose   their    importance. — Altars 
built  of  stone. — Church  laws  for  the  celebration  of  Sunday,  the  sab- 
bath  and   the  quadrigesima. — Julian  celebrates  Epiphany  in  Vienna. 
Martyr-festivals,  with  vigils,  very  frequent.     Dies  stationum  (station- 
ary days)  continue  to  be  kept  in  Egypt,  Asia  Minor,  Constantinople, 
and  in  other  places. — Imperial  pardons   granted   at  Easter. — Council 
of  Laodicea  forbids  the  singing  of  Apocryphal  psalms  in  the  churches, 
and  the  holding  of  love-feasts  in  the  churches. — Basilius,  a  promoter 
of  responsive  singing  in   the  churches. — Ephraem  composes  church 
hymns. — The   practice  of  carrying  consecrated   bread   as  though  it 
possessed  magical  powers. — The  composition  of  little  doxologies  by  the 
anti-Arians  is  opposed  in  Cappadocia. — The  office  of  copiatae. — The 
practice  of  crowning  newly  married  people  with   wreaths,  of  veiling 
the  bride,  etc.  retained. — The  council  of  Laodicea  forbids   improper 
usages  at  weddings,  and  the  celebration  of  marriage  in  the  time  of  the 
quadrigesimal  fasts. 
370.  Heathen  temples  are  converted  into  christian  churches. —  During  the 
great  week  in  Cappadocia  daily  morning  and  evening  service. — A  lo- 
cal festival  in  Alexandaia  in  commemoration  of  the   earthquakes. — 
Epiphany  the  time  for  baptism  in  the  East. — Basil  of  Caesareaa  zeal- 
ous liturgist. — Ambrose  transfers  responsive  singing  to  the  churches 
of  the  West,  composes  hymns  for  the  church,  and  does  away  the  love 
feasts. — The  chapels  of  the  martyrs  are  used  for  burying  places  in 
Cappadocia. — Christian  family  vaults. 


536 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX. 


Ji.D. 


Roman  Emperors. 


380 


I    Bishops,  Eccl.  Officers  and  Writers. 


390 


392.  Theodosius  sole  emperor, 
d.  395. 


Division  of  the  Empire. 
Western  Rom.      Eastern  Rom. 


400 


410 


Empire. 

Honorius,  d. 
423. 


Empire. 

Arcadius,   d. 

408. 
Empress  Eu- 

docia. 


Theodosius  II. 
d.  450. 


414.  Pulcheria 
Augusta. 


Didymus,  president  of  the  catecheti- 
cal school  at  Alexandria,  d.  395. 

Jovian,  monk  in  Rome. 

Apollinaris,  bp.  of  Laodicea. 

Siricius,  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  398. 

Theophilus,  bp.  of  Alexandria,  d.  412. 

Johannes  Chrysostom.  38G.  Pres.  in 
Antioch.  398.  Bp.  of  Constanti- 
nople, d.  407. 

Asterius,  bp.  of  Amasia. 

Severianus,  bp.  of  Gabala,  d.   after 

408. 


Augustine,  bp.  of  Hippo,  d.  430. 

Theodorus,  bp.  of  Mopsvestia,  d.  429. 
Palladius  the  Younger,  bp.   of  Aspo- 

na,  d.  before  431. 
Severus  Endelechius. 
Gaudenlius,  bp.  of  Brixia. 
Anastasius  I.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  402. 
Sulpitius  Severus,  Presb.  d.  420. 


Paulinus,  bp,  of  Nola,  d.  431. 
Innocent  I.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  417, 
Atticus,  bp.  of  Constantinople. 
Prudentius. 


Vigilantius,  Presb.  in  Barcelona, 
V^ictor  of  Antioch. 


Nilus  the  monk. 
Pelagius  and  Caelestius. 
Joannes  Cassianus,  d.  after  432. 
Cyril,  bp.  of  Alexandria,  d.  444. 
Isidorus  of  Pelusium,  d.  about  440. 
Zosimus,  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  418. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX.  537 

Historical  Events. 


380.  Church  fZ(5.zoi.— Christian  poor-houses  and  hospitals  in  Italy.— The 
office  of  penitentiary  presbyter  abolished.— The  Lateran  and  St.  1  e- 
ter's  church   in    Rome.— Epiphanius    opposed    to  having   images    in 
churches.— Baptisteries  in  or  near  the  church.— 3!r<).  Renewed  order 
ofthe  emperor  in  relation  to  the   celebration  of  Sunday.— Disagree- 
ment of  Rome  and  Alexandria  as  to  the  celebration  ot  Easter.— Dii- 
ferent  practice  in  the  oriental  cliurches   in   respect  to  sabbath  fasts. 
The  Romish  church  warmly  defends  her  own  usage  in  respect  to  it.— - 
3s().  The  festival   of  Christ's  birth  celebrated  in  Syria  on  the  25th  of 
December.— Decree  of  the  Anti-Friscillians  against  partaking  ofthe 
Lord's  supper  out  ofthe  church.— Complaints  against  theatrical  sing- 
ing in  the  church.— :5dl .  Decree  of  the  ecumenical  council  respecting 
those  that  re-baptized   heretics.— More   fixed    regulations  respecting 
church  reading.— Siricius  of  Rome  forbids   baptism   in    Epiphany.— 
Images  of  the  cross  very  frequent. — Images  of  Christ  are  still   oppo- 
sed.—In   the   Romish   church   even   in   espousals  the  blessing  of  the 
priest  was  necessary.— Tlieodosius  revived  the  Roman  law  that  bury 
rying  places  should  be  witliout  the  city. 
390.  Missions  are   promoted  by  Chrysostom  — A  mission  institute  at  Con- 
stantinople for  the  Goths  —3^8.  State  laws  respecting  the  choice  of 
monks  to  clerical  offices,  and  respecting  the  appointment  of  country 
clergy. — Decrees  ofthe  western  church  in  relation  to  the  trial  ofthe 
clergy  —3iJ2  (and  3S!l).  Laws  ofthe  empire  to  suspend  ordinary  busi- 
ness°eight  days  before    and  eight  days  after   Easter —393.  Evening 
commu'nion   on    Dies  viridium.— In  Antioch,  on  Good  Friday,  meet- 
ino-s  for  divine  service  in  the  churches  ofthe  martyrs.- The  Donatists 
oppose  the  festival  of  Epiphany.— The  birth  day  of  Christ  as   deter- 
mined at  Rome,  generally  adopted  in  the  West.— The  birth   of  John 
Baptist  celebrated  on  the"'24th  of  June.— Heathen  usages  in  the  cele- 
bration of  festivals.— 31)3.  The  reading  of  uncanonical  books,  saluta- 
tion by  the  reader,  and   the   distribution  ofthe  eucharist  to  the  dead 
forbidden.— The  bishops  alone  confer  confirmation— In  Rome  no  her- 
etic may  be  re-baptized.— Repasts  for  the   poor  take  the  place  ofthe 
old  love  feasts  —The  custom  of  employing  mourning-women  is  intro- 
duced into  the  church  —Alms  are  distributed  in  memory  ofthe  dead. 
— Images  are  allowed  in  the  East. 
40()._407.   Defensors  of  tlie   church    established.— 40:^.  Laws    of  the    em- 
peror for  the  establishment  of  Episcopal  jurisdiction.— 409.   Laws  giv- 
incr  the  bishops  the  oversight   of  the   prisons.— Paulinus  is  active  in 
building  churches  in  JNola  and  Fundi— 401.  Request  of  the  Africans 
to  the  (Tmperor  to  restrain  public  amusements   on   Sunday. — Vigilan- 
tius  opposes  the  vigils.— Celebration   of  the  death   of  Theodosius  in 
Constantinople— Innocent  of  Rome  establishes  the  sabbatical  fast  by 
a  law  ofthe  church.— Celebration  ofthe  anniversary  ofthe  ordination 
of  bishops.— Family  communion  continues   in   many  churches  of  the 
East  and   West.— Practice   of  vicarious  baptism   among  the  pseudo- 
Marcionites  in  Syria.— A  pretended  hymn  of  Christ  among  the  Fris- 
cillianists.— Theburial  ofthe  dead  the  common  custom.— Bishops  in- 
terred in  the  churches.— Feasts  at  the  graves  of  the  dead,  with  many 
abuses  accompanying. 
410.  4Ui.  Office  ofthe  parabolani  in  Constantinople.— 418.  Increase  of  the 
parabolani  to  600.— Paulinus  favors    the   use   of  images  in  churches 
and  baptisteries,  particularly  for  the  instruction  of  the  country  people. 
—In  tiie  East  complaints  of  there    being    too    many   images    in    the 
churches  —Representation  ofthe  sign  of  the  cross  in  churches.— In- 
scriptions in  and  upon  churches.— Contest  in  North  Africa  about  the 
sabbatical  fast. 

68 


538 


CHBONOLOGICAL  INDEX. 


410 


Roman  Emperors. 


Bishops,  Eccl,  Officers  and  Writers. 


420 


Boniface  1.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  422. 
Possidius,  bp.  of"  Calama. 
Synesius,  bp.  of  Ptolemais. 
Philostorgius,  ecclesiastical  writer. 
Coelestinus  I.  bp.  of  Roine,  d.  432. 
Valentinian  III.  Vincentius  of  Lirinum,  d.  before  440. 

d.455.  Nestorius,  bp.  of  Constantinople,  d. 

about  440.  [457. 

Theodoret,  bp.  of  Cyrus^^in  Syria,  d. 

N.  B.  The  church  history  of  Socrates  extends  from  SOf)  to  430  (continued  by 
Theodoret  to  ,520)  ;  that  of  Sozomen  from  323  to  423  ;  that  of  Philostor- 
gius, an  Arian  bishop,  from  300  to  425  ;  that  of  Theodoret  from  325  to 
429;  that  of  Evagrius  continuator  of  Socrates  and  Theodoret  from  431 
to  593. 

430  \  John,bp.  of  Antioch. 

Proclus,  bp.  of  Constantinople,  d.  446. 

Hilary,  bp.  of  Aries,  d.  449. 

Sixtus  111.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  440. 

Peter  Chrysolpgus,  bp.  of  Ravenna, 
d.  458. 

Barsumas,  bp.  of  Nisibis,  to  489. 
440  Ibas,  bp.  of  Edessa,  to  457. 

Leo  1.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  461. 

Salvianus,  presb.  in  Massilia. 

Socrates  the  historian. 

Sozomen  the  historian. 

Dioscurus,  bp.  of  Alexandria. 

Proterius,  bp.  of  Alexandria. 

Flavian,  bp.  of  Constantinople. 
450  Pulcheria,    d.     Symeon  Stylitcs,d.  4(i0. 

Paschasinus,  bp.  of  Lilybaeum. 

Maximus,  bp.  of  Turin. 

Mamertus,  bp.  of  Vienna. 

Gennadius,  bp.  of  Constantinople. 

Timotheus  Aelurus,  bp.    of  Alexan- 
dria. 

Arnobius  the  Younger. 

Hilary,  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  468. 

Timotheus,  bp.  of  Alexandria. 

Simplicius,  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  483. 

Peter  the  Fuller. 

Sidonius  ApoHinaris,bp.  of  Clermont. 

Faustus  of  Rnegium,  d.  after  490. 

Acacius,  bp.  of  Constantinople. 

Petrus  the  monk,  bp.  of  Alexandria. 

Victor,  bp.  of  Vita. 

Gennadius,  presb.  of  Masillon,  d.  after 
493. 

Vigilius.bp.  of  Tapsus. 

Macedonius,  bp.  of  Constantinople. 

Felix  HI.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  492. 

Flavian,  bp.  of  Antioch. 
480  Gelasius,  I.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.496. 

Anastasius  II.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  498. 

A  Vitus,  bp.  of  Vienna. 


460 


470 


Pulcheria,    d. 

453. 
Marcian,  died 

457.    , 
457.  Leo  I.  the 

Thracian. 


Ricimer,  d. 
472. 


Anthemius. 


474.    Leo   II. 

475.  Romulus     soon  succeed- 
Augustus.         ed  bj'  his   fa- 
ther Zeno. 

The  Western  empire  is  divi- 
ded into  several  new  states. 

476.  Odoaster, 
k.  of  Italy  and 
Noricum. 

481.Clovis,I.  d. 
511. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX,  539 

Historical  Events. 

410.  Cynll  improves  the  Easter-table  of  Theophilus. — Celebration  of  the 
Festum  Stephani  in  North  Africa;  (Still  earlier  in  the  interior  of 
Italy.) — In  the  oriental  churches  candles  are  lighted  while  the  Gospels 
are  read. — Theodosius  II.  diminishes  the  number  of  the  copiatae. 


420.  In  the  East  the  people  still  take  part  in  the  church  elections. — Votive 
offerings  in  the  cliurches,  particularly  in  the  chapels  of  the  martyrs. — 
425.  Theatrical  exhibitions  on  Sunday  and  on  the  higli  church  festi- 
vals forbidden  by  the  emperor. — In  Egypt  a  separate  celebration  of 
the  festival  of  Christ's  birth. — Celebration  of  the  feast  of  annuncia- 
tion. 


430.  Office  of  the  Apocrisiarii. — The  celebration  of  the  Quadrigesimal  fasts 
is  still  different  in  difl^erent  ecclesiastical  provinces. — JNo  definite  laws 
for  the  keeping  of  fasts  yet  fixed. — Prostration  of  the  people  on  the 
exhibition  of  the  elements  of  the  supper  (.') 


440.  441.  The  appointment  of  deaconesses  forbidden  in  the  West. — Crosses 
upon  the  altar. — Altars  richly  ornamented. —  Councils  are  held  in  the 
baptisteries. — Contentions  about  the  Easier  festival  of  the  year  444. 
— The  Romans  take  the  side  of  the  Alexandrians, — Festum  cathedrae 
Petri  in  the  Romish  church. — Remains  of  heathen  customs  which  be- 
came mingled  in  the  Roman  celebration  of  Christ's  birth. — JNew  con- 
test about  the  calculation  of  Easter. —  Leo  of  Rome  yields  to  the  Alex- 
andrians.— Infant  Baptism  a  common  church  ordinance. — The  Trisa- 
gion  Hymn  is  altered. 


450.  451.  The  office  of  oeconoraus  established  by  law. — The  bishops  have 
the  spiritual  oversight  of  the  cloisters. — Church  Lectionarii  in  the 
Gallic  churches. 


460.  Canon  Paschalis  of 'Victorius  Aquilanus  introduced  into  Rome  in  465. 
—  Leo  allows  penitents  the  privilege  of  private  confession  previous  to 
their  being  received  again  into  the  church. — 461.  Council  of  Tours 
decrees  that  the  bread  be  dipped  in  wine  in  the  communion  of  the 
sick.  Burial  places  in  churches,  particularly  in  those  of  the  martyrs, 
are  considered  as  peculiarly  holy. — 46L>.  The  edict  of  425  respecting 
the  observance  of  Sunday  made  more  strict. 


470.  Peter  Fullo  makes  an  addition  to  the  Trisagion. — The  North  African 
church  holds  strictly  to  a  particular  form  of  prayer. — Parents  sponsors 
for  their  own  children. — Rogation  days  instituted  at  'Vienna. 


480.  48D.  Destruction  of  the  theological  school  at  Edessa. — The  festival  of 
Peter  and  Paul  celebrated  at  Constantinople  with  new  splendor. — Ge- 
lasius  of  Rome  active  in  behalf  of  liturgies. 


540 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX. 


Jl.  D.  j  Roman  Emperors. 


Bishops,  Eccl.  Officers  and  Writers. 


490 


500 


510 


520 


530 


540 


550 


560 


570 


580 


590 


4iJl.  Anastasius 
emperor  until 
518. 


518.  Justin  1.  to 
527. 


526.  Atalaric, 
k.oftheOs-    527.    Justinian 
tragoths.  to  565. 


534.  Theodat 
k.  of  Ostrogs. 

536.  Vitiges,k. 
of  Ostrogs. 


Totila,   k.    of    Empress  The- 
Ostrog.  odora. 


552.Tejas,k.of 

Ostrog. 
558.Chlotar,  k. 

of  France. 

565.  Justin  II. 

to  578. 
578.  Tiber  II. 


582.Mauritius. 


Synimaciius,  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  514. 

Boethius,  d.  525. 

Epiphanius  the  hist'n  of  the  church. 

Tlieodorus,  historian  of  the  church. 

Dionysius  the  Small. 

Caesarius,  bp.  of  Aries,  d.  542. 

Hormisdas  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  523. 

Philoxenus,  bp.  of  Hierapolis. 
Fulgentius,  bp.  of  Ruspe,  d.  533. 
Procopius  of  Gaza. 
John  of  Cappadocia,  bp.  of  Constan- 
tinople, d.  520: 
Epiphanius,  bp.  of  Constantinople. 
John  I.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  526. 
Felix  IV.  hp.  of  Rome,  d.  530. 
Boniface  11.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  532. 
John  II.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  535. 


Agapet  I.bp.  of  Rome,  d.  536. 

Anthimus,  bp.  of  Constantinople. 

Silverius,  bp.  of  Rome. 

Vigilius,  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  555. 

Fulgentius,  dea.  at  Carthage,  d.  be- 
fore 551 . 

Cosmas  Indicopleustes. 

Aurelius  Cassiodorus,  d.  after  562. 

Primasius,  bp.  of  Adrumetum. 

Facundus,  bp.  of  Hermiane,  d.  about 
570. 

Junilius,  African  bp. 

Pelagius  1.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  560. 
Procopius  of  Caesarea. 
John  ill.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  573. 
John  Philoponus,  d.  after  610. 

Joannes  Scholasticus,  bp.  of  Const. 

d.  578. 


Benedict  I.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  578. 
Pelagius  II.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  590. 
Evagrius,  the  historian. 
Joannes  Jejunator,  bp.  of  Const. 

Leander,  bp.  of  Hispalis. 
Gregory  I.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  604. 


Augustinus,  in  Britain. 
Cyriacus,  bp.  of  Constantinople. 
Isidorus,  bp.  of  Hispalis,  d.  636. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX.  541 

Historical  Events, 

490,  A  special  office  instituted  in  Constantinople  for  enrolling  the  catechu- 
mens in  the  church  books. — Council  of  Agde  orders,  that  on  Palm- 
Sunday  the  catechumens  shall  publicly  repeat  the  creed. — Consecra- 
tion of  altars, 

500.  Romish  bishops  bear,  by  way  of  eminence,  the  title  of  pope. — Church 
ordinance  respecting  lay  communion. — The  division  of  divine  service 
into  two  parts  begins  gradually  to  disappear. — Legends  respecting  im- 
ages of  Christ  not  made  with  hands. — Celebration  of  Christmas  eve. 
Ordinance  respecting  the  celebration  of  Rogation  days  in  Gaul. 

510.  In  the  Gallic  and  Romish  churches  frequent  participation  of  Christians 
in  the  heathen  celebration  of  New  Year. — Decree  of  the  council  of 
Gironne  respecting  Rogations. — Easter-table  of  Dionysius  E.xiguus. 
• — In  the  Gallic  and  Romish  church  the  ecclesiastical  year  begins  at 
Christmas. — 517.  In  the  West,  prohibitions  of  the  appointment  of 
deaconesses  repeated. 

520.  The  Benedictines  have  the  charge  of  the  education  of  youth. — Hundred 
deacons  in  Constantinople. — 524.  Council  of  Valencia,  passes  a  decree 
in  relation  to  the  reading  of  the  gospels. — The  Te  Dcum  appears  in 
the  rule  of  the  Benedictines, — 527.  The  calculation  of  Dionysius  re- 
specting Easter  adopted  at  Rome. — Great  activity  in  building  church- 
es in  the  East,  particularly  in  Constantinople.  52'J.  In  the  West  a 
decree  for  the  education  of  the  clergy. — Church  order  in  respect  to 
the  oversight  of  prisons  by  the  bishops. — In  Palestine  a  combined  cel- 
ebration of  the  baptism  and  birth  of  Christ  at  Epiphany  festival,  con- 
tinues. 

530.  Order  in  relation  to  the  city  church  in  Constantinople. — Rebuilding  of 
the  church  of  St.  Sophia. — 538.  Laws  for  the  celebration  of  Sunday 
passed  at  the  synod  in  Orleans. — Prohibition  of  marriage  between  bap- 
tized persons  and  their  sponsors. 

540.  Order  of  the  emperor  respecting  the  installation  of  the  clergy,  and  the 
evidence  to  be  given  by  them  of  their  agreement  with  the  faith  of  the 
church. — Consecration  of  the  sites  of  churches. — Canon  of  V'ictorius 
continues  in  Gaul. 

550.  Theological  school  at  Nisibis  flourishes. 

560.  Arch-subdeacons. — 502.  Dedication  of  the  church  of  St.  Sophia. — In- 
stitution of  a  three  days"  fast  in  the  Gallic  church  for  the  time  of  the 
celebration  of  the  festival  of  the  calends. — Prohibition  of  abuses  in  the 
Festum  Cathedrae  Petri. — The  council  of  Braga  forbids  tombs  in  the 
inner  area  of  churches,  and  the  use  of  the  burial  service  at  the  inter- 
ment of  suicides. 

570.  In  the  church  of  St.  Sophia,  a  vault  for  the  prince. — Council  of  Braga 
forbids  the  practice  of  dipping  bread  in  wine  at  the  supper. — A  festum 
circunirisionis  on  the  first  day  of  January. — 572.  A  law  in  the  West 
concerning  the  visitation  of  the  districts  of  the  bishops. 

580. — 585.  A  church  order  respecting  the  care  of  widows  and  orphans. — 
The  council  of  Mascon  enjoins  the  continuation  of  Easter  festival  to 
the  pascha  davsum. — The  formula  of  distribution  in  the  Romish 
church  becomes  longer. — A  single  immersion  in  baptism  in  the  Span- 
ish church. — The  council  of  Toledo  requires  the  recitation  of  the 
creed  in  the  liturgy  of  the  supper. — The  calculation  of  Easter  accord- 
ing to  Dionysius  adopted  in  Spain. — The  Romish  quadrigesima=36 
days. 

590.  The  Romish  church  active  in  missions. — Gregory  allows  to  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  the  celebration  of  festivals  with  banquets,  and  establishes  the 
litania  scptiformis. — The  Alexandrian  calculation  of  Easter  found  in 
Gaul. — Contentions  of  Augustine  with  the  ancient  Britons  about 
their  reckoning  of  Easter. 


542 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX. 


A.D. 


Roman  Emperors. 


610 


620 
630 


640 


650 


660 


670 
6ti0 


690 
700 


Chlotar  II.  k. 
of  France. 


602.  Phocas. 
610.Heraclius. 


655.ClovisII. 
656.     Chlotar 
111. 


Pepin. 


Constanline 

III. 
Pleraclionas. 
Constans  II. 


668.  Constan- 
tine  IV. 


685.  Justinian 
II. 

695.  Leontius. 


I    Bishops,  Eccl.  Officers  and  Writers. 
Sabinian,  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  606. 
Thomas,  bp.  of  Constantinople. 
Boniface  III.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  607. 
Boniface  IV.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  615. 

Sergius,  bp.  of  Constantinople. 
Deusdedit,  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  618. 
Boniface  V.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  625. 
Honorius  I.  bp,  of  Rome,  d.  638. 
Sophronius,  bp.  of  Jerusalem. 
Pyrrhus,bp.  of  Constantinople. 
Severinus,  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  640. 
John  IV.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  642. 
Theodore,  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  649. 
Martin  I.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  655. 
Eugcnius  I.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  657. 
Vital ian  1.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  672. 
Thomas,  bp.  of  Constantinople. 
John,  bp.  of  Constantinople. 

Theodore,  bp.  of  Canterbury. 
Constantine,  bp.  of  Constantinople. 
Adeodatus,  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  676. 
Donus  I.  bp,  of  Rome,  d.  ()78. 
Agalho,  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  682. 
Leo  11.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  683. 
Benedict  II.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  685. 
John  V.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  686. 
Sonon,  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  687, 
Sergius  I.  bp.  of  Rome,  d.  701. 
TJie  venerable  Bede,  d.  735. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX.  543 

Historical  Events. 

590.  Gregory  I.  improves  the  church  singing,  establishes  a  school  for  sing- 
ers, gives  a  new  form  to  tlie  liturgy  of  the  supper,  is  opposed  to  the 
worship  of  images,  but  not  to  their  use  in  tlie  churches. 

600.  The  Roman  I'anlheon  becomes  a  christian  church. — Continuation  of 
the  Easter  table  of  Dionysius  Exiguus. — Leander  and  Isidor  active 
for  the  liturgy  in  tlie  Spanish  cliurch. 

610.  Feast  of  All  Saints  in  the  Romish  church. 

620.  Bells  are  found  in  the  West. — Fcstitm  apparitionis  .St.  Michaelis  ill 
Rome. — Monks  and  clergy  not  permitted  to  become  sponsors. 

630.  First  appearance  of  the  bishop's  Baculus  and  Annulus, —  Council  of 
Toledo  enjoins  fasts  on  the  day  of  Christ's  death  ;  prescribes  concern- 
ing the  consecration  of  wax  candles  for  Easter. —  Prescription  of  tlie 
council  of  Toledo  respecting  church  hymns — The  oriental  church- 
teachers  seek  to  justify  scientifically  the  worship  of  images. 

640.  Deaconesses  continue  in  the  oriental  church. — Feast  of  the  transfigu- 
ration of  Christ  in  tiie  oriental  church. 

650. — 656.  Festum  unnuntiationis  on  the  25th  of  March  instituted  in  Toledo. 
— Remains  of  the  old  custom  of  the  TT^offyo^ot  in  the  supper  in  the 
Greek  church. 

670.  Heathen  customs  mingle  themselves  in  the  festivals  of  the  Virgin. — 
Unleavened  bread  commonly  used  in  the  supper. 

690. — 092.  Council  of  Trullan  forbids  the  reception  of  emoluments  for  the 
administration  of  the  sacraments. — Council  of  Trullan  against  symbo- 
lical representations  of  Christ,  and  against  crosses  upon  the  floor  of 
churches. — Council  of  Trullan  requires  the  keeping  of  the  sabbath  as 
a  fast ;  brings  to  remembrance  the  after-celebration  of  Easter  ;  for- 
bids the  missa  pracsanctificat  on  the  day  of  the  annunciation  to  Mary  ; 
condemns  the  remains  of  the  heathen  celebration  of  the  calends,  and 
the  customs  of  St.  John's  day  ;  gives  orders  upon  the  spiritual  rela- 
tion between  the  baptized  person  and  the  sponsors  ;  upon  the  J^nrovq- 
yia  ru)v  nQoi]yiaaiuvuiv,  and  confirms  the  decision  of  381  respecting 
heretics. 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


^A^^a,  pope,  76. 

"A^arov,  advrov,  189. 

Abraxas,  ti)ystical  name,  35. 

Absolute  or  independent  bishops, 
86. 

Accampia,  148. 

Acolyths,  their  office,  and  duties, 
and  ordination,  159. 

Aedituus,  126. 

AyuTxai,  agapae,  293 :  origin  of 
the  name  and  custom,  325  : 
mode  of  celebration,  325  :  titne 
and  place  of  celebration,  327  : 
abolition  of  the  custom,  328. 

Age,  canonical,  of  the  clergy,  156. 

"dyiov,  uyiaa^ia,  ayiov,  ayiuv,  182. 

"AyioL,  title  of  Christians,  39,  40. 

Ay.£(ftt}.og,  86. 

Axoifxnol,  64. 

Ay.QOb)^ivot,  339. 

Album  matricula. 

Altar  of  the  church,  names,  cover- 
ing, material,  etc.  192,  3. 

Amen,  response,  218,  233. 

Avciy.aj.imi]ola,  190. 

Avaaiofjov,  117,  182. 

Anchorets,  64. 

Ancillae  Dei,  65,  115. 

Angels  of  the  church,  bishops,  75. 
angels  addressed  in  prayer,  206. 

Annuius  sponsalitius,  pronubus, 
pallatii,  82. 

Annunciation,  festival  of,  440. 

Ante-chambers  of  churches,  184. 

Ante-legomena,  not  read  in  public, 
229. 

Antistae,  115. 

"^A^ioi,  ava^Log,  mode  of  taking  a 
vote,  134. 

Apocrisiarii,  129. 


Apocryphal  books,read  in  religious 
assemblies,  230. 

Apostles,  69  :  title  of  bishops,  75  : 
seldom  baptized,  274. 

Apostles'  days,  feast  of,  442. 

Apostolical  canons,  date  and  ori- 
gin,  38,  39. 

Apostolical  Constitutions,  their  au- 
thor, contents,  date,  and  value, 
36—38. 

Apostolical  Constitutions  describe 
the  Lord's  supper,  303. 

Anoia^tt^iivol,  64. 

A[»paritor,  121. 

Ap})ointments,  ecclesiastical,  131 
—137. 

Aichbishops,  their  title  and  rank, 
84. 

Archdeacons,  time  and  object  of 
their  appointment,  113 — 14  : 
qualifications,  113, 14  :  their  of- 
fices, ambition,  and  povirer,  114, 
15. 

Archi-cantor,  124. 

Archpresbyters,  their  office  and 
influence,  106. 

Ascetics,  uaxTjzai,  63  :  originated 
in  Egypt,  62. 

Ark  of  Noah,  name  of  church,  140. 

Armenian  church,  origin  and  pro- 
gress, 466. 

Assinaeii,  Christians  so  called  by 
their  enemies,  45. 

Aspersion,  baptism  by  it,  276 : 
term  of  reproach  for  Christians, 
45. 

Attendamus,  112. 

Attitude  in  devotion,  222,  24. 

''A&eoi,  term  of  reproach  for  Chris- 
tians, 45. 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


545 


Augustine,  a  catechumen,  52. 
AiiniiM  tiioniciiiii,  143. 
AvioxiqxxXog,  86, 

Bakers,  Cliiistiaiis  so  called  by 
their  enemies,  44. 

BaiKis  of  marriage,  403. 

Capiism,  ceremonies  after,  105: 
names  of  it,  255 :  historical 
sketch,25(!:  vviien  iMstit(itetl,25G: 
Christian  liajnism,  when  intro- 
duced, 257  :  puhlicly  adminis- 
tered, 257:  in  connection  with 
the  sacrament,  257:  adminis- 
tered to  the  candidates  naked, 
257  :  custom  of  re-haptizing, 
baptism  of  heretics,  258:  infant 
baptism,  52,  258 — 6G  :  univer- 
sality of  christian  baptism,  259: 
views  of  German  scholars, — 
Baumgarten-Crusius,  Halm,  De 
Welte,  Neander,  Rheinwald, 
Gieseler,  and  Siegel,  259,  60: 
testimony  of  the  fatiiers,  261 — 
66:  Augustine  and  Cy|)rian,261: 
Origen,  262:  Tertuliian,  263: 
Irenaeus,  264 :  Justin  Martyr, 
266 :  household  baptism,  266  : 
baptism  of  the  living  for  the 
dead,  267 :  persons  to  whom 
baptism  was  not  administered, 
267 — 9:  by  whom  administered, 
269:  preparation  for  adminis- 
tering it,  271  :  by  laymen,  271  : 
time  of  administering  it,  271  : 
of  bells,  269  :  place  of  baptism, 
273  ;  elements  for  it,  274  :  mode 
and  form,  275  :  form  of  words, 
277  :  preliminaries  of  baptism, 
catechetical  instruction  and  cov- 
enant, 278  :  exorcism,  279  : 
ceremonies  after  baptism  :  kiss 
of  peace,  chrism,  clothing  in 
white,  burning  tapers,  washing 
of  the  feet,  wearing  of  garlands, 
etc.  281:   baptisteries,  188,273. 

Bama,  ftitJiii'^bi,  JDantiafiog,  ^an- 
■iKTfia,  255. 

Bedellus,  a  beadle,  121. 

69 


Bells,  first  used,  191:  tolling  of 
bells,  191,  412:  baptism  of 
them,  269. 

Hema  of  a  church,  182. 

Benediction  and  consecration  by 
presbyters,  105. 

Iho&uriToi,  Christians  so  called  by 
their  enemies,  44:  Christians  de- 
nominate<l  by  their  enemies,  44. 

Bishop,  a  universal  hierarch,  79: 
his  influence  in  the  church 
government,  80:  name  of  bish- 
op an  honorary  distinction,  98, 
102:  his  duty  to  baptize,  270: 
to  confirm,  2!)0  :  to  administer 
the  Lord's  supper,  307:  import 
of  the  term,  bishop,  74  :  official 
title  of  a  presbyter,  74  :  bishops, 
their  official  duties,  77,  81,  238 
— 40  :  their  badges  of  office, 
81 — 4:  several  orders  of,  84: 
their  civil  and  ecclesiastical  ju- 
risdiction, 81  :  the  same  as 
presl»yters,  94 — 103  :  and  {)res- 
byters,  their  titles,  100 :  em- 
ployed as  referees  to  settle  dis- 
putes, 144. 

Bis|)illiones,  12.5. 

Black  used  in  mourning,  415. 

Blood -baptism,  55. 

Boat  of  Peter,  180. 

Boots,  badge  of  the  bishops,  82. 

Bowing  the  head  in  prayer,  223. 

Bread  of  the  eucharist,  quality, 
314:  form,  315. 

Burying  of  the  dead,  408:  burial 
places,  409. 

Candidi,  name  of  catechumens,  49. 
Calendar  revised  by  Julius  Caesar, 

423. 
Caligae,  badge  of  bishop,  82,  148. 
Canons,  apostolical,  see  Apostolical 

canons. 
Candlemas,  a  festival,  440. 
Canon,  catalogue  of  clergy,  68. 
Cancnici  regulares,  64. 
Campanarii,    campanatores,     bell 

ringers,  126. 


546 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


Capellanus,  129. 

Cappellani,  occasional  offices  in  the 
church,  chaplains,  127. 

Cardinals,  order  of  bishops,  87 : 
origin  and  irM|)ort  of  the  term, 
88:  their  different  orders,  their 
number,  authority  and  jiovver, 
88—90. 

Cathohfs,  name  of  Christians,  42. 

Catechist,  office  of  the  bisl)op,  78  : 
an  occasional  officer  in  the 
church,  127:  catechetical  in- 
structions, 252:  in  bHptism,278. 

Catechumens,  learners,  49:  im- 
portance of  this  order,  50 — 56  : 
reason  for  their  institution,  50, 
56:  age  of  admission,  51  :  term 
of  instruction,  53,  57  :  diffisrent 
classes,  53,  57  :  mode  of  admis- 
sion, 54,  .56:  exercises,  54,  56 
— 7  :  place  in  church,  187. 

Catholico,  an  ecclesiastic  of  the 
Armenian  church,  468. 

Celibacy  of  the  clergy,  400. 

Cemeteries,  409,  421,  423. 

Chancel,  cancelli,  183. 

Chant  Gregorian,  124. 

Chapels,  court-churclies,  private 
oratories,  127. 

Chaplains,  127. 

Chaplets,  not  worn  in  sacred  mar- 
riages, 407. 

Charitable  contributions,  149. 

XfiQai,  widows,  45. 

Children  baptized  at  an  early  age, 
52:  church,  81. 

Choir  of  a  church,  182. 

Chrism,  281. 

Christian,  name  of,  su|)posed  to 
prevent  all  sectarian  divisions, 
41:  implies  every  blessing,  41  : 
origin  and  import  of  the  name, 
40,41. 

Christians,  their  rites,  customs,  and 
steadfastness  of  faith,  30  :  vene- 
ration for  the  Scriptures,  34  : 
scriptural  appellations,  39,  40  : 
their  various  names,  40,  42 :  not 
so  called  as  a  religious  sect,  42  : 
numerous  at  Rome,  72. 


Christians  primitive,  purity  of  their 
character,  40:  held  meetings 
before  daylight,  30  :  worshipped 
Christ  as  God,  30,  34 :  their 
charity  to  the  poor,  72 :  their 
places  of  worship,  177  :  how 
seated  in  church,  184:  how 
summoned  to  worship,  191  : 
met  daily  for  worship,  248 :  con- 
stant attendance  on  the  Sabbath, 
248  :  their  domestic  and  social 
character,  367 :  mode  of  life, 
367  :  their  dress  and  furniture, 
369  :  their  diet,  and  mode  of 
taking  their  meals,  371  :  their 
daily  devotions,  375 :  religious 
education  of  their  children,  378  : 
efforts  to  remind  themselves  of 
Christ,  380 :  their  deportment 
in  the  business  and  recreations 
of  life,  382  :  their  mutual  love, 
384  :  their  mode  of  salutation, 
3^'5,  394 :  their  benevolence, 
care  of  the  poor,  386  :  their  at- 
tention to  the  sick,  387 :  their 
charities  to  their  persecuted 
brethren,  390 :  their  love  for 
the  souls  of  men,  392:  their  hos- 
pitality, 394  :  their  patience  un- 
der injuries,  307  :  encomium 
upon  their  virtues,  their  care  for 
the  dead,  408  :  their  affection 
for  the  dying,  41 1. 

Christ,  worshipped  as  God,  30: 
mystical  names,  35:  recognized 
as  divine,  34  :  divine  worship 
paid  to  him,  205,  206. 

Christmas,  instituted  in  fomth  cen- 
tury, 434  :  observed  on  different 
days,  434 :  reasons  for  celebra- 
ting Christmas  eve,  435:  mode 
of  celebration,  435  :  veneration 
in  which  it  was  held,  436. 

XgiaTocfioQoi,  name  of  Christians, 
43. 

Chorepiscoj)i,  country  bishops,  ori- 
gin, name,  92:  their  office  and 
influence,  93. 

Church,  christian,  its  origin,  32  : 
derived  from   the  Jewish,  33  : 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


547 


freedom  of  its  worship,  33 : 
claimed  the  right  of  solemnizing 
marriages,  400  :  organization 
from  synagogue  service,  45  :  af- 
fairs of  it  not  tried  before  judi- 
cial courts,  144  :  patronage,  ori- 
gin of,  138. 

Churches,  their  history,  176,  180: 
form  and  site,  180:  position  or 
aspect,  181 :  arrangement  and 
constituent  parts,  181  :  their 
names,  176,  177  :  origin  of  the 
name,  177:  began  to  l)e  built  in 
second  and  third  centuries,  177: 
seats  for  the  sexes,  184:  ante- 
chambers, 184 :  aisles,  185:  nev- 
er used  as  tnarket-places,  or  for 
courts  of  justice,  exemption  from 
taxation,  198:  all  levity  and 
noise  forbidden  in  them,  199: 
at  Constantinople,  ministers  of, 
73:  extravagance  in  building 
them  rebuked,  196,  197  :  ven- 
eration manifested  forthem,  197, 
199:  place  of  refuge,  198:  l)U- 
rial  place,  195,  201 :  place  of 
refuge  for  criminals,  200:  vo- 
tive offerings  in  them,  195:  erec- 
ted over  over  the  graves  of  mar- 
tyrs, 208. 

Church-yard,  a  burial-place,  188  : 
a  place  of  refuge,  200,  201. 

Chrysargyrum,  143. 

Chrysostom,  remarks  on  dignity  of 
ministerial  office,  162:  on  duty 
of  watchfulness  in  a  minister, 
162,  164:  of  hospitality,  163: 
of  study,  166,  168:  on  public 
preaching,  170:  on  private  ad- 
dresses, 171:  on  duty  of  cou)- 
nmnicants  31 1. 

Cihus    Dei,    angelorum,   coelestis, 

Cimeliarchs,  129. 

viatorum,  (tiortalium,  296. 

Clergy,  guardians  of  |)ulilic  morals, 
142  :  subject  to  the  bishop,  80  : 
different  orders,  73:  su[)erior 
and  inferior,  68:  their  privileges 
and  privations,  143  :  exemptions 


from  taxation,  military  duty,  etc. 
143:  their  costume,  144:  their 
white  dress,  145:  their  |)rofe8- 
sional  garb  first  assutned  by  the 
monks,  146  :  their  maintenance, 
148,  152:  derived  from  volun- 
tary contri!)utions,  149:  non- 
resident clergy  not  tolerated, 
157  :  their  ordination,  153,  161  : 
disqualifications,  156, 158:  niode 
of  ordaining,  158,  159  :  prayer 
at  their  ordination,  160  :  their 
celibacy,  400  :  their  responsible 
duties,  161,  173:  the  punish- 
ments of  the  clergy,  173,176: 
suspension,  174:  degradation, 
174  :  exclusion  from  commu- 
nion, 175:  iinprisonment,  cor- 
poral punish  men  t,andexcommu- 
iiication,  176  :  clergy  and  laity 
supposed  not  to  have  been  dis- 
tinguished until  the  second  cen- 
tury, 49,  67  :  derivation  of  the 
term,  66. 

Clerical  dress,  always  worn  in  offi- 
cial duties,  145. 

Clerici  seculares,  regulares,  63. 
Clericorum  taliula,  68. 

Clinic  baptism,  55,  268. 

Coena,  sacra,  Domini,  292. 

Collatio  superindicta,  143. 

Coriiministri,  104. 

Communio  [)eregrina,  laica,  175. 

Communion,  see  Lord's  Supper. 

Commatres,  285. 

Concilia,  conciliabula,  conventicu- 
la,  churches,  columba,  corpus 
Christi,  177. 

Confession  of  faith  taught,  253. 

Confirmation  of  baptized  persons, 
duty  of  bishops,  78  :  whether 
deriveil  from  apostolic  usage, 
288:  its  connection  with  bap- 
tism, 289 :  by  whom  adminis- 
tered, 290  :  mode  of  administra- 
tion, 291. 

Consecration  of  the  elements,  ex- 
clusive right  of  the   bishop,  77  : 
of  clergy,  duty  of  bishop,  79. 


548 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


Constantine,  zeal  in  building 
churches,  177. 

Constitutions,  apost.  see  Apostoli- 
cal Constitutions. 

Conviviuiu  Dotninicum,  292. 

Copiatae,  grave-diggers,  125. 

Corpus  Christi,  296. 

Corpse,  mode  of  laying  it  out,  411. 

Costume  of  the  clergy,  144:  white, 
145, 147 :  fashion  and  color  often 
changed,  116, 147  :  deriveil  from 
Greeks  and  Romans,  147. 

Councils,  their  origin  and  design, 
356  :  extent  of  their  jurisdiction, 
359  :  their  organization,  361  : 
the  members  of  them,  363:  oe- 
cumenical, 365. 

Covering  of  the  head  in  prayer,224. 

Creed,  of  Irenaeus,  252. 

Cross,  worn  by  bishop,  83 :  car- 
ried in  gestatoria,  83. 

Crouch-mas-day,  424. 

Crowning  parties  at  their  espou- 
sals, 404  :  at  their  marriage,  406. 

Culdei,  64. 

Custos,  Custor,  126. 

Cure  of  souls,  duty  of  presbyters, 
106  :  of  the  bishop,  77. 

Deacon,  derivation  of  the  office,  71: 
deacons  seven  in  number,  72: 
rank  and  duties,  107:  first  ap- 
pointment, 108:  two  officers  in 
the  N.  Testament  of  this  name, 
108 — 9:  deacons,  adjutants  of 
the  bishop,  109:  their  arrogant 
pretensions,  109:  readers  in  the 
saciament,  111  :  monitors  of 
public  worship,  112:  occasional 
preachers,  112:  their  right  of 
suffi-age,  113:  guardians  of  the 
morals  both  of  the  clergy  and 
the  laity,  113:  received  and  dis- 
bursed the  charities  of  the 
chinch,  113:  ordination,  159. 

Deaconesses,  29, 45  :  ceased  in  the 
fifth  century,  6.5,  118:  their 
names,  115:  duties,  116 — 18: 
their  requisite  age  and  qualifi- 
cations, 116 — 17. 


Dead  buried  facing  to  the  East, 
415 :  commemorated  by  festi- 
vals, 416:  prayers  for  the  dead, 
417. 

Dean,  origin  of  the  name,  107. 

Death,  a  joyful  event,  413,  414. 

Decalogue  taught,  253. 

Jni&o\utv,  112,220. 

Degradation  of  clergymen,  174. 

Jsmvtt  noiitaXu  of  the  primitive 
Christians,  31. 

/lilnvov  xvQiay.ov,  292. 

/JiSuaxaXla,  237. 

Jidaaxuloi,  teachers,  45,  69,  70. 

Demoniacs,  class  of  Christians,  61 : 
place  in  church,  188:  not  bap- 
tized, 267. 

z/iiixoj'o?,  (5i«xoj'/«,107 — 8:  dixova- 
fftti,  1 15. 

Diaconicum  magnum,  189. 

zJixavtxoy,  82. 

Dies  Solis,  Limae,  etc.  425  :  man- 
dati,  mysteriorum  eucharistiae, 
panis,  indulgentiae,  437. 

Dignitas,  68. 

Diocese  governed  by  bishop,  80. 

Diognetus,  description  of  early 
Christians,  43. 

Disriplina  arcani,  system  of  secret 
instruction,  34. 

Disciplina,  .338. 

Discipline  of  the  church,  right  of 
its  members,  61  :  administered 
by  presbyters,  105. 

Discipline  of  the  ancient  church, 
Preliminary  remarks,  330  :  se- 
verity of  it,  347  :  impartiality  of 
it,  352. 

Diversoria,  190. 

Divinity  of  Christ,  29,  .30, 34, 205. 

Di  vine  rulesofthe  christian  church, 
402. 

Dogmatics,  name  of  Christians,  43. 

Dogmatists,  name  of  the  clergy,  68. 

Dominicum,  domus  Dei,  177. 

Doors  of  the  church,  number, 
form,  inscriptions  upon  them, 
etc.  194:  closed  in  time  of  ser- 
mon, 243. 

Door-keepers,  their  rank  and  du- 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


549 


ties,  125 :  reasons  for  their  ap- 
pointment, and  mode  of  their 
ordination,  125. 
Doxology    of  the   Lord's  prayer, 
2IG. 

East,  turning  towards  it  in  prayer, 
181,  224. 

Easter,  ancient  festival,  432 :  im- 
portance of  lliis  festival,  436;  a 
moveahle  feast,  437. 

Ecclesiastics,  name  of  Christians, 
42,  47  :  name  of  the  clergy,  68. 

EyxQUTsTg,  63. 

Il/ovfisvoi,  leaders,  ministers  of  the 
the  church,  45:  superiors,  46. 

£xy.li]ala,  hody  of  helievers,  45,  47, 
57  :  a  church,  176. 

£xAfxTo/,  title  of  Christians,  40:  of 
monks,  64. 

Election  of  the  clergy,  right  of  the 
laity,  60. 

Election  hy  divine  manifestations, 
137:  hy  reference,138  :  hy  nom- 
ination, 138  :  hy  lot,  131 :  by 
the  church  collectively,  the 
apostolic  and  primitive  mode  of 
appointing  pastors,  131  :  not  a 
negative  or  testimonial  vote,lo4: 
ineihod  of  voting  hy  acclama- 
tion, 134,  138  :  by  representa- 
tion, 135 :  tumultuous  elections, 
135  :  right  of  election,  denied  to 
the  rabble,  136 :  restricted  to 
the  aristocracy  by  Justinian, 136: 
vested  in  the  citizens,  reinon- 
strance  of  tl|s  church,  137. 

Elements  of  the  eucharist,  314  : 
sent  to  the  absent,  322:  distrib- 
uted to  all  baptized  persons, 
322:  distributed  in  the  eucha- 
rist, 111. 

"Efifdolog  of  churches,  185. 
Energumens,  demoniacs,  61. 
Episcopal  organization  of  churcli 

government,  74. 
Epiphany,  time  of  baptism,  272. 
Episcopae,  episco|)issae,  115. 
Episcopi,  in  partibus  infidelium, 


gentium,  regionarii,  91 :  in  pon- 

tificalibus,  91. 
"Eniay.OTTOL     o-/oA«'^ovTf?,      bishops 

without  cures,  90. 
^J£nlay.o7ioi,  elders,  45  :  bishops,  70. 
^Enly.lriaiq,  105. 
"EcpoQoi,  name  of  bishops,  75. 
^(podiov,  297. 
Equus  canonictis,  143. 
Era,  christian,  Dionysian,  a  period 

in  chronology,  423. 
Espousals,  antecedent  to  marriage, 

403. 
Eucharist,  293. 
Elloyln,  294. 
Evxk  XMV  niaimv,  105,  216. 
Evangelists,  69. 

Examination  for  ordination,  156. 
Exedrae  of  a  chmxh,  188 — 90. 
Exocatocoeli,  ecclesiastical   court 

of  Constantinople,  87. 
Exorcists,  their  duties,  ordination, 

122. 
Exorcism  of  the  baptized,  279,232. 

Fabius,  bishop  of  Rome,  letter  to 
from  Cornelius,  72. 

Faithfid,  or  believers,  58,  their 
rights  and  privileges,  59,  60. 

Fasts  of  the  early  Christians,  444: 
of  later  tinies,  445 :  how  observ- 
ed, 446. 

Fasting  before  festivals,  433,  477, 
438. 

Fasts  and  thanksgirings  of  New 
England,  446:  preliminary  re- 
marks, 446  :  reasons  for  such 
days,  447  :  continuance,  449  : 
mode  of  their  a[)pointment,  452  : 
penalties,  457,  i)eriodical  observ- 
ance, 459  :  observance  by  other 
states,  464. 

Festivals,  originally  no  specific 
time  for  them,  423 :  weekly,  an- 
nual :  moveable  and  immovc- 
al)le  :  higher  and  lower,  etc.  425: 
entirely  voluntary,  426:  at  first 
few,  426  :  christian  contrasted 
with  pagan,  427  :  regulated  by 


550 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


law,  428:  preceded  by  prepara- 
tory fasts,  433:  the  Greek 
church  observed  six  principal 
feasts,  433  :  feast  in  honor  of 
Virgin  ftlary,  440. 

Feria  prima,  secunda,  etc.  425. 

Flectanius  genua,  112. 

Font,  baptismal,  186. 

Form  of  churches,  380. 

Fosiarii,  fossores,  126. 

Fraternities,  62. 

Funeral  riles  and  ceremonies,  408 : 
time  of  holding  funeral  solemni- 
ties, 410:  mode  of  celebrating 
them,  412  :  funeral  orations,  413. 

ra^ocpvXdxiov,  189. 

Galileans,  term  of  reproach  ap- 
plied to  Christians,  44. 

Ftvi&hu^  nativity,  426. 

Gieseler  on  the  distinction  between 
bishop  and  presbyter,  75  :  be- 
tween clergy  and  laity,  49:  on 
the  equality  of  bishops  and  pres- 
byters, 101  :  On  the  worship- 
ping saints,  207. 

Glass  windows  in  churches,  195  : 
painting  of  them  first  practised 
196. 

Glory  in  the  highest,  response,  219. 

Gloves,  badge  of  the  bishop,  83. 

Good  Friday,  437. 

Gothic  Architecture,  ancient  and 
modern,  178—180. 

Gnostics,  nan)e  of  Christians,  43  : 
name  of  the  clergy,  68. 

Gradus,  68. 

Gregory  Nazianzen  on  the  minis- 
try, 161 :  on  duty  of  study  to  a 
minister,  166:  on  public  minis- 
try, 170  :  private  addresses,  171 : 
on  zeal  and  courage,  17.3. 

Greek,  term  of  reproach  apjdied  to 
Christians,  44. 

Grooms-man,  his  office,  406. 

Gyrvagi,  64. 

Habit  sacerdotal,  145. 

Head  band  of  the  apostles,  145. 


Head  dress  carefully  attired,  14&, 

Hebdomas  magna,  authentica,  mu- 
ta,  poenosa,  etc,  425. 

Heretics,  confounded  offices  in  the 
church,  47. 

Hermeneutai,  interpreters,  their 
rank  and  duties,  128. 

Hildebrand,  Gregory  VIL,  his 
cunning  in  obtaining  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  pope,  89. 

Holy  synod,  ecclesiastical  court  of 
Russia,  73. 

Holy  water,  where  derived,  186. 

Homilies,  defined,  237  :  based  on 
the  Scriptures,  237—8 :  By 
whom  delivered,  239  :  frequen- 
cy of  them,  241:  Length  of 
them,  242 :  where  delivered, 
242  :  complaints  of  long  ser- 
mons, 243:  subjects  of  dis- 
course, 247. 

Honey  used  in  baptism,  280. 

Hosanna,  response,  219. 

Hospitals  connected  with  church- 
es, 190. 

Hymns,  see  Psalmody  of  the 
church. 

Hymns  of  St.  Ambrose,  225:  of  St. 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  226. 

•JTrr,  corresjionding  to  deacon,  71. 

I'iil'in  n"'>Tp,  legatus,  congrega- 
tionis,  70,  lA. 

'idmai,  private  Christians,  45. 

IsQaxHov,  182. 

'isQovQyla,  295. 

'ifQwavvij,  100.       »  [272. 

Illuminations  in  time  of  baptism. 

Immersion,  ba|)tism  by  it,  275: 
trine  immersion,  275. 

Imposition  of  hands,  in  ordination, 
159  :  in  baptism  on  catechu- 
mens, 280:  in  confirmation,  291. 

Imprisonment  of  clergy,  176. 

Incense  at  the  Lord's  supper,  324. 

Inci|)ientes,  catechumens,  50. 

Independence  of  the  hierarchy, 
and  of  the  pope,  how  obtained, 
88—9. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


551 


Indulgences,  sale  of,  when  intro- 
duced and  how,  179. 

Infant  baptism,  see  Baptism. 

Inferior  and  sii|)erior  orders,  not 
of  apostolic  ori^'in,  71. 

Inferior  orders  of  clero^y,  who 
are  included  in  eacii,  72 — 3. 

Inferior  orders  of  liisliops,  90 — 4. 

Insignia  of  ajiostles,  145. 

Intercessory  bishops,  intercessores, 
interventores,  93. 

IntercessorevS,  interventores,  inferi- 
or bishops,  93. 

Investiture  of  clergy,  159. 

Jerome's  testimony  to  the  equality 
of  presbyters  and  bishops,  95 — 
98  :  on  the  virtues  becoming  a 
minister,  163 — 4  :  avoiding  sns- 
|)icions,  165:  on  studying  the 
Scriptures,  169:  on  public  min- 
istry, 171. 

Jews,  Cin-istians  so  called  in  de- 
rision, 44. 

Sr.  John's  day,  442. 

Julian's  dying  expression, 44 :  he 
commends  the  virtues  of  the 
Christians,  72,  399. 

Julian  reckoning  rejected  by  the 
early  Christians,  425. 

Justin  Martyr's  account  of  the 
Lord's  supper,  301. 

KavMV  liyiog,  68. 
Knidloyoi,  68  :  Ugarixog,  69. 
Kaii]xovfisvoi,  catechumens,  46,49. 
Kiifja^ofisvot,  /(i^a^O[iEvoi,  62. 
Kii^i^liuQxiiov,  189. 
Ki'jovy^tx,  237. 

KfjQVXfQ,  112. 

Kiss  of  peace,  281,  323,  385. 
KXi'iQog,  clergy  why  so  called,  66, 
KoifiirrjQiot,  cemeteries,  409. 
KoifisTi]Qiov,  177. 
Koiv(x)vin,  communion,  right  of  the 

faithful,  60:   sacrament,  293. 
Kneeling  in  prayer,  223,  428. 
Kqvnxal,  oratories  under  ground, 

180. 


KvqiaKov,  VilT . 

KvQis  iltriaov,  'Lord  have  mercy,' 
219. 

Lady  day,  440. 

Laity,  o  Xaoi,  name  of  private 
Christians,  45,  47. 

Auoq  tov  Otov,  title  of  Christians, 
40. 

Lay-baptism,  271. 

Laymen,  |)rivate  Christians,  45 : 
called  priests,  48  :  divided  into 
classes,  47  :  not  members  of 
councils,  363. 

Lay  monks,  63. 

AiiTovQylu,  295. 

Lent,  437. 

Levites,  levitica  dignitas,  name  of 
deacons,  110. 

Libraries  connected  with  churches, 
189. 

Lifting  of  the  hands  in  prayer,  223. 

Li  vings,  plurality  discountenanced, 
158. 

yloyoL  iuiTa(fia,  413. 

Lord's  prayer,  use  of  it  not  allowed 
to  catechumens,  56:  to  the  faith- 
ful, 59:  theories  respecting  it, 
212:  not  in  use  in  the  first  cen- 
tury, 213:  begins  to  be  used  in 
the  second  and  third,  216  :  dox- 
ology  of  it,  216  :  repetitions  of 
it,  217. 

Lord's  supper,  292:  scri[)tural  ac- 
count, 298 :  whether  Christ  and 
Judas  partook  of  it,  299 :  testi- 
mony of|)agan  writers  and  apos- 
tolic fathers,  300:  time  of  cele- 
bration, 304:  place  of  celebra- 
tion, 306:  by  whom  adminis- 
tered, 307  :  who  partook  of  it, 
308 :  preparatory  exercises,  310: 
elements,114 :  consecration  and 
distribution  of  them,  317  :  cele- 
brated at  funerals,  413. 

Love  feasts  observed  by  early 
Christians,  30,  428. 

Lucian  of  Samosata,  his  testimo. 
ny  conceruing   the  rules   and 


552 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


practices  of  the  early  church, 
31. 
Lucian  the  martyr,  anecdote  of,  41. 

Magician,  Christ  so  called  by  Lu- 
cian, 44. 

Magicians,  Christians  so  called  by 
enemies,  44. 

Moi&i]xal,  title  of  Christians,  40. 

Mansionarii,  128. 

Maranatha,  333. 

Marriages  solemnized  by  deacons, 
105. 

Marriage,  intentions  of,  posted  up- 
on doors  of  church,  194. 

Marriages,  christian,  399:  second 
marriages,  399,  400  :  marriages 
regulated  by  the  laws  of  the 
state,  400:  prohiliited  marriages, 
400  :  marriage  between  Jews 
and  Gentiles,  401  :  rites  and 
cereujonies  of  it,  402  :  remarks 
upon  marriage  rites  and  cere- 
monies, 405:  a  festive  occasion, 
407:  not  under  the  direction  of 
the  church  at  first,  400  :  second 
and  third  marriages  censured 
by  the  church,  405. 

MnQTVQia,  208. 

Martyrdom,  a  passport  to  heaven, 
55:  called  l)lood-l)aptism,  55. 

Martyr  feasts,  432:  celebration  of 
them,  441. 

Mass,  its  derivation  and  significa- 
tion, 295. 

Master  and  disciples,  division 
among  primitive  Christians,  45. 

Master  and  teacher,  70. 

Matricularii,  126. 

Matrini,  285. 

Maundy  Thursday,  437. 

Medicamentum,medicina  corporis, 
297. 

MeixvTjfiivoi,  members  of  the 
church,  58. 

Mensa,  Dei,  292. 

Metatum,  143. 

Mnahinaig,  297. 

Mrjti^ig,  285. 


Metropolitan  bishops,  85. 

Milk  used  in  baptism,  280. 

Ministrae,  115. 

Ministers  and  magistrates,  officers 
of  the  cluuch,  69. 

Missa  catechinnenorum,  missa  fi- 
delium,  59:  in  pontificalibus, 
105  :  missa  est,  112,  295. 

Mitre,  bishop's  badge,  82. 

Moderator  of  synods  and  councils, 
81. 

Monastics,  of  female  sex,  not  orig- 
inally a  distinct  order,  65:  first 
known  in  the  fifth  century,  65. 

Monica,  mother  of  Augustine,  52. 

Monks,  69,  64. 

Monuments  to  the  memory  of 
martyrs,  in  churches,  193. 

Mourning  not  allowed  by  the  early 
Christians,  415. 

Names  of  Christians,  40:  of  mem- 
bers of  the  church,  58,59:  of 
bishops,  74,  77, 90  :  presbyters, 
99:  of  deaconesses,  115:  of 
Christians,  39,  43  :  of  catechu- 
mens, 50 :  of  monks,  63,  64  :  of 
the  clergy,  68,  69  :  of  singers, 
123,4:  of  churches,  176,  7  :  of 
the  sanctuary,  182:  of  the  sa- 
cramental table,  183, 193:  of  the 
font  in  a  church,  186:  of  bap- 
tism, 255. 

Names  of  the  Lord's  supper,  292 
— 7:  of  months  and  weeks,  and 
days  of  the  week,  425. 

Names  of  sponsors  in  baptism, 
285  :   given  at  baptism,  287. 

Na6g,  177,  180. 

Narthex  of  a  church,  185. 

Nave,  or  main  body  of  the  church, 
133:   form  and  divisions,  184. 

Nazarenes,  name  of  Christians, 
given  by  the  Jews,  44. 

NeMTiTQai,  inferiors,  45. 

Nestorians,  compare  their  orders  of 
clergy  to  those  of  the  angels,  83. 

New-lights,  name  applied  in  de- 
rision to  Christians,  45. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


553 


Nobilissimi,  100. 

Noise    in    time   of  sermon    com- 
plained of,  244. 
Nonnae,  nuns,  G5. 
Notarii,  129. 

Notes  taken  of  sermons,  244. 
Novitii,  name  of  catechu  mens,  50. 
Novendiale,  415. 
Nvfiq)u'/o}y6c,  vvfi(pn'i7]g,  406. 
Nunneries,  65. 

Officials,  officiales,  115. 

Officium,  68. 

01  s'ffo),  and  ol  t^ui,  classification  of 
Christians,  45. 

01x01,  Buailuoi,  190. 

Ohoq  -d^tov,  Exzhjcriag,  111. 

Oiy.ovofioi,  stewards,  128. 

Optimates,  100. 

Orate,  catechumeni,  112. 

Oratories,  under  ground,  180. 

Orders  of  clergy,  in  different 
churches,  73,  74. 

Order,  whence  derived,  68. 

Order  of  the  altar,  name  of  the 
clergy,  68. 

Ordination,  of  deaconesess,  117: 
of  subdeacons,  120:  remarks 
on,  1.52.  153:  disqualifications, 
153,  155  :  qualifications,  156, 
158:  administration  of  the  rite, 
158,  159  :  ordaining  prayer,  160. 

Ordinary  and  extraordinary  minis- 
ters of  the  church,  69.  [72. 

Ordo    sacerdotalis,    ecclesiasticus, 

Oremus,  220. 

Organs,  first  used,  192. 

Ostiarii,  125. 

"Oar]  dvvn^ig,  explained  at  length, 
213,  215. 

Overseers,  70. 

Pagan  rites,  supposed  to  be  incor- 
porated with  Christian  rites,  32. 

Panis  benedictus,  55  :  supersub- 
stantialis,  296:  Dei,  vitae,  coe- 
lestis,  297. 

Papa,  name  of  pope,  first  assumed 
A.  D.  384.  76,  90. 

70 


Parabolani,  naQti^oXot,  attendants 
upon  the  sick,  126,  389. 

I'arafrenarii,  12(5, 

JI(XQfhv^(poq,  406. 

Pastophoria  of  a  church,  189. 

Pastors  and  teachers,  69 :  shep- 
herd, 70. 

nursQsg,  285 :  patres,  patrini,  pro- 
patres,  285. 

Patriarchs,  an  order  of  bishops,  86 : 
their  prerogatives,  87  :  name  of 
bishops,  76. 

Patronage,  church,  secular,  lay, 
and  ecclesiastical,  138,  139. 

Patrons,  of  the  church,  130. 

Pavements  of  the  church,  curious- 
ly wrought,  195.  [219. 

Pax  vobiscum,  peace  be  with  you, 

□""DSHS  of  the  synagogue,  71, 

Pedel'liis,  121. 

Pericojjae,  explained,  234,  235. 

Peristylia,  188. 

Penance,  origin  of,  332  :  account 
of  the  fathers,  334  :  subjects  of, 
337  :  private,  344. 

Penitents,  different  classes,  338 : 
their  duties,  340  :  readmissioii 
to  the  church,  342,  351  :  tender- 
ness felt  for  them,  348. 

Pestilence,  at  Alexandria,  390. 

Pictures,  worship  of,  236. 

Pillarists,  monks,  64. 

iZiffio/,  nidTtovjii,  58. 

JjKmaaviiQ,  title  of  Christians,  40. 

Plautus,  Christians  called  follow- 
ers of,  45. 

Illi]&og,  TTOinvlov,  private  Chris- 
tians, 45. 

Pliny  the  younger,  his  letter  to 
Trajan  concerning  Christians, 
26. 

noifA£V8C,  shepherd,  45,  69. 

Poor,  care  of  them,  72,  126,  149, 
386. 

Portico,  of  a  church,  185. 

Potestas,  68. 

Praeses,  praefectus,  same  as  bish- 
ops, 74,  75. 


554 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


Prayer,  audible  and  silent,  201, 
211  :  no  prescribed  form  of,  203  : 
earliest  forms,  217:  prayers  of 
the  ancient  ciuircli,  never  chant- 
ed, 212  :  preliminaries,  220  :  at- 
titudes and  gestures  in,  222 : 
covering  of  the  head,  224  :  direc- 
tion towards  the  East,  181,  224  : 
before  sermon  by  the  preacher, 
246:  for  penitents,  330  :  daily, 
375:  private,  376  :  Lord's,  theo- 
ries respecting  it,  212  :  not  in 
use  in  first  century,  213 :  begins 
to  be  used  in  the  second  and 
third  centuries,  210  :  doxology 
of,  216:  taught,  254. 

Prayers,  of  the  ancient  church,  and 
prescribed  form,  213,  note  :  fil- 
ial spirit  of,  209:  brevity  and 
simplicity,  210  :  catholic  spirit 
and  frequency  of  them,  211 : 
for  the  dead,  417  :  account  of 
the  early  fathers,  417,  420  :  na- 
ture and  design  of  them,  420, 
421. 

Preaching,  expository,  244  :  with- 
out ornament,  245:  with  notes, 
245 :  extempore,  245. 

Presbytera,  ngta^vjig,  107,  115. 

Presbyteri  penitentiarii,  confessa- 
rii,*105. 

Presbyters,  administered  baptism, 
104  :  difl^erent  orders  and  clas- 
ses, 106:  their  ordination,  109. 

IlgfcrjivTfQOi,  elders,  45,70,  74  :  de- 
rivation of  the  term,  70  :  con- 
nected with  bishops,  71. 

Ilgsa^vTSQog,  both  a  superior  and 
teacher.  94  :  apostolic  ministers, 
94 :  supposed  to  denote  the  laity, 
99. 

Presents,  distributed  at  wedding, 
408. 

Primae  sedis  'episcopus,  princeps 
sacerdotum,  85. 

Primates,  primas  urbis,  castelii, 
pallatii,  85. 

Princeps  sacerdotum,  bishop,  77  : 
priucipes,  100. 


Ilgofdgoi,  98, 

Ugoiajonig,  rulers,  45,  75, 98. 

JJgoa&ni,  112. 

Ilgovaoq,  of  a  church,  185. 

Jlgonvlvt,  185. 

ngoq)TjTuov,  177. 

Prophesying,  teaching,  238. 

Ilgoasv/rvigiov,  177. 

Ilgoanlaiovj^q,  penitents,3  39. 

UgoataTai,  98. 

rigoffcfogu,  294,  301. 

JTgo(T(fb)Vi](Tsig,  10.5,  112. 

Ilgoxoijiiv,  attention,  232. 

Prostration,  in  prayer,  223 :  prayer 

at  parting,  396. 
Protectors,  defenders  of  the  faith, 

130. 
Prophets,  in  the  apostolic  age  of 

the  church,  09. 
ITgoJTOi,  Tigbnivovieg,  85. 
JlgmTongfiT^VTsgoi,  100:  Trgcatona- 

Tiag,  106. 
Psalmody,  of  church  and  prayer, 

201,  202  :  part  of  prayer,  221 : 

at  the  sacrament,  223. 
Psalms,  few  have   come  down  to 

us,  reasons,  222  :  third  division 

of  the  Scriptures,  228  :    ancient 

psalms  quoted,  225,  226. 
Psalter,  explained,  234. 
Piieri,  catechumens,  .50. 
Punishments,  of  delinquent  clergy- 
men, 173,  176. 
fhbiiia^og    (jpa)Tic7|Ua,    cfxaxiatsgiov^ 

255,  272,  274. 
fpag^axov  a&avaaiag,  297. 
fl'oTi^ofiEvoi,  members  of  church, 

58. 
''l^aXiat  xavovizol,  12-3. 
W/jCpiafia  iptjcpog,  134, 
nOrsri  0N"1  ,  corresponding    to 

iniaxonog,  70,  74. 
ri;\2Jn  \Dc<-i ,  424. 
■^^■n  ,  master,  teacher,  pastor,  70. 

Rank,  of  the  clergy,  unknown  in 
the  primitive  church,  104 :  de- 
rived from  Jewish  and  pagan 
priesthood,  141. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


555 


Rationale,  to  Xoyiov,  83. 

Readers,  jip[>oiiitmcnt  an<l  duties, 
120,  229:  age  and  coiiisidcraiion, 
12]  :  position  and  attitude.  fi'S-i. 

Recoptorium,  Ibl). 

Reconciling  of  penitents,  duty  of 
bishops,  344. 

Regionarii,  129. 

Religiosi,  monks,  G3. 

Responsarii,  119. 

Responses,  Ilaileliijali,  Amen,  etc. 
218,  221. 

Revenues  of  the  church,  disbursed 
by  the  bisliop,  81  :  how  raised 
and  disbursed,  148,  152,  393. 

Rheinvvak),  on  equality  of  bishops 
and  presbyters,  103  :  respecting 
distinction  of  clergy  and  laity, 
49 :  between  bishops  and  pres- 
byters, 75. 

Revenue  of  the  church,  150,  152  : 
bow  acquired,  151. 

Ring,  a  badge  of  the  bishop,  82: 
presentation  of,  in  espousals, 
403,  406. 

Robe,  worn  in  marriage,  407 :  ! 
bishop's  badge,  form,  color,  S3. 

Rudes,  catechumens,  50. 

Ruling  elders,  239 

Sabbath,  Jewish  and  Christian,  ob- 
served by  early  Christians,  428  : 
christian,  testimony  of  the  early 
fathers,  429 :  rules  for  observing 
it,  431  :  styled  Lord's  day,  431 : 
profaned  by  fastincr  and  kneel- 
ing,  432. 

Sabbath,  joyful  day,  religiously 
observed,  249. 

Sacrament,  see  Lord's  supper,  sa- 
cramentum,  29G. 

Sacramentum  plenum,  257  :  pacis, 
297. 

Sacerdotes  secundi  ordinis.  111. 

SaceUii,  129. 

Sacristan,  sacrista,  sacristarius, 
treasurer,  12G— 129. 

Saints,  altars  and  churches  erected 
to  tlieir  memory,  193, 208 :  pic- 


tures of  them  in  churches,  188, 
197  :  worship  of  them,  20G— 9 : 
supposed  efficacy  of  their  inter- 
cessions, 20G,  207. 

:i'uy.iXhx()iog  jUi';'«c,  crxwoffvXa^  /xe- 
yuc,  129. 

Salaries  jiaid  to  clergymen,  148, 
152  :  an  institution  of  the  mid- 
dle ages,  152. 

Salary  of  the  clergy,  how  paid,  150. 

Sancta  Sanctis,  ]  12. 

Sanctum  sanctuarium,  182. 

Sanctuary  of  the  church,  182. 

Sanctiis,  anecdote  of,  41. 

Sanctimoniales,  G.5. 

Sandals,  badge  of  the  bishop,  82, 
148. 

Schools  in  connection  with  church- 
es, 190. 

Scriptures,  mode  of  division,  228: 
read  in  jiubiic  worship,  22G: 
UfHie  but  canonical  allowed,  229: 
different  portions  on  different 
occasions,  229 :  order  of  reading 
them,  230:  selections  on  relig- 
ious festivals,  230:  divisions  of 
chai)ters  and  verses,  231  :  man- 
ner of  reading  them,  chanting, 
232  :  summons  to  their  reading, 
233:  conclusion,  233:  attitude 
of  the  audience,  234:  read  on 
sabbath,  250:  surprising  famili- 
arity with  them,  235:  uniform 
basis  of  sermons,  237  :  read  at 
meals,  374. 

Secret  discipline  of  the  ancient 
chinch,  35. 

Semaxii,  applied  to  Christians  in 
derision,  44. 

Sermons,  see  Homilies. 

Sexes,  separated  in  church,  184. 

Sexton,  his  office,  125,  411. 

Seven  spirits,  orders  of  clergy 
compared  to  them,  73. 

Sibyllists,  term  of  reproach  applied 
to  Christians,  44. 

Sick  and  the  poor,  care  of  them, 
117. 

Siegel's  explanation  of  tJie  title  of 


556 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


bishop,  74:  on  equality  of  bish- 
ops and  presbyters,  103:  on 
singing  in  social  woi-ship,  123. 

Singers,  clioiristers,  origin  of  their 
office,  123  :  were  ordained,  124  : 
charge  delivered  to  them,  124. 

Singing-schools,  when  first  insti- 
tuted, 124. 

Sitting,  in  prayer,  223:  of  the 
preacher,  243. 

Site  of  churches,  180. 

^y.n'0(pvXuy.iov,  189. 

SoXhov,  (Twlia,  ao)du,  aoliaq,  184. 

Sponsors  in  baptism,  284  :  origin 
of  the  office,  285  :  their  duties, 
28G  :  persons  allowed  to  bear 
the  office,  286. 

^Jiovdaiol,  64. 

Sportnine,  sportae,  sportellae,  148. 

Sprinkling,  in  baptism,  276. 

Stadtholders,  bishops,  76. 

Staff,  l)ishop's  badge,  82. 

Standing,  in  prayer,  222:  in  time 
of  sermon,  243. 

Stationarii,  119. 

^^TuvQov  dlxtp',  criavgofLdi],  (ttuv- 
Qbncu,  180. 

^tavQolarQia,  term  of  reproach 
applied  to  Christians,  44. 

2todg,  189. 

Studiosi,  64. 

SxvXixai,  64. 

Suffrage,  right  of  the  church,  60. 

Suffragan  bishops,  91. 

2vllsirovgyol,  104. 

Summi  sacerdotes,  bishops,  76. 

^vv&Qovoi,  98. 

2vvo8oL,  177. 

Superattendens,  supertintendens, 
superinspector,  74. 

Surrogate  and  surplice,  fees,  150, 

Sursum  corda,  112,  220. 

Suspension  of  clergymen,  174. 

Symbols  taught,  253. 

Syncelli,  awy-illog,  130. 

Syndici,  uvvdiKoi,  130. 

Tables  erected  over  the  graves  of 
martyrs,  193. 


Ta^iq  roil  ^rifxmog,  UgaTixt},  68. 

Tapers  burned  in  baptism,  281. 

Teachers  and  taught,  classification 
of  primitive  Christians,  45,  46. 

Teachers  and  pastors,  69. 

Tflftol,  Tshovf.nrol,  members  of 
the  church,  58. 

TeIsjii  TiXsiaiv,  59. 

Tertullian's  complaint  that  here- 
tics confound  ofiices  of  church, 
47. 

Tngmarwov,  TSTgaaivXov,  188. 

Thanksgivings  in  New  England, 
see  Fasts  and  thanksgivings. 

Thesaurii,  ireasmers,  129. 

Theodosins,  his  penitence  and  con- 
fessions to  the  church,  353. 

OtotpoQoi,  name  of  Christians,  43. 

'Oqovov,  01  70V,  98. 

Ovffla,  294,  301. 

0vaia(TTijQiov,  293. 

Tirones,  catechumens,  50. 

Tithes  and  first-fruits  paid  in  the 
church,  151. 

Titles  of  the  faithful,  58,  59. 

Titles  of  bishops  and  presbyters, 
the  same,  98. 

Titular  bishops,  their  office,  91. 

Tituli,  177,410. 

Tolling  of  bells,  191,412. 

Tonsure, clerical, when  introduced, 
158. 

Torches,  carried  in  marriage  pro- 
cessions, 407. 

Towers  of  churches,  when  first 
erected,  190. 

Trajan's  letter  to  Pliny,  27. 

Tgans^a  Isga,  183  :  xvQioi',  292. 

Trinity,  doctrine  of,  distinguished 
characteristic  of  Christian  sys- 
tem, 34,  203:  implied  in  all  the 
prayers  and  psalmody  of  the 
church,  203—5. 

Unction,  extreme,  administered  by 
presbyters,105  :  unction  in  bap- 
tism, 280,  281  :  in  confirmation, 
291. 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


557 


TnijQsrm,  attendants,  45  :    waiters 

in  tiie  synagofjne,  71. 
TrconlTiTovrfg,  339. 
Utensils  sacramental,  329. 

Vartabeds,  ecclesiastics  of  the  Ar- 
menian ciiiircii,  469. 

Verse-a-day  system,  236. 

Ves|)iliones,  125. 

Vestil)ule  of  a  clitircli,  185. 

Vestry  of  a  cliurch,  189. 

Viaticum,  297. 

Vicarii,  115. 

Vicars,  vicar-generals,  115. 

Vicegerents,  of  Christ,  of  God, 
bishops,  70. 

Viduae,  vidiiatas,  115. 

Vigils  of  Easter,  438. 

Vigines  Dei,  65. 

Virgin  Mary,  feasts  in  honor  of, 
440  :  of  visitation,  440  :  her  as- 
simiption,  nativity,  conception, 
etc.  441, 

Viri  nohilissimi,  100. 

Visitors,  ip/erior  bishops,  itinerant 
preachers,  93. 

Voluntary  principle,  in  the  early 
church, 149 :  first  departure  from 
it,  150. 


Washing  of  feet  in  baptism,  281: 
before  communion,  320. 

Wedding,  see  IMarriage. 

Wliite  tiie  usual  color  of  clerical 
costume,  145  :  worn  in  baptism, 
281,  283. 

Whitsunday,  432,  438  :  origin  and 
design  of  the  festival,  439. 

Widows,  supported  by  charity,  72. 

Wigs  worn  l)y  the  clergy,  148. 

Windows  of  the  church,  glass, 
when  introduced,  195. 

Wine  of  the  eucharist,  color,  315  : 
mixed  with  water,  310. 

Women  forbidden  to  teach  or  to 
preach,  118,  240—41:  to  bap- 
tize, 271. 

Worship  of  God,  common  privi- 
lege of  all  orders  of  Christians  : 
places  of,  177  :  of  heaven,  views 
of  by  the  fathers,  202  :  social 
worship,  247  :  morning  and  eve- 
ning worship,  247 — 8:  mode  of 
worship  on  the  sabbath,  250 — 1. 

Year,  ecclesiastical  and  civil,  424. 

n"*:pj,  elders,  71,  74. 
Zijtijixsigj  134. 


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